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foodstuffs, it may be more beneficial to focus on areas where food processing and consumption took place. It is always beneficial to sample ubiquitously throughout the site, because it is always possible to select a smaller portion of the samples for analysis from a larger collection. Samples should be collected and labeled in individual plastic bags. It is not necessary to freeze the samples, or treat them in any special way because silica is not subject to decay by microorganisms.
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84:, found in some plant tissues and persisting after the decay of the plant. These plants take up silica from the soil, whereupon it is deposited within different intracellular and extracellular structures of the plant. Phytoliths come in varying shapes and sizes. Although some use "phytolith" to refer to all mineral secretions by plants, it more commonly refers to siliceous plant remains. In contrast, mineralized calcium secretions in
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are usually a good context for phytolith samples, because wind often will carry phytoliths from the topsoil and deposit them on water, where they will sink to the bottom, very similar to pollen. It is also possible and desirable to take vertical samples of phytolith data, as it can be a good indicator of changing frequencies of taxa over time.
284:. By an unknown mechanism, which appears to be linked to genetics and metabolism, some of the silica is then laid down in the plant as silicon dioxide. This biological mechanism does not appear to be limited to specific plant structures, as some plants have been found with silica in their reproductive and sub-surface organs.
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The most important consideration when designing a sampling strategy for a cultural context is to fit the sampling design to the research objectives. For example, if the objective of the study is to identify activity areas, it may be ideal to sample using a grid system. If the objective is to identify
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Phytoliths may form within single cells, or multiple cells within a plant to form 'conjoined' or multi-cell phytoliths, which are three-dimensional replicas of sections of plant tissue. Conjoined phytoliths occur when conditions are particularly favourable for phytolith formation, such as on a silica
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Phytoliths are composed mainly of noncrystalline silicon dioxide, and about 4% to 9% of their mass is water. Carbon, nitrogen, and other major nutrient elements comprise less than 5%, and commonly less than 1%, of phytolith material by mass. These elements are present in the living cells in which the
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There is still debate in the scientific community as to why plants form phytoliths, and whether silica should be considered an essential nutrient for plants. Studies that have grown plants in silica-free environments have typically found that plants lacking silica in the environment do not grow well.
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Ashley, Gail M.; Barboni, Doris; Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Bunn, Henry T.; Mabulla, Audax Z.P.; Diez-Martin, Fernando; Barba, Rebeca; Baquedano, Enrique (2017). "Paleoenvironmental and paleoecological reconstruction of a freshwater oasis in savannah grassland at FLK North, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania".
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WoldeGabriel, G.; Ambrose, S. H.; Barboni, D.; Bonnefille, R.; Bremond, L.; Currie, B.; DeGusta, D.; Hart, W. K.; Murray, A. M.; Renne, P. R.; Jolly-Saad, M. C.; Stewart, K. M.; White, T. D. (2009). "The
Geological, Isotopic, Botanical, Invertebrate, and Lower Vertebrate Surroundings of Ardipithecus
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Pinilla, A., and
Bustillo, A., 1997, SĂlicofi tolitos en secencies arcillosas con silcretas. Mioceno Medio, Madrid, in Pinilla, A., Juan-Tresserras, J., and Machado, M.J., eds., The State of the Art of Phytoliths in Soils and Plants, Volume 4: Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientĂfi cas
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Phytolith analysis has been used to retrace the domestication and ancestral lineage of various plants. For example, research tracing modern lineages of maize in South
America and the American Southwest using phytolith remains on ceramics and pottery has proven to be enlightening. Recent genetic data
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because they can help to reconstruct the plants present at a site when the rest of the plant parts have been burned up or dissolved. Because they are made of the inorganic substances silica or calcium oxalate, phytoliths don't decay with the rest of the plant and can survive in conditions that would
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technique. Once the sample is left to only house soil and sediment components, phytoliths can be separated through a variety of techniques. Pressurized microwave extraction is a fast method but does not produce as pure of results as other methods. Dry ashing tends to break up phytoliths better than
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Sampling a natural context, typically for the purpose of environmental reconstruction, should be done in a context that is free of disturbances. Human activity can alter the makeup of samples of local vegetation, so sites with evidence of human occupation should be avoided. Bottom deposits of lakes
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expansion, when it was previously thought to have been introduced in the region. This case is not isolated. Around the same time, certain varieties of maize could be found with ubiquity across part of South
America, suggesting a highly frequented and established trade route existed. Phytolith data
1576:(GHG) by other means including, for example, the production of bioenergy to offset fossil fuel emissions. If enhanced phytolith production results in a reduced availability of biomass for other GHG mitigation strategies, its effectiveness for lowering net GHG emissions may be reduced or negated.
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problems can be dealt with by integrating phytolith analysis with other areas, such as micromorphology and morphometric approaches used in soil analysis. It is suggested that using phytolith data from food residues (on ceramics, usually) can decrease the bias from both of these problems, because
152:. Phytoliths may also provide plants with protection. These rigid silica structures help to make plants more difficult to consume and digest, lending the plant's tissues a grainy or prickly texture. Phytoliths also appear to provide physiologic benefits. Experimental studies have shown that the
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Research, particularly since 2005 has shown that carbon in phytoliths can be resistant to decomposition for millennia and can accumulate in soils. While researchers had previously known that phytoliths could persist in some soils for thousands of years and that there was carbon occluded within
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Zucol, A.F., Brea, M., and
Bellosi, E., 2010, Phytolith studies in Gran Barranca (central Patagonia, Argentina): The middle-late Eocene, in Madden, R.H., Carlini, A.A., Vucetich, M.G., and Kay, R.F., eds., The Paleontology of Gran Barranca: Evolution and Environmental Change through the Middle
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Archaeobotanists working in the
Americas first consider and analyze phytolith assemblages in order to track prehistoric plant use and domestication. Also for the first time, phytolith data from pottery are used to track history of clay procurement and pottery manufacture. Around the same time,
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was one of the leaders in the field of phytolith analysis. He developed the first classification system for phytoliths, and analyzed soil samples that were sent to him from all around the world. Most notably, Ehrenberg recorded phytoliths in samples he received from the famous naturalist,
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While carbon sequestration is a potentially important way to limit atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations in the long term, the use of phytoliths to achieve this must be balanced against other uses that might be made of the same biomass carbon (or land for producing biomass) to reduce
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Sampling modern surfaces for use with archeobotanical data may be used to create a reference collection, if the taxa being sampled are known. It may also serve to "detect downward movement of phytoliths into archaeological strata". Taking point samples for modern contexts is
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from the southeastern United States suggest that two different lineages of maize were introduced from two different sources. Research that hopes to discover more specific information about the spread of maize throughout the southeastern United States is currently under way.
