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concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned ("stressed") by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the concrete once the tendon is "locked-off" at the anchorage. The method of locking the tendon-ends to the anchorage is dependent upon the tendon composition, with the most common systems being "button-head" anchoring (for wire tendons),
1226:
990:
1176:
stresses generated by in-service loading. This crack-resistance also allows individual slab sections to be constructed in larger pours than for conventionally reinforced concrete, resulting in wider joint spacings, reduced jointing costs and less long-term joint maintenance issues. Initial works have also been successfully conducted on the use of precast prestressed concrete for road pavements, where the speed and quality of the construction has been noted as being beneficial for this technique.
20:
1242:
222:
1028:
4514:
1322:
1066:
1370:
809:, 2018. The Ponte Morandi was a cable-stayed bridge characterised by a prestressed concrete structure for the piers, pylons and deck, very few stays, as few as two per span, and a hybrid system for the stays constructed from steel cables with prestressed concrete shells poured on. The concrete was only prestressed to 10 MPa, resulting in it being prone to cracks and water intrusion, which caused corrosion of the embedded steel.
244:) achievable between the freshly set concrete and the surface of the tendons is critical to the pre-tensioning process, as it determines when the tendon anchorages can be safely released. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete will speed production and allow more economical fabrication. To promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, which provides a greater
1141:
at their far (internal) end, and have a significant "de-bonded" free-length at their external end which allows the tendon to stretch during tensioning. Tendons may be full-length bonded to the surrounding concrete or rock once tensioned, or (more commonly) have strands permanently encapsulated in corrosion-inhibiting grease over the free-length to permit long-term load monitoring and re-stressability.
1150:
tensioned, these tendons exert both axial (compressive) and radial (inward) forces onto the structure, which can directly oppose the subsequent storage loadings. If the magnitude of the prestress is designed to always exceed the tensile stresses produced by the loadings, a permanent residual compression will exist in the wall concrete, assisting in maintaining a watertight crack-free structure.
569:. Once cured, this grout can transfer the full tendon tension force to the concrete within a very short distance (approximately 1 metre). As a result, any inadvertent severing of the tendon or failure of an end anchorage has only a very localised impact on tendon performance, and almost never results in tendon ejection from the anchorage.
1393:(PTI) and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI). Similar bodies include the Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI), the UK's Post-Tensioning Association, the Post Tensioning Institute of Australia and the South African Post Tensioning Association. Europe has similar country-based associations and institutions.
541:
strands are bundled to form a single unbonded tendon, an enveloping duct of plastic or galvanised steel is used and its interior free-spaces grouted after stressing. In this way, additional corrosion protection is provided via the grease, plastic sheathing, grout, external sheathing, and surrounding concrete layers.
836:
Building structures are typically required to satisfy a broad range of structural, aesthetic and economic requirements. Significant among these include: a minimum number of (intrusive) supporting walls or columns; low structural thickness (depth), allowing space for services, or for additional floors
557:
Both bonded and unbonded post-tensioning technologies are widely used around the world, and the choice of system is often dictated by regional preferences, contractor experience, or the availability of alternative systems. Either one is capable of delivering code-compliant, durable structures meeting
1140:
Most commonly, dam prestressing takes the form of post-tensioned anchors drilled into the dam's concrete structure and/or the underlying rock strata. Such anchors typically comprise tendons of high-tensile bundled steel strands or individual threaded bars. Tendons are grouted to the concrete or rock
771:
Following discovery of tendon corrosion in several bridges in
England, the Highways Agency issued a moratorium on the construction of new internally grouted post-tensioned bridges and embarked on a 5-year programme of inspections on its existing post-tensioned bridge stock. The moratorium was lifted
1149:
Circular storage structures such as silos and tanks can use prestressing forces to directly resist the outward pressures generated by stored liquids or bulk-solids. Horizontally curved tendons are installed within the concrete wall to form a series of hoops, spaced vertically up the structure. When
540:
For individual strand tendons, no additional tendon ducting is used and no post-stressing grouting operation is required, unlike for bonded post-tensioning. Permanent corrosion protection of the strands is provided by the combined layers of grease, plastic sheathing, and surrounding concrete. Where
434:
of elements (e.g., strands or wires) placed inside a single tendon duct, with the exception of bars which are mostly used unbundled. This bundling makes for more efficient tendon installation and grouting processes, since each complete tendon requires only one set of end-anchorages and one grouting
236:
technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured off-site from the final structure location and transported to site once cured. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched. These anchorages form the ends of a "casting bed" which may be many
677:
The durability of prestressed concrete is principally determined by the level of corrosion protection provided to any high-strength steel elements within the prestressing tendons. Also critical is the protection afforded to the end-anchorage assemblies of unbonded tendons or cable-stay systems, as
