112:
is licensed by the affirmative environment of sentence (1), but it is forbidden (anti-licensed) by the negative environment of sentence (4). It can therefore be considered to be a positive polarity item (PPI). On the other hand,
70:
provides a licensing context for a PPI, while negation provides a licensing context for an NPI. However, there are many complications, and not all polarity items of a particular type have the same licensing contexts.
234:
However, licensing contexts can take many forms besides simple negation/affirmation. To complicate matters, polarity items appear to be highly idiosyncratic, each with its own set of licensing contexts.
128:
are not used to intensify each other, the language makes frequent use of certain NPIs that correspond in meaning to negative items, and can be used in the environment of another negative. For example,
381:
While NPIs have been discovered in many languages, their distribution is subject to substantial cross-linguistic variation; this aspect of NPIs is currently the subject of ongoing research in
327:, and others (finally, only). Given that many of these environments are not strictly downward entailing, alternative licensing conditions have been proposed building on concepts such as
255:
117:
is licensed by the negative environment of sentence (2), but anti-licensed by the positive environment of sentence (3), and is therefore considered a negative polarity item (NPI).
214:
The actual set of contexts that license particular polarity items is not as easily defined as a simple distinction between affirmative and negative sentences. Baker noted that
297:
246:. Much of the research on polarity items has centered around the question of what creates a negative context. In the late 1970s, William Ladusaw (building on work by
382:
273:
Nor is a downward entailing environment a sufficient condition for all negative polarity items, as first pointed out by Zwarts (1981) for Dutch "ook maar."
612:
In the book, there is an introductory discussion of negative polarity items spanning several chapters, covering syntax, semantics, sociolinguistic aspects.
455:
1348:
642:
1116:
258:. A downward entailing environment, however, is not a necessary condition for an NPI to be licensed—they may be licensed by some
605:
163:
take on an opposing meaning in formal usage, but that this is not necessarily the case in colloquial contexts and in various
984:
651:
203:
1071:
616:
The
Collection of Distributionally Idiosyncratic Items, containing German and Rumanian NPIs (TĂĽbingen University)
1192:
1066:
725:
635:
844:
665:
452:
730:
300:
of universal quantifiers, non-affirmative verbs (doubt), adversative predicates (be surprised), negative
1212:
874:
695:
564:
171:, like most of the other NPIs listed below, is also used in other senses where it is not an NPI, as in
1217:
1167:
929:
818:
628:
586:
1277:
1136:
715:
320:
281:
32:
1272:
813:
121:
1302:
969:
939:
914:
854:
753:
685:
399:
289:
67:
1197:
1091:
1056:
944:
919:
763:
680:
340:
301:
1182:
989:
768:
404:
285:
277:
199:
8:
1267:
1232:
1177:
1121:
1024:
1009:
979:
959:
934:
803:
788:
328:
259:
1338:
1312:
1237:
1207:
1172:
1152:
1081:
1061:
999:
994:
904:
894:
879:
823:
542:
489:
394:
351:
251:
620:
1292:
1247:
1227:
1187:
1126:
1096:
1076:
869:
798:
601:
594:
513:
247:
546:
1343:
1297:
1222:
1111:
889:
534:
453:"Negative and positive polarity items: licensing, compositionality and variation".
1101:
1004:
899:
864:
459:
332:
324:
215:
125:
80:
1333:
1287:
1282:
1202:
1086:
964:
859:
700:
239:
538:
504:(1964). "Negation in English". In Jerry A. Fodor & Jerrold J. Katz (ed.).
462:
Prepared for
Maienborn, Claudia, Klaus von Heusinger, and Paul Portner (eds).
1327:
949:
783:
346:
Different NPIs may be licensed by different expressions. Thus, while the NPI
596:
I-language: An
Introduction to Linguistics as Cognitive Science, 2nd edition
1242:
1162:
1029:
909:
793:
773:
615:
501:
414:
336:
276:
Licensing contexts across languages include the scope of n-words (negative
243:
28:
1157:
1131:
1014:
778:
705:
409:
317:
309:
305:
20:
262:(and thus not downward entailing) contexts, like "exactly N," as well.
1307:
954:
720:
675:
670:
493:
1106:
924:
849:
828:
758:
710:
690:
367:
1019:
808:
293:
62:
The linguistic environment in which a polarity item appears is a
464:
238:
Early discussion of polarity items can be found in the work of
218:
may provide an acceptable context for positive polarity items:
167:, which parallels other languages which have negative concord.
884:
525:
Giannakidou, Anastasia (2001). "The
Meaning of Free Choice".