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Though further testing is required, evolution and development of phytoliths in vascular plants seem to be related to certain types of plant-animal interactions in which phytoliths function as a defensive mechanism for herbivores or related to adaptive changes to habitats.
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phytolith analysis is more likely to represent crop products and identification of phytoliths can be made with more confidence. Also, food residues do not usually accumulate extraneous deposits. In other words, the samples are more likely to represent a primary context.
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Tsartsidou, Georgia; Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Albert, Rosa-Maria; Miller-Rosen, Arlene; Efstratiou, Nikos; Weiner, Steve (2007). "The phytolith archaeological record: strengths and weaknesses evaluated based on a quantitative modern reference collection from Greece".
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Phytolith structures in plants gained wide recognition and attention throughout Europe. Research on production, taxonomy and morphology exploded. Detailed notes and drawings on plant families that produce silica structures and morphology within families were
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Freshwater oases and related landscape changes that could have affected plant-human interactions were reconstructed through synthesizing phytolith, pollen, and paleoenvironmental data in the well-known early hominin site of
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
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Light intensity (e.g., open versus closed canopies) can affect cell morphology, especially cell length and area, which can be measured from phytolith fossils. These can be useful for tracing fluctuations in the ancient light regime and canopy cover.
1369:). Findings such as these reveal useful information about the diet of these extinct animals, and also shed light on the evolutionary history of many different types of plants. Paleontologists in India have recently identified grass phytoliths in
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and burned phytolith analysis. It is believed that during prehistoric times, an increase in intensive land use such as through agriculture, caused an increase in anthropogenic fires while non-anthropogenic fires could have resulted from
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phytoliths that could be used for radiocarbon dating, research into the capacity of phytoliths as a method of storing carbon in soils was pioneered by Parr and
Sullivan who suggested that there was a real opportunity to
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Phytoliths may be extracted from residue on many sources: dental calculus (buildup on teeth); food preparation tools like rocks, grinders, and scrapers; cooking or storage containers; ritual offerings; and garden areas.
369:, the deposition of silica has been shown to create a physical barrier between invading fungi and the plant. Some factors however can have very damaging effects on the plant and limit or alter phytolith production.
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Soluble silica, also called monosilicic or orthosilicic acid with a chemical formula of (Si(OH)4), is taken up from the soil when plant roots absorb groundwater. From there, it is carried to other plant organs by the
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flotation. Over time, different liquids have been utilized as technology changes, each still carrying different advantages and disadvantages to the separation process. Current liquids used include zinc bromide,
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First applications of phytolith analysis to paleoecological work, mostly in
Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Russia. Classification systems for differentiation within plant families became
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from which they were obtained. However, a count of two hundred phytoliths are recommended as a good starting point. If the conditions warrant, more should be counted. It is still not possible to isolate plant
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using phytolith analyses, are insightful. In one study, phytolith analysis was used to complement macro-remains sampling in order to infer concentrations of plant parts and predict crop processing stages.
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Strömberg, Caroline A.E.; Werdelin, Lars; Friis, Else Marie; Saraç, Gerçek (2007). "The spread of grass-dominated habitats in Turkey and surrounding areas during the
Cenozoic: Phytolith evidence".
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Stromberg, C (2004). "Using phytolith assemblages to reconstruct the origin and spread of grass-dominated habitats in the great plains of North America during the late Eocene to early Miocene".
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disease resulted in much larger phytoliths but they were abnormally shaped. This could be due to the bacteria causing constriction of the hypodermal cells, causing an influx of silica deposits.
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phytolith data are also used as a means of vegetation reconstruction among paleoecologists. A much larger reference collection on phytolith morphology within varying plant families is assembled.
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is added. This lowers the solution's density, causing the phytoliths to sink to the bottom of the container. The phytoliths are removed and rinsed several times to ensure all of the flotation
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Comparisons between paleorecords of phytolith remains and modern reference remains in the same region can aid reconstructing how plant composition and related environments changed over time.
1504:(PhytOC). Phytoliths are able to hold PhytOC in the soil for thousands of years, much longer than other organic methods. While this yields phytoliths as an important area of study regarding
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Jigsaw puzzle-shaped phytoliths observed from sites in Greece but not from Israel may relate to climatic difference, possibly relating to irrigation performed for legume plant management.
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Strömberg, Caroline A.E (2002). "The origin and spread of grass-dominated ecosystems in the late Tertiary of North America: preliminary results concerning the evolution of hypsodonty".
2499:; Liang, M.-M.; Werdelin, L.; Zhang, Y.-l. (2007). "Palaeoecology of an early middle Miocene lake in China: Preliminary interpretations based on phytoliths from the Shanwang Basin".
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from 1.5 to 2.3. Phytoliths may be colorless, light brown, or opaque; most are transparent. Phytoliths exist in various three-dimensional shapes, some of which are specific to plant
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For example, the stems of certain plants will collapse when grown in soil lacking silica. In many cases, phytoliths appear to lend structure and support to the plant, much like the
1300:(squash and gourd) phytolith data from early Holocene sites in Ecuador indicate that the plant food production occurred across lowland South America independent from Mesoamerica.
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experienced a decrease in phytolith size. This is because the virus constricts overall plant growth and therefore phytolith growth as well. Contrastingly, plants affected with
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destroy organic residues. Phytoliths can provide evidence of both economically important plants and those that are indicative of the environment at a particular time period.
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residue and fires with higher temperatures which can be measured on the Burnt Phytolith Index (BPI). Burned phytoliths can also appear melted in addition to darkened color.
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Miller, L. A.; Smith, S. Y.; Sheldon, N. D.; Stromberg, C. A. E. (2012). "Eocene vegetation and ecosystem fluctuations inferred from a high-resolution phytolith record".
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Strömberg, Caroline A. E.; McInerney, Francesca A. (2016). "The Neogene transition from C3 to C4 grasslands in North America: assemblage analysis of fossil phytoliths".