673:
Long-term durability is an essential requirement for prestressed concrete given its widespread use. Research on the durability performance of in-service prestressed structures has been undertaken since the 1960s, and anti-corrosion technologies for tendon protection have been continually improved
1158:
Prestressed concrete has been established as a reliable construction material for high-pressure containment structures such as nuclear reactor vessels and containment buildings, and petrochemical tank blast-containment walls. Using pre-stressing to place such structures into an initial state of
1175:
Heavily loaded concrete ground-slabs and pavements can be sensitive to cracking and subsequent traffic-driven deterioration. As a result, prestressed concrete is regularly used in such structures as its pre-compression provides the concrete with the ability to resist the crack-inducing tensile
1093:
Concrete is the most popular structural material for bridges, and prestressed concrete is frequently adopted. When investigated in the 1940s for use on heavy-duty bridges, the advantages of this type of bridge over more traditional designs was that it is quicker to install, more economical and
827:
Prestressed concrete is a highly versatile construction material as a result of it being an almost ideal combination of its two main constituents: high-strength steel, pre-stretched to allow its full strength to be easily realised; and modern concrete, pre-compressed to minimise cracking under
696:
Unbonded tendons comprise individual strands coated in an anti-corrosion grease or wax, and fitted with a durable plastic-based full-length sleeve or sheath. The sleeving is required to be undamaged over the tendon length, and it must extend fully into the anchorage fittings at each end of the
339:
The tendons are not placed in direct contact with the concrete, but are encapsulated within a protective sleeve or duct which is either cast into the concrete structure or placed adjacent to it. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete. Once the
268:
are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting-bed foundation system. Straight tendons are typically used in "linear"
1136:
Concrete dams have used prestressing to counter uplift and increase their overall stability since the mid-1930s. Prestressing is also frequently retro-fitted as part of dam remediation works, such as for structural strengthening, or when raising crest or spillway heights.
2309:
548:
process. The bare steel strand is fed into a greasing chamber and then passed to an extrusion unit where molten plastic forms a continuous outer coating. Finished strands can be cut-to-length and fitted with "dead-end" anchor assemblies as required for the project.
606:
Improved fire performance. The absence of strain redistribution in bonded tendons may limit the impact that any localised overheating has on the overall structure. As a result, bonded structures may display a higher capacity to resist fire conditions than unbonded
828:
tensile forces. Its wide range of application is reflected in its incorporation into the major design codes covering most areas of structural and civil engineering, including buildings, bridges, dams, foundations, pavements, piles, stadiums, silos, and tanks.
862:
The combination of reduced structural thickness, reduced conventional reinforcement quantities, and fast construction often results in prestressed concrete showing significant cost benefits in building structures compared to alternative structural
603:). With the tendons fixed to the concrete at each side of the crack, greater resistance to crack expansion is offered than with unbonded tendons, allowing many design codes to specify reduced reinforcement requirements for bonded post-tensioning.
499:
Unbonded slab post-tensioning. (Above) Installed strands and edge-anchors are visible, along with prefabricated coiled strands for the next pour. (Below) End-view of slab after stripping forms, showing individual strands and stressing-anchor
856:
Typically, prestressed concrete building elements are fully stressed and self-supporting within five days. At this point they can have their formwork stripped and re-deployed to the next section of the building, accelerating construction
3045:
237:
times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. This allows multiple elements to be constructed end-to-end in the one pre-tensioning operation, allowing significant productivity benefits and economies of scale to be realized.
797:
was detected in some of the prestressing tendons, necessitating initial closure of the road while additional investigations were done. Subsequent repairs and strengthening using external post-tensioning was carried out and completed in
647:
Simpler replacement and/or adjustment. Being permanently isolated from the concrete, unbonded tendons are able to be readily de-stressed, re-stressed and/or replaced should they become damaged or need their force levels to be modified
263:
Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete (see below), the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages. Where "profiled" or "harped" tendons are required, one or more intermediate
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and re-stressable dam anchors, will typically employ double-layer corrosion protection. Such tendons are composed of individual strands, grease-coated and sleeved, collected into a strand-bundle and placed inside encapsulating
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1933:
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Bundled strands, individually greased-and-sheathed, forming a single tendon within an encapsulating duct that is placed either within or adjacent to the concrete (e.g., restressable anchors, external post-tensioning)
1162:
Nuclear reactor and containment vessels will commonly employ separate sets of post-tensioned tendons curved horizontally or vertically to completely envelop the reactor core. Blast containment walls, such as for
678:
the anchorages of both of these are required to retain the prestressing forces. Failure of any of these components can result in the release of prestressing forces, or the physical rupture of stressing tendons.