359:
164:
650:
209:
587:
The
Polarity Items Bibliography (TĂĽbingen University)
377:*At most two of the visitors lifted a finger to help.
151:
is used in the environment of the preceding negative
250:) discovered that most English NPIs are licensed in
16:
Lexical item associated with affirmation or negation
593:
558:. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
591:
204:Affirmation and negation § Multiple negation
1325:
1117:Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)
556:Polarity Sensitivity as Inherent Scope Relations
269:Exactly three people have ever been on the moon.
120:Because standard English does not have negative
316:-phrases, negative predicates (unlikely), some
374:At most two of the visitors had seen anything.
144:is used when not preceded by another negative)
636:
222:I can't believe you don't fancy her somewhat.
159:Note that double-negative constructions like
516:(1975). "Polarity and the scale principle".
466:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. (January 2008).
79:As examples of polarity items, consider the
524:
508:. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 246-323.
643:
629:
512:
480:Baker, C. Lee (1970). "Double Negatives".
370:) is not licensed by the same expression.
266:*Some people have ever been on the moon.
132:is an NPI corresponding to the negative
553:
194:no longer/no more – any longer/any more
66:. In the simplest case, an affirmative
1326:
562:
136:, as used in the following sentences:
91:, as used in the following sentences:
1072:Discourse representation theory (DRT)
624:
592:Isac, Daniela; Charles Reiss (2013).
500:
479:
1349:Formal semantics (natural language)
985:Quantificational variability effect
652:Formal semantics (natural language)
254:environments. This is known as the
210:Determination of licensing contexts
147:I was not going anywhere. (the NPI
140:I was going nowhere. (the negative
13:
565:"Negatief Polaire Uitdrukkingen I"
14:
1360:
580:
520:. Vol. 11. pp. 188–199.
104:*I didn't like the film somewhat.
200:English grammar § Negation
1067:Combinatory categorial grammar
445:
436:
427:
227:John doesn't have any potatoes
179:nobody/no one – anybody/anyone
98:I didn't like the film at all.
1:
845:Antecedent-contained deletion
473:
256:Fauconnier–Ladusaw hypothesis
74:
554:Ladusaw, William A. (1979).
173:I would go anywhere with you
7:
600:. Oxford University Press.
388:
356:at most two of the visitors
10:
1365:
726:Syntax–semantics interface
527:Linguistics and Philosophy
518:Chicago Linguistic Society
383:cross-linguistic semantics
95:I liked the film somewhat.
1260:
1218:Question under discussion
1168:Conversational scoreboard
1145:
1049:
1042:
945:Intersective modification
930:Homogeneity (linguistics)
837:
746:
739:
658:
506:The structure of language
451:Giannakidou, Anastasia.
101:*I liked the film at all.
1278:Distributional semantics
420:
31:that is associated with
1273:Computational semantics
1010:Subsective modification
814:Propositional attitudes
539:10.1023/A:1012758115458
230:*John has any potatoes.
161:I was not going nowhere
35:. An affirmation is a
33:affirmation or negation
1303:Philosophy of language
940:Inalienable possession
920:Free choice inferences
915:Faultless disagreement
686:Generalized quantifier
563:Zwarts, Frans (1981).
400:Generalized quantifier
49:negative polarity item
37:positive polarity item
1198:Plural quantification
1092:Inquisitive semantics
1057:Alternative semantics
323:, some disjunctions,
1183:Function application
990:Responsive predicate
980:Privative adjectives
405:Grammatical polarity
1268:Cognitive semantics
1233:Strawson entailment
1178:Existential closure
1122:Situation semantics
1025:Temperature paradox
995:Rising declaratives
960:Modal subordination
935:Hurford disjunction
895:Discourse relations
350:is licensed by the
329:Strawson entailment
1313:Semantics of logic
1238:Strict conditional
1208:Quantifier raising
1173:Downward entailing
1153:Autonomy of syntax
1082:Generative grammar
1062:Categorial grammar
1000:Scalar implicature
905:Epistemic modality
880:De dicto and de re
514:Fauconnier, Gilles
482:Linguistic Inquiry
458:2017-01-18 at the
395:Downward entailing
352:downward entailing
252:downward entailing
191:nowhere – anywhere
182:nothing – anything
47:. A negation is a
1321:
1320:
1293:Logic translation
1256:
1255:
1248:Universal grinder
1228:Squiggle operator
1188:Meaning postulate
1127:Supervaluationism
1097:Intensional logic
1077:Dynamic semantics
1038:
1037:
870:Crossover effects
819:Tense–aspect–mood
799:Lexical semantics
607:978-0-19-953420-3
442:See Baker (1970).