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Cabanes, D. (2020). Phytolith Analysis in Paleoecology and Archaeology. In Interdisciplinary Contributions to Archaeology (pp. 255-288) doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-42622-4_11
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hold different carbon storage potential within the silica rather than within the plant itself. Therefore, total PhytOC sequester largely depends on the condition of the
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1964:
Lustek, Robert Karl. (2008). Setting the Archaeology of Maize on Its Ear: The Use of Phytolith Assemblages to Identify Lineages of Maize. University of Minnesota
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Sudbury, J.B. (2010). Quantitative phytolith analysis: The key to understanding buried soils and to reconstructing paleoenvironments. Oklahoma State University.
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and soil condition, absorbed silica can range from 0.1% to 10% of the plant's total dry weight. When deposited, the silica replicates the structure of the
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398:) were infected on their own to replicate natural conditions and all plants were grouped into three categories: healthy plants sprayed to prevent insect
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silica concretions form, so traces are retained in the phytoliths. Such immobilised elements, in particular carbon, are valuable in that they permit
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lineage split off from this grass about six to seven thousand years ago. Phytolith analyses from Bolivia suggest that several varieties of
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https://web.archive.org/web/20070506230653/http://research.history.org/Archaeological_Research/Collections/CollArchaeoBot/PhytoFAQs.cfm
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1842:"Phytolith taphonomy: a comparison of dry ashing and acid extraction on the breakdown of conjoined phytoliths formed in Triticum durum"
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and to track vegetational change. More and more studies are acknowledging phytolith records as a valuable tool for reconstructing pre-
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Huang et al., "Intensive Management Increases Phytolith-Occluded Carbon Sequestration in Moso Bamboo Plantations in Subtropical China"
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Carter, John A (2002). "Phytolith analysis and paleoenvironmental reconstruction from Lake Poukawa Core, Hawkes Bay, New Zealand".
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Phytolith analysis is particularly useful in tropical regions, where other types of plant remains are typically not well preserved.
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Dunn, Regan E.; Le, Thien-Y. T.; Strömberg, Caroline A. E. (2015). "Light Environment and Epidermal Cell Morphology in Grasses".
200:, an expert in the field of phytolith analysis, there have been four important stages of phytolith research throughout history.
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Japanese and Korean archaeologists refer to grass and crop plant phytoliths as "plant opal" in archaeological literature.
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An annotated bibliography of phytolith analysis and atlas of selected New Zealand subantarctic and subalphine phytoliths
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Piperno, Dolores R. (2006). Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archaeologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press
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concentrations and other paleoclimatological records, can help constrain estimates of certain long-term terrestrial,
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onwards. Robustness of phytoliths make them available to be found in various remains including sedimentary deposits,
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lens, it will usually appear clear against the microscope's light. However phytoliths dark in color are found in the
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Pearsall, D (2004). "Maize in ancient Ecuador: results of residue analysis of stone tools from the Real Alto site".
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Phytolith analysis has been useful in identifying early agriculture in South East Asia during the Early Holocene.
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of rice phytoliths has been significantly documented, studies concerning the domestication of rice, as well as
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2217:"Grains of truth or transparent blindfolds? A review of current debates in archaeological phytolith analysis"
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Piperno, D. R. (2003). "Phytolith Evidence for Early Holocene Cucurbita Domestication in Southwest Ecuador".
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127:, and extreme temperatures. Phytoliths can also protect the plant against biotic threats such as insects and
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of darkness can be used to calculate past environmental fires. Darker phytoliths are correlated with higher
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Kealhofer, L (2002). "Changing perceptions of risk: The development of agro-ecosystems in Southeast Asia".
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from diverse environmental conditions. In addition to reconstructing human-plant interactions since the
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has been removed and they are placed in storage. Phytoliths can either be stored in a dry setting or in
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Kealhofer, L (2003). "Looking into the gap: land use and the tropical forests of southern Thailand".
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https://web.archive.org/web/20080820003629/http://www.sandstonearchaeology.com/paleoethnobotany.html
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securely in soils for the long term, in the form of carbon inclusions in durable silica phytoliths.
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Kistler et al., (2013). Experimental investigation of pathogenic stress on phytolith formation in
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Song, Zhaoliang; Liu, Hongyan; Strömberg, Caroline A.E.; Yang, Xiaomin; Zhang, Xiaodong (2017).
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Strömberg, Caroline A. E.; Di Stilio, Verónica S.; Song, Zhaoliang; De Gabriel, Jane (2016).
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For extended examples of phytolith taxonomy, see the University of Sheffield's comprehensive
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matrix involves removing all non-soil and non-sediment material. This can include stone or
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https://web.archive.org/web/20070422163808/http://web.missouri.edu/~umcasphyto/index.shtml
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1984:"Investigating crop processing using phytolith analysis: the example of rice and millets"
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Rajendiran et al., (2012).Role of phytolith occluded carbon of crop plants for enhancing
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in phytoliths may help to alleviate the damaging effects of toxic heavy metals, such as
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Carter, J.A. (1999). "Late Devonian, Permian and Triassic phytoliths from Antarctica".
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Phytoliths occur abundantly in the fossil record, and have been reported from the Late
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stressors. Silica is bioactive, meaning it is able to change the expression of certain
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can also be added to the sample and lit on fire, leaving only the phytoliths behind
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has a strong ability for holding onto phytoliths and also must be removed using a
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Multiplicity: different parts of a single plant may produce different phytoliths.
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3555:"Grass-opal phytoliths as climatic indicators of the Great Plains Pleistocene":
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Neumann, Chevalier, and Vrydaghs, "Phytoliths in archaeology: recent advances":
3454:"An account of the Fine Dust which often falls on Vessels in the Atlantic Ocean"
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Parr, J. F.; Sullivan, L. A. (2005). "Soil carbon sequestration in Phytoliths".
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find and identify phytoliths associated with extinct plant-eating animals (i.e.
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In 2009, researchers at the Rock Springs Agricultural Experiment Station at The
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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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Modern period of archaeological and paleoenvironmental research (1978–present):
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Plants and people in ancient Ecuador: the ethnobotany of the Jama River Valley
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Some plants produce large numbers of phytoliths while others produce only few.
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Cenozoic of Patagonia: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, p. 317–340.