111:
in many situations. In a prestressed concrete member, the internal stresses are introduced in a planned manner so that the stresses resulting from the imposed loads are counteracted to the desired degree.
651:
Superior overload performance. Although having a lower ultimate strength than bonded tendons, unbonded tendons' ability to redistribute strains over their full length can give them superior pre-collapse
3189:
1971:
637:. Unbonded single-strand tendons have greater handling flexibility than bonded ducting during installation, allowing them a greater ability to be deviated around service penetrations or obstructions.
2149:
95:. The essence of prestressed concrete is that once the initial compression has been applied, the resulting material has the characteristics of high-strength concrete when subject to any subsequent
1389:
Worldwide, many professional organizations exist to promote best practices in the design and construction of prestressed concrete structures. In the United States, such organizations include the
687:
Bonded tendons consist of bundled strands placed inside ducts located within the surrounding concrete. To ensure full protection to the bundled strands, the ducts must be pressure-filled with a
3065:
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2068:
644:. Unbonded tendons may allow some reduction in concrete element thickness, as their smaller size and increased corrosion protection may allow them to be placed closer to the concrete surface.
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386:
Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be readily "profiled" to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal
3292:
458:, placing the tendon ducting to the required curvature profiles, and reeving (or threading) the strands or wires through the ducting. Following concreting and tensioning, the ducts are
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2459:
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2008:
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bi-axial or tri-axial compression increases their resistance to concrete cracking and leakage, while providing a proof-loaded, redundant and monitorable pressure-containment system.
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For a given span, lower in-service deflections allows thinner structural sections to be used, in turn resulting in lower floor-to-floor heights, or more room for building services.
840:
The prestressing of concrete allows "load-balancing" forces to be introduced into the structure to counter in-service loadings. This provides many benefits to building structures:
565:
Reduced reliance on end-anchorage integrity. Following tensioning and grouting, bonded tendons are connected to the surrounding concrete along their full length by high-strength
837:
in high-rise construction; fast construction cycles, especially for multi-storey buildings; and a low cost-per-unit-area, to maximise the building owner's return on investment.
2496:
715:
outer ducting. The remaining void space within the duct is pressure-grouted, providing a multi-layer polythene-grout-plastic-grease protection barrier system for each strand.
818:
The flyovers were closed in
September 2018 after inspections revealed poor quality concrete, tendon corrosion and signs of structural distress. They were demolished in 2019.
186:
of it (external prestressing). While pre-tensioned concrete uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, post-tensioned concrete can use either bonded or unbonded tendons.
3668:
1639:
Post-tensioned concreted is "structural concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete resulting from loads."
1537:
1167:(LNG) tanks, will normally utilize layers of horizontally-curved hoop tendons for containment in combination with vertically looped tendons for axial wall pre-stressing.
3373:
2751:
75:
of high-strength "tendons" located within or adjacent to the concrete and is done to improve the performance of the concrete in service. Tendons may consist of single
785:
was added to the tendon grout to speed construction, leading to corrosion of the prestressing strands and the sudden collapse of one span, injuring many spectators.
2110:
1795:
846:
Load balancing results in lower in-service deflections, which allows spans to be increased (and the number of supports reduced) without adding to structural depth.
3532:
3178:
2714:
2673:
2203:
1956:
1895:
2133:
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630:. The elimination of the post-stressing grouting process required in bonded structures improves the site-labour productivity of unbonded post-tensioning.
619:. Unbonded tendons can be readily prefabricated off-site complete with end-anchorages, facilitating faster installation during construction. Additional
363:
steel materials, and are classified into two main types: those where the tendon element is subsequently bonded to the surrounding concrete by internal
3019:
2369:
510:
movement relative to the concrete. This is most commonly achieved by encasing each individual tendon element within a plastic sheathing filled with a
2037:
1403:
Rules and requirements for the detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons are specified by individual national codes and standards such as:
1353:
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forces being imparted onto the hardened concrete, and these can be beneficially used to counter any loadings subsequently applied to the structure.
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steel, and can be either round or rectangular/oval in cross-section. The tendon sizes used are highly dependent upon the application, ranging from
3564:
2530:
423:; to permanently "lock-in" the tendon pre-tension, thereby removing the long-term reliance upon the end-anchorage systems; and to improve certain
936:
3273:
2635:
1626:
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of their encapsulating ducting (after tendon tensioning). This grouting is undertaken for three main purposes: to protect the tendons against
3438:
2864:
1573:
720:
In all post-tensioned installations, protection of the end-anchorages against corrosion is essential, and critically so for unbonded systems.