433:See Baker (1970).
364:not lift a finger
248:Gilles Fauconnier
64:licensing context
1356:
1298:Linguistics wars
1223:Semantic parsing
1112:Montague grammar
1047:
1046:
890:Deontic modality
744:
743:
731:Truth conditions
666:Compositionality
659:Central concepts
645:
638:
631:
622:
621:
611:
599:
576:
559:
550:
521:
509:
497:
467:
449:
443:
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434:
431:
126:double negatives
108:As can be seen,
1364:
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1358:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1324:
1323:
1322:
1317:
1252:
1141:
1102:Lambda calculus
1034:
1005:Sloppy identity
965:Opaque contexts
900:Donkey anaphora
865:Counterfactuals
833:
735:
654:
649:
608:
583:
476:
471:
470:
460:Wayback Machine
450:
446:
441:
437:
432:
428:
423:
391:
333:nonveridicality
216:double negation
212:
77:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1362:
1352:
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1346:
1341:
1336:
1319:
1318:
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1288:Inferentialism
1285:
1283:Formal grammar
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1251:
1250:
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1205:
1203:Possible world
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1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1087:Glue semantics
1084:
1079:
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1069:
1064:
1059:
1053:
1051:
1050:Formal systems
1044:
1040:
1039:
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1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
975:Polarity items
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
860:Conservativity
857:
852:
847:
841:
839:
835:
834:
832:
831:
826:
824:Quantification
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
750:
748:
741:
737:
736:
734:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
701:Presupposition
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
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656:
655:
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633:
625:
619:
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613:
606:
589:
582:
581:External links
579:
578:
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551:
533:(6): 659–735.
522:
510:
498:
488:(2): 169–186.
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83:lexical items
76:
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51:, abbreviated
39:, abbreviated
15:
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2:
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970:Performatives
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784:Evidentiality
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502:Klima, Edward
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335:(proposed by
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185:no/none – any
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65:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
25:polarity item
22:
1243:Type shifter
1213:Quantization
1163:Continuation
1030:Veridicality
974:
910:Exhaustivity
875:Cumulativity
794:Indexicality
774:Definiteness
769:Conditionals
696:Logical form
595:
572:
568:
555:
530:
526:
517:
505:
485:
481:
463:
447:
438:
429:
415:Veridicality
380:
366:(known as a
363:
355:
347:
345:
313:
310:superlatives
306:comparatives
302:conjunctions
290:conditionals
275:
272:
260:non-monotone
244:Edward Klima
237:
233:
213:
197:
188:never – ever
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40:
36:
29:lexical item
24:
18:
1158:Context set
1132:Type theory
1015:Subtrigging
779:Disjunction
706:Proposition
410:Subtrigging
354:expression
341:Giannakidou
325:imperatives
321:complements
318:subjunctive
304:(without),
282:quantifiers
280:, negative
124:, that is,
21:linguistics
1328:Categories
1308:Pragmatics
955:Mirativity
721:Speech act
676:Entailment
671:Denotation
474:References
298:restrictor
286:antecedent
75:In English
1339:Semantics
1107:Mereology
1043:Formalism
925:Givenness
850:Cataphora
838:Phenomena
829:Vagueness
759:Ambiguity
711:Reference
691:Intension
681:Extension
575:: 35–102.
368:minimizer
360:idiomatic
294:questions
278:particles
198:See also
68:statement
1261:See also
1146:Concepts
1020:Telicity
855:Coercion
809:Negation
804:Modality
754:Anaphora
547:10533949
456:Archived
389:See also
348:anything
169:Anywhere
149:anywhere
130:anywhere
110:somewhat
85:somewhat
1344:Grammar
764:Binding
494:4177551
284:), the
142:nowhere
134:nowhere
122:concord
81:English
1193:Monads
740:Topics
604:
545:
492:
358:, the
337:Zwarts
296:, the
202:, and
115:at all
89:at all
1334:Logic
885:De se
789:Focus
747:Areas
716:Scope
543:S2CID
490:JSTOR
421:Notes
165:lects
27:is a
602:ISBN
569:GLOT
362:NPI
339:and
331:and
308:and
242:and
87:and
23:, a
1137:TTR
535:doi
343:).
314:too
288:of
153:not
57:NEG
55:or
53:NPI
45:AFF
43:or
41:PPI
19:In
1330::
571:.
567:.
541:.
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484:.
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312:,
292:,
206:.
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59:.
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486:1
155:)
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