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in reconstructing past vegetation patterns. The silica in phytoliths has a
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Phytolith records in the context of the global silica cycle, along with CO
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investigated the effects of pathogenic viruses on phytolith production in
3543:"What are Phytoliths?" Sandstone Archaeology Paleoethnobotany Laboratory
2900:"Functions of phytoliths in vascular plants: an evolutionary perspective"
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Jr, George V. Roberts; Susan C. Mulholland; Rapp, George Robert (1992).
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Parr, J; Sullivan, L (2005). "Soil carbon sequestration in phytoliths".
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The first report on phytoliths was published by a German botanist named
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Hart, Thomas C. (2016). "Issues and directions in phytolith analysis".
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crystals of calcium oxalate, silicates, or carbonates present in plants
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to jumpstart a defensive response against these stressors. In terms of
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1774:"A novel mechanism by which silica defends grasses against herbivory"
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924:
912:
904:
884:
872:
860:
852:
840:
832:
796:
740:
726:
500:
472:
464:
399:
56:
2654:
2560:
2334:
2018:
1313:
Redundancy: different plants can produce the same kind of phytolith.
417:
yielded 1,072 phytoliths from forty-five plants. Plants affected by
3532:
3189:
2992:
Piperno, D.R.; Hans-Dieter, S. (2005). "Dinosaurs Dined on Grass".
2816:
2748:"Terrestrial ecosystems and the global biogeochemical silica cycle"
1370:
1338:
1262:
1250:
1246:
1216:
1172:
1016:
1000:
976:
968:
864:
784:
756:
722:
638:
626:
610:
564:
544:
540:
342:
157:
2845:
1288:
1269:
To date, phytolith analyses have also been popular for studies of
3557:
http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Publications/Bulletins/GB5/Twiss/index.html
3322:
1591:
1565:
1557:
1549:
1525:
1225:
1145:
1141:
1121:
764:
552:
414:
314:
181:
3304:
Phytolith analysis: an archaeological and geological perspective
2897:
1772:
Hunt, JW; Dean, AP; Webster, RE; Johnson, GN; Ennos, AR (2008).
3035:
Wilding, L.P. (1967). "Radiocarbon dating of biogenetic opal".
1560:
production and therefore more silica and carbon uptake. Proper
1541:
1521:
1513:
1497:
1229:
1205:
387:
270:
Types of phytoliths found on broad-leaved trees in China
185:
145:
111:, cell lumen, and intercellular spaces. Depending on the plant
1304:
48:
29:
3133:"Phytolith carbon sequestration in global terrestrial biomes"
1726:
Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology
1533:
1373:
1254:
1235:
1137:
736:
Families where phytolith production is rare or not observed:
707:
653:
583:
449:
310:
281:
227:, who had collected the dust from the sails of his ship, HMS
188:
use this property to make their trunks more flame-resistant.
173:
112:
85:
1127:
One of the most effective methods of phytolith isolation is
349:. However, silica-aided phytoliths can help a plant be more
3551:
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00334-016-0598-3
3512:
3492:
2683:
2517:
2494:
1509:
1493:
1270:
1215:
or non-anthropogenic sources and can be determined through
1112:
1100:
329:
80:, "plant stone") are rigid, microscopic structures made of
3507:
2104:
2102:
2100:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1694:
1692:
1249:
is teosinte, a wild grass found in southwest Mexico. The
1181:
1155:, simple light microscopy, phase contrast microscopy, or
218:
in 1835. During this time another German scientist named
3531:
Dr. Sanjay Eksambekar's 'Phytolith Research Institute':
287:
65:
Contrasting phytolith forms found on leaved trees
3245:"Opal phytoliths found on the teeth of the extinct ape
2554:
2097:
1665:
320:
3242:
2891:
2634:
1907:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1771:
1689:
1211:
Fires which cause burned phytoliths can be ignited by
1200:; these phytoliths display evidence of fire exposure.
3513:
Russian Scientific Association for Phytolith Research
2511:
578:
Families where phytolith production may not be high;
382:
var. Texana. The plants that were affected by either
3406:
The origins of agriculture in the lowland neotropics
3384:
3365:
3130:
1918:
1617:"Phytoliths in selected broad-leaved trees in China"
1615:
Ge, Yong; Lu, Houyuan; Wang, Can; Gao, Xing (2020).
1488:
process which creates the phytolith, many different
1333:
Palaeontology and paleoenvironmental reconstructions
3299:
1872:
428:
3526:http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ben282.html
3404:Pearsall, Deborah M.; Piperno, Dolores R. (1998).
3325:"Morphological classification of grass phytoliths"
3301:
3221:
2991:
2640:
2839:
2520:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2454:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
2411:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1830:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History.
1099:The first step in extracting phytoliths from the
433:Because identification of phytoliths is based on
3569:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
191:
3524:Terry B. Ball, "Phytolith Literature Review":
3243:Ciochon, RL; Piperno, DR; Thompson, RG (1990).
2802:
2729:"Fossil dung reveals dinosaurs did graze grass"
2677:
1289:Tracing the history of plant-human interactions
1261:region of Bolivia almost 1000 years before the
648:Families where phytolith production is common;
3323:Twiss, P. C.; Suess, E.; Smith, R. M. (1969).
3190:Fabrice Colin; Jean Dominique Meunier (2001).
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1320:Taxonomic resolution issues deriving from the
1159:can be used. The sample should be placed in a
1043:Phytoliths are very robust, and are useful in
2445:
2402:
2308:
2306:
2304:
1937:
702:Families where phytolith productions varies;
3563:https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/10/10/883/htm
3370:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.
3085:
2946:
2312:
1981:
1552:and soil conditions. Proper upkeep of these
326:rich substrate with high water availability
205:Discovery and exploratory stage (1835–1895):
3458:Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
2146:
1982:Harvey, Emma L.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2005).
1923:(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
1765:
1709:
1614:
1594:elongate calcium oxalate crystals in plants
1305:Problems with phytolith analysis of remains
3537:Deborah Pearsall's MU Phytolith Database,
3387:Paleoethnobotany: a handbook of procedures
2796:
2739:
2349:
2301:
1921:Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures
1361:vegetation changes (e.g.,). Occasionally,
1236:Contribution to archaeobotanical knowledge
246:Period of ecological research (1955–1975):
3282:
3272:
3152:
3107:
2968:
2923:
2771:
2583:
2451:
2408:
2076:
2053:
2031:
1960:
1958:
1797:
1648:
444:Families with high phytolith production;
3508:Association of Environmental Archaeology
3422:
3389:(2nd ed.). Boston: Academic Press.
3249:: implications for paleodietary studies"
3213:Opal phytoliths in Southeast Asian flora
3196:. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
2258:
2211:
1610:
1608:
1087:
330:Pathogenic stress on phytolith formation
264:
260:
239:Botanical phase of research (1895–1936):
3352:10.2136/sssaj1969.03615995003300010030x
3332:Soil Science Society of America Journal
3034:
2805:International Journal of Plant Sciences
2152:
1839:
1722:
1471:
3570:
3451:
3224:Phytolith systematics: emerging issues
2745:
2686:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2355:
1955:
1224:. Fire intensity depends on available
1192:When looking at a phytolith through a
1083:
1055:
95:The silica is absorbed in the form of
3498:Ecological significance of phytoliths
2726:
1605:
1520:phytoliths can yield 3.88% to 19.26%
1353:, phytoliths can be used to identify
1245:suggests that the oldest ancestor of
441:differences in phytolith production.
288:Chemical and physical characteristics
180:during the day when they close their
16:Rigid structures found in some plants
3503:Background from St. Cloud laboratory
2264:
2224:Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
1893:Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
1723:Epstein, Emanuel (1999). "Silicon".
1187:
321:Single cell and conjoined phytoliths
3517:Steve Archer, "About Phytoliths":
13:
1702:sequestration in agro-ecosystems.
1391:and interrelated climate changes.
14:
3599:
3486:
3470:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1846.002.01-02.09
3425:Journal of Archaeological Science
2267:Journal of Archaeological Science
2112:Journal of Archaeological Science
1991:Journal of Archaeological Science
1846:Journal of Archaeological Science
1564:methods could include controlled
1095:phytolith processed by dry ashing
301:ranging from 1.41 to 1.47, and a
103:), and is carried by the plant's
3533:http://www.phytolithresearch.com
3137:Science of the Total Environment
2727:Hecht, Jeff (17 November 2005).
1743:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641
1455:
1446:
1437:
1428:
1419:
1228:which usually peaks in the dry,
429:Patterns of phytolith production
47:
28:
3173:
3154:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.107
3124:
3079:
3028:
2985:
2940:
2720:
2624:
2488:
2392:
2205:
2070:
2025:
1975:
123:stressors such as salt runoff,
1898:
1833:
1814:
1038:
1:
3385:Pearsall, Deborah M. (2000).
3366:Pearsall, Deborah M. (2004).
3118:10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.06.013
3088:Soil Biology and Biochemistry
2979:10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.06.013
2949:Soil Biology and Biochemistry
2431:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00352-2
2378:10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00081-4
1919:Pearsall, Deborah M. (2000).
1598:
1466:Phytolith Interpretation page
374:Pennsylvania State University
220:Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
192:History of phytolith research
3300:Piperno, Dolores R. (1988).
2752:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
2540:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.02.012
2474:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.09.028
1184:from extracted phytoliths.
1157:scanning electron microscopy
134:
7:
3057:10.1126/science.156.3771.66
2869:10.1016/j.yqres.2010.08.006
2358:Global and Planetary Change
1579:
1151:When examining the sample,
406:, and plants infected with
176:use these as a reserve for
10:
3604:
3408:. Boston: Academic Press.
3308:. Boston: Academic Press.
3228:. New York: Plenum Press.
2746:Conley, Daniel J. (2002).
2570:(5949): 65–65, 65e1–65e5.
1641:10.1038/s41598-020-72547-w
1412:
1163:on the slide which can be
1153:polarized light microscopy
1107:, teeth, or other various
437:, it is important to note
3445:10.1016/j.jas.2003.09.010
2287:10.1016/j.jas.2016.03.001
2244:10.1007/s00334-011-0341-z
2132:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.017
2091:10.1525/aa.2002.104.1.178
2011:10.1016/j.jas.2004.12.010
1866:10.1016/j.jas.2009.06.028
1502:Phytolith Occluded Carbon
1574:Greenhouse gas emissions
54:Phytolith from the tree
35:Phytolith from the tree
3274:10.1073/pnas.87.20.8120
3006:10.1126/science.1121020
2925:10.1111/1365-2435.12692
2594:10.1126/science.1175817
2175:10.1126/science.1080365
2079:American Anthropologist
1548:, and is influenced by
402:, plants infected with
231:, off the coast of the
3493:What is the phytolith?
3247:Gigantopithecus blacki
2733:New Scientist Magazine
2501:Vertebrata PalAsiatica
1840:Jenkins, Emma (2009).
1512:can hold 5.0% to 5.8%
1492:are absorbed from the
1279:crop processing models
1096:
276:
164:serve as a reserve of
2046:10.1353/asi.2003.0022
1389:biogeochemical cycles
1148:to prevent abrasion.
1091:
337:is not considered an
268:
261:Development in plants
184:to avoid water loss;
38:Pittosporum truncatum
3210:Kealhofer, L. 1998.
3139:. 603–604: 502–509.
2773:10.1029/2002GB001894
1506:carbon sequestration
1472:Carbon sequestration
1257:were present in the
1198:archeological record
710:-specific phytolith
656:-specific phytolith
586:-specific phytolith
452:-specific phytolith
394:disease (carried by
273:Scale bars are 20 ÎĽm
209:Gustav Adolph Struve
170:Alarm photosynthesis
22:Phytolith structures
3452:Darwin, C. (1846).
3437:2004JArSc..31..423P
3344:1969SSASJ..33..109T
3265:1990PNAS...87.8120C
3180:Thorn, V. C. 2004.
3145:2017ScTEn.603..502S
3100:2005SBiBi..37..117P
3049:1967Sci...156...66W
3000:(5751): 1126–1128.
2961:2005SBiBi..37..117P
2916:2016FuEco..30.1286S
2861:2010QuRes..74..333A
2849:Quaternary Research
2764:2002GBioC..16.1121C
2698:2012GSAB..124.1577M
2692:(9–10): 1577–1589.
2576:2009Sci...326...65W
2532:2007PPP...250...18S
2495:Strömberg, C.A.E.;
2466:2004PPP...207..239S
2423:2002PPP...177...59S
2399:(CSIC), p. 255–265.
2370:2002GPC....33..257C
2327:1999MiPal..45...56C
2279:2016JArSc..68...24H
2236:2013VegHA..22...71S
2167:2003Sci...299.1054P
2161:(5609): 1054–1057.
2124:2007JArSc..34.1262T
2003:2005JArSc..32..739H
1858:2009JArSc..36.2402J
1633:2020NatSR..1015577G
1177:archaeological site
1084:Laboratory analysis
1056:Sampling strategies
341:for plants such as
2904:Functional Ecology
2034:Asian Perspectives
1826:2010-10-03 at the
1821:Phytoliths Gallery
1790:10.1093/aob/mcn130
1706:, 103(8), 911-920.
1621:Scientific Reports
1355:palaeoenvironments
1097:
1062:Cultural contexts:
339:essential nutrient
295:radiometric dating
277:
233:Cape Verde Islands
57:Paulownia fargesii
3415:978-0-12-557180-7
3396:978-0-12-548042-0
3377:978-0-534-61321-1
3315:978-0-12-557175-3
3259:(20): 8120–8124.
3235:978-0-306-44208-7
3203:978-90-5809-345-5
2315:Micropaleontology
1930:978-0-12-548042-0
1895:, 22(3), 165-170.
1852:(10): 2402–2407.
1222:lightning strikes
1188:Burned phytoliths
1134:hydrochloric acid
1069:Natural contexts:
367:fungal infections
274:
3595:
3588:Plant physiology
3578:Plant morphology
3481:
3448:
3419:
3400:
3381:
3362:
3360:
3354:. Archived from
3329:
3319:
3307:
3296:
3286:
3276:
3239:
3227:
3207:
3167:
3166:
3156:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3111:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3032:
3026:
3025:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2972:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2927:
2910:(8): 1286–1297.
2895:
2889:
2888:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2775:
2758:(4): 68-1–68-8.
2743:
2737:
2736:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2706:10.1130/B30548.1
2681:
2675:
2674:
2638:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2587:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2460:(3–4): 239–275.
2449:
2443:
2442:
2406:
2400:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2364:(3–4): 257–267.
2353:
2347:
2346:
2310:
2299:
2298:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2221:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2118:(8): 1262–1275.
2106:
2095:
2094:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2057:
2029:
2023:
2022:
1988:
1979:
1973:
1962:
1953:
1950:
1935:
1934:
1916:
1905:
1902:
1896:
1881:
1870:
1869:
1837:
1831:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1801:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1720:
1707:
1696:
1687:
1676:
1663:
1662:
1652:
1612:
1479:sequester carbon
1459:
1450:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1076:Modern surfaces:
949:Potamogetonaceae
881:Lentibulariaceae
849:Hydrocharitaceae
665:Aristolochiaceae
603:Dipterocarpaceae
529:Hymenophyllaceae
493:Chrysobalanaceae
396:cucumber beetles
303:specific gravity
299:refractive index
272:
217:
162:calcium oxalates
97:monosilicic acid
90:calcium oxalates
88:are composed of
67:scale bars 20 ÎĽm
51:
32:
3603:
3602:
3598:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3592:
3568:
3567:
3489:
3484:
3416:
3397:
3378:
3358:
3327:
3316:
3236:
3204:
3176:
3171:
3170:
3129:
3125:
3109:10.1.1.517.9272
3084:
3080:
3043:(3771): 66–67.
3033:
3029:
2990:
2986:
2970:10.1.1.517.9272
2945:
2941:
2896:
2892:
2844:
2840:
2801:
2797:
2744:
2740:
2725:
2721:
2682:
2678:
2655:10.1666/09067.1
2639:
2635:
2629:
2625:
2585:10.1.1.719.9802
2559:
2555:
2516:
2512:
2493:
2489:
2450:
2446:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2393:
2354:
2350:
2335:10.2307/1486202
2311:
2302:
2263:
2259:
2219:
2210:
2206:
2151:
2147:
2107:
2098:
2075:
2071:
2030:
2026:
1986:
1980:
1976:
1963:
1956:
1951:
1938:
1931:
1917:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1882:
1873:
1838:
1834:
1828:Wayback Machine
1819:
1815:
1770:
1766:
1721:
1710:
1704:Current Science
1697:
1690:
1677:
1666:
1613:
1606:
1601:
1582:
1474:
1460:
1451:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1386:
1363:paleontologists
1347:dental calculus
1335:
1307:
1291:
1238:
1190:
1171:, silicon oil,
1169:Benzyl Benzoate
1086:
1058:
1041:
901:Melastomataceae
809:Cartonemataceae
619:Flagellariaceae
561:Selaginellaceae
431:
413:Analysis after
332:
323:
290:
275:
271:
263:
211:
198:Dolores Piperno
194:
154:silicon dioxide
137:
129:fungal diseases
105:vascular system
102:
71:
70:
69:
68:
66:
62:
61:
60:
52:
43:
42:
41:
33:
24:
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3601:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3566:
3565:
3559:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3535:
3529:
3522:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3488:
3487:External links
3485:
3483:
3482:
3464:(1–2): 26–30.
3449:
3431:(4): 423–442.
3420:
3414:
3401:
3395:
3382:
3376:
3363:
3361:on 2010-06-24.
3338:(1): 109–115.
3320:
3314:
3297:
3240:
3234:
3217:
3208:
3202:
3187:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3123:
3094:(1): 117–124.
3078:
3027:
2984:
2955:(1): 117–124.
2939:
2890:
2855:(3): 333–343.
2838:
2817:10.1086/683278
2811:(9): 832–847.
2795:
2738:
2719:
2676:
2633:
2623:
2553:
2526:(1–4): 18–49.
2510:
2487:
2444:
2417:(1–2): 59–75.
2401:
2391:
2348:
2300:
2257:
2213:Shillito, L-M.
2204:
2145:
2096:
2085:(1): 178–194.
2069:
2024:
1997:(5): 739–752.
1974:
1954:
1936:
1929:
1906:
1897:
1891:(wild gourd).
1885:Cucurbita pepo
1871:
1832:
1813:
1784:(4): 653–656.
1764:
1735:Annual Reviews
1708:
1688:
1664:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1595:
1589:
1586:Druse (botany)
1581:
1578:
1486:mineralization
1473:
1470:
1462:
1461:
1454:
1452:
1445:
1443:
1436:
1434:
1427:
1425:
1418:
1414:
1411:
1384:
1334:
1331:
1318:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1295:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1282:
1273:. Because the
1267:
1242:
1237:
1234:
1189:
1186:
1161:mounting media
1093:Elephant grass
1085:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1073:
1066:
1057:
1054:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1033:Zygophyllaceae
945:Pontederiaceae
869:Lacistemnaceae
817:Convolvulaceae
813:Chenopodiaceae
777:Asclepiadaceae
753:Amaryllidaceae
734:
733:
700:
699:
685:Menispermaceae
669:Chloranthaceae
646:
645:
623:Joinvilleaceae
615:Flacourtiaceae
576:
575:
430:
427:
423:bacterial wilt
419:mosaic disease
408:bacterial wilt
404:mosaic disease
392:bacterial wilt
379:Cucurbita pepo
331:
328:
322:
319:
289:
286:
269:
262:
259:
258:
257:
250:
243:
236:
225:Charles Darwin
193:
190:
178:photosynthesis
166:carbon dioxide
150:leather corals
136:
133:
125:metal toxicity
100:
64:
63:
53:
46:
45:
44:
34:
27:
26:
25:
21:
20:
19:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3600:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3583:Plant anatomy
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3564:
3560:
3558:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3398:
3392:
3388:
3383:
3379:
3373:
3369:
3364:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3326:
3321:
3317:
3311:
3306:
3305:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3248:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3178:
3164:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3082:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2988:
2980:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2894:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2842:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2680:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2637:
2627:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2557:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2507:(2): 145–160.
2506:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2395:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2352:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2214:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2149:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2105:
2103:
2101:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1959:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1932:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1901:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1693:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1609:
1604:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1577:
1575:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1480:
1469:
1467:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1440:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1390:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1283:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1259:Lake Titicaca
1256:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1213:anthropogenic
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1185:
1183:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1165:Canada Balsam
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1077:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
989:Saxifragaceae
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
961:Ranunculaceae
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
937:Podocarpaceae
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
909:Myristicaceae
906:
902:
898:
894:
893:Malpighiaceae
890:
886:
882:
878:
877:Lecythidaceae
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
837:Eriocaulaceae
834:
830:
829:Dioscoreaceae
826:
825:Cyclanthaceae
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
801:Campanulaceae
798:
794:
793:Burmanniaceae
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
773:Araucariaceae
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
749:Amaranthaceae
746:
742:
739:
738:
737:
732:
731:Sterculiaceae
728:
724:
720:
717:
716:
715:
714:is uncommon:
713:
709:
705:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
677:Hernandiaceae
674:
670:
666:
663:
662:
661:
660:is uncommon:
659:
655:
651:
644:
640:
636:
632:
631:Polypodiaceae
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:Euphorbiaceae
604:
600:
596:
593:
592:
591:
589:
585:
581:
574:
573:Zingiberaceae
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:Podostemaceae
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
525:Heliconiaceae
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
505:Cucurbitaceae
502:
498:
497:Commelinaceae
494:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
459:
458:
457:
455:
451:
447:
442:
440:
436:
426:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
380:
375:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
327:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
285:
283:
267:
254:
251:
247:
244:
240:
237:
234:
230:
226:
221:
215:
210:
206:
203:
202:
201:
199:
196:According to
189:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
98:
93:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
59:
58:
50:
40:
39:
31:
3461:
3457:
3428:
3424:
3405:
3386:
3367:
3356:the original
3335:
3331:
3303:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3223:
3211:
3192:
3181:
3174:Bibliography
3136:
3126:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3040:
3036:
3030:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2907:
2903:
2893:
2852:
2848:
2841:
2808:
2804:
2798:
2755:
2751:
2741:
2732:
2722:
2689:
2685:
2679:
2649:(1): 50–71.
2646:
2643:Paleobiology
2642:
2636:
2626:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2504:
2500:
2490:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2414:
2410:
2404:
2394:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2321:(1): 56–61.
2318:
2314:
2270:
2266:
2260:
2230:(1): 71–82.
2227:
2223:
2207:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2115:
2111:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2040:(1): 72–95.
2037:
2033:
2027:
1994:
1990:
1977:
1920:
1900:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1849:
1845:
1835:
1816:
1781:
1777:
1767:
1730:
1724:
1703:
1627:(1): 15577.
1624:
1620:
1570:
1562:conservation
1524:. Different
1501:
1500:which forms
1483:
1475:
1463:
1408:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1382:
1336:
1325:
1322:multiplicity
1321:
1319:
1297:
1210:
1191:
1150:
1129:heavy liquid
1126:
1120:wet ashing.
1098:
1075:
1068:
1061:
1050:
1042:
1009:Trioridaceae
941:Polygonaceae
921:Nymphaeaceae
857:Juglandaceae
781:Bignoniaceae
745:Alismataceae
735:
701:
681:Loranthaceae
673:Combretaceae
647:
635:Restionaceae
599:Cupressaceae
577:
533:Magnoliaceae
521:Equisetaceae
517:Dilleniaceae
485:Bromeliaceae
481:Boraginaceae
443:
432:
412:
386:(carried by
384:mosaic virus
377:
371:
333:
324:
291:
278:
252:
245:
238:
228:
204:
195:
138:
94:
73:
72:
55:
36:
2497:Friis, E.M.
2055:10125/17181
1737:: 641–664.
1700:soil carbon
1484:During the
1351:Pleistocene
1230:fall season
1111:artifacts.
1109:prehistoric
1045:archaeology
1039:Archaeology
1025:Winteraceae
993:Smilacaceae
985:Sapindaceae
953:Primulaceae
933:Pedaliaceae
929:Oxalidaceae
917:Myrsinaceae
889:Loganiaceae
789:Bombacaceae
761:Apocynaceae
697:Verbenaceae
643:Taxodiaceae
595:Capparaceae
590:is common:
549:Orchidaceae
537:Marantaceae
509:Cyatheaceae
489:Burseraceae
461:Acanthaceae
456:is common:
439:taxonomical
363:plant genes
212: [
160:. Finally,
3572:Categories
3193:Phytoliths
2562:ramidus".
1970:0549717765
1684:0759103852
1599:References
1568:or fires.
1556:can boost
1554:ecosystems
1530:subspecies
1496:including
1378:coprolites
1367:herbivores
1359:Quaternary
1343:coprolites
1326:redundancy
1275:morphology
1194:microscope
1117:centrifuge
1105:bone tools
1029:Xyridaceae
997:Solanaceae
981:Salicaceae
965:Rhamnaceae
957:Proteaceae
897:Mayacaceae
845:Guttiferae
821:Cycadaceae
805:Caricaceae
769:Araliaceae
719:Clusiaceae
712:morphology
693:Sapotaceae
689:Piperaceae
658:morphology
588:morphology
569:Urticaceae
513:Cyperaceae
477:Asteraceae
469:Annonaceae
454:morphology
435:morphology
347:phosphorus
242:published.
109:cell walls
74:Phytoliths
3478:131416813
3104:CiteSeerX
2965:CiteSeerX
2934:0269-8463
2877:0033-5894
2825:1058-5893
2790:128672790
2782:0886-6236
2714:0016-7606
2663:0094-8373
2602:0036-8075
2580:CiteSeerX
2548:0031-0182
2482:0031-0182
2439:0031-0182
2386:0921-8181
2295:0305-4403
2273:: 24–31.
2183:0036-8075
2140:0305-4403
2064:162916204
1751:1040-2519
1538:grassland
1518:sugarcane
1490:nutrients
1298:Cucurbita
1202:Gradation
1021:Violaceae
1013:Typhaceae
1005:Tiliaceae
973:Rubiaceae
925:Olacaceae
913:Myrtaceae
905:Meliaceae
885:Liliaceae
873:Lauraceae
861:Juncaceae
853:Iridaceae
841:Gnetaceae
833:Ericaceae
797:Cactaceae
741:Agavaceae
727:Malvaceae
501:Costaceae
473:Arecaceae
465:Aceraceae
410:disease.
400:herbivory
351:resilient
135:Functions
3163:28645048
3065:17798627
3022:83493897
3014:16293745
2885:56078161
2833:86879405
2671:27909150
2618:11646395
2610:19810191
2252:51811480
2215:(2013).
2199:34871175
2191:12586940
1824:Archived
1808:18697757
1759:15012222
1659:32968165
1580:See also
1546:cropland
1536:such as
1371:dinosaur
1339:Devonian
1263:Tiwanaku
1251:Zea mays
1247:Zea mays
1217:charcoal
1173:glycerin
1017:Vitaceae
1001:Theaceae
977:Rutaceae
969:Rosaceae
865:Labiatae
785:Bixaceae
757:Apiaceae
723:Fabaceae
639:Taxaceae
627:Pinaceae
611:Fagaceae
565:Ulmaceae
545:Musaceae
541:Moraceae
353:against
343:nitrogen
307:families
249:popular.
158:aluminum
142:spicules
3433:Bibcode
3340:Bibcode
3293:2236026
3261:Bibcode
3141:Bibcode
3096:Bibcode
3073:1250064
3045:Bibcode
3037:Science
2994:Science
2957:Bibcode
2912:Bibcode
2857:Bibcode
2760:Bibcode
2694:Bibcode
2572:Bibcode
2564:Science
2528:Bibcode
2462:Bibcode
2419:Bibcode
2366:Bibcode
2343:1486202
2323:Bibcode
2275:Bibcode
2232:Bibcode
2163:Bibcode
2155:Science
2120:Bibcode
1999:Bibcode
1854:Bibcode
1799:2701777
1778:Ann Bot
1650:7512002
1629:Bibcode
1592:Raphide
1566:grazing
1558:biomass
1550:climate
1526:species
1413:Gallery
1226:biomass
1146:ethanol
1142:solvent
1122:Ethanol
765:Araceae
553:Poaceae
415:harvest
359:abiotic
315:species
186:baobabs
146:sponges
121:abiotic
107:to the
99:(Si(OH)
3476:
3412:
3393:
3374:
3312:
3291:
3281:
3232:
3200:
3161:
3106:
3071:
3063:
3020:
3012:
2967:
2932:
2883:
2875:
2831:
2823:
2788:
2780:
2712:
2669:
2661:
2616:
2608:
2600:
2582:
2546:
2480:
2437:
2384:
2341:
2293:
2250:
2197:
2189:
2181:
2138:
2062:
2017:
1968:
1927:
1889:texana
1806:
1796:
1757:
1749:
1682:
1657:
1647:
1542:forest
1522:carbon
1516:while
1514:carbon
1498:carbon
1345:, and
1206:carbon
1079:ideal.
704:family
650:family
580:family
446:family
388:aphids
355:biotic
335:Silica
311:genera
229:Beagle
82:silica
76:(from
3474:S2CID
3359:(PDF)
3328:(PDF)
3284:54904
3069:S2CID
3018:S2CID
2881:S2CID
2829:S2CID
2786:S2CID
2667:S2CID
2614:S2CID
2339:JSTOR
2248:S2CID
2220:(PDF)
2195:S2CID
2060:S2CID
2015:JSTOR
1987:(PDF)
1887:var.
1733:(1).
1544:, or
1534:biome
1255:maize
1138:water
708:genus
654:genus
584:genus
450:genus
390:) or
282:xylem
216:]
182:pores
174:Cacti
117:cells
86:cacti
78:Greek
3410:ISBN
3391:ISBN
3372:ISBN
3310:ISBN
3289:PMID
3230:ISBN
3198:ISBN
3159:PMID
3061:PMID
3010:PMID
2930:ISSN
2873:ISSN
2821:ISSN
2778:ISSN
2710:ISSN
2659:ISSN
2606:PMID
2598:ISSN
2544:ISSN
2478:ISSN
2435:ISSN
2382:ISSN
2291:ISSN
2187:PMID
2179:ISSN
2136:ISSN
2019:5647
1966:ISBN
1925:ISBN
1804:PMID
1755:PMID
1747:ISSN
1680:ISBN
1655:PMID
1528:and
1510:oats
1494:soil
1374:dung
1324:and
1271:rice
1113:Clay
1101:soil
706:and
652:and
582:and
448:and
357:and
148:and
113:taxa
92:.
3466:doi
3441:doi
3348:doi
3279:PMC
3269:doi
3149:doi
3114:doi
3053:doi
3041:156
3002:doi
2998:310
2975:doi
2920:doi
2865:doi
2813:doi
2809:176
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