3088:
2436:
1109:
In short-span bridges of around 10 to 40 metres (30 to 130 ft), prestressing is commonly employed in the form of precast pre-tensioned
3627:
1997:
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3318:
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or standards, but rather exist to promote the understanding and development of prestressed concrete design, codes and best practices.
4190:
3900:
2485:
2238:
1858:
1819:"Tendons having one or more deviations from a straight line, either vertically or horizontally, between the ends of the structure"
115:
Prestressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil structures where its improved performance can allow for longer
3657:
2920:
2592:
1521:
64:) during production, in a manner that strengthens it against tensile forces which will exist when in service. It was patented by
4341:
1460:
970:
3874:
Historical
Patents and the Evolution of Twentieth Century Architectural Construction with Reinforced and Pre-stressed Concrete
3409:
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2143:
2104:
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One span of a 12-span viaduct collapsed on 7 July 2014, causing 4 injuries, due to corrosion of the post-tensioning tendons.
4015:
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1263:
1204:
2343:
2094:
1784:
1289:
952:
2925:
917:
3866:
Guidelines for
Sampling, Assessing, and Restoring Defective Grout in Prestressed Concrete Bridge Post-Tensioning Ducts
3557:
Construction of a
Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement Demonstration Project on Interstate 57 near Sikeston, Missouri
3524:
1113:
or planks. Medium-length structures of around 40 to 200 metres (150 to 650 ft), typically use precast-segmental,
1008:
3493:
3448:
1767:
1731:
1685:
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1531:
2413:
1257:
1046:
4200:
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2658:
2211:
1305:
776:
4555:
2561:
3257:
Cavill, Brian (20 March 1997). "Very High capacity Ground
Anchors Used in Strengthening Concrete Gravity Dams".
1884:
1419:
1369:
1225:
454:
Fabrication of bonded tendons is generally undertaken on-site, commencing with the fitting of end-anchorages to
3930:
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1273:
989:
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2291:
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1065:
923:
888:
1027:
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3010:
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1216:
904:
1241:
506:
Unbonded post-tensioning differs from bonded post-tensioning by allowing the tendons permanent freedom of
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4447:
4422:
4336:
4303:
507:
3555:
3480:
2973:
596:
435:
operation. Ducting is fabricated from a durable and corrosion-resistant material such as plastic (e.g.,
355:
Balanced-cantilever bridge under construction. Each added segment is supported by post-tensioned tendons
4401:
4215:
3925:
2522:
104:
1321:
533:
Individual strand tendons placed directly into the concreted structure (e.g., buildings, ground slabs)
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4379:
4298:
4238:
4053:
3968:
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3809:
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1231:
1180:
661:
581:
526:
force to the concrete, and are required to reliably perform this role for the life of the structure.
341:
2615:
1618:
1102:. By the 1960s, prestressed concrete largely superseded reinforced concrete bridges in the UK, with
1094:
longer-lasting with the bridge being less lively. One of the first bridges built in this way is the
584:
at that same location (i.e. no strain re-distribution occurs). This results in significantly higher
178:, where all strands or wires in a tendon are stressed simultaneously. Tendons may be located either
3886:
132:
2856:
1592:
4210:
3835:
3757:
3741:
3216:"Strengthening of existing concrete dams using post-tensioned anchors: A state-of-the-art review"
1444:
1359:
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884:
305:
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4308:
4185:
4109:
4000:
3995:
2172:
1475:
1124:. For the longest bridges, prestressed concrete deck structures often form an integral part of
703:
277:; whereas profiled tendons are more commonly found in deeper precast bridge beams and girders.
1759:
225:
Pre-tensioned bridge girder in precasting bed, with single-strand tendons exiting through the
4391:
4134:
1470:
876:
573:
410:
In bonded post-tensioning, tendons are permanently bonded to the surrounding concrete by the
332:
Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned
328:
Post-tensioned tendon anchorage; four-piece "lock-off" wedges are visible holding each strand
61:
3590:
1751:
681:
Modern prestressing systems deliver long-term durability by addressing the following areas:
202:
Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned
4427:
4328:
4323:
4195:
4058:
3149:
2894:
2890:
1455:
580:. With bonded post-tensioning, any flexure of the structure is directly resisted by tendon
156:
1450:
65:
8:
4374:
4293:
4063:
4005:
1439:
1425:
1125:
788:
707:
688:
589:
424:
120:
108:
3153:
2330:
2234:
4288:
4205:
2060:
1922:"Comparison of unbonded and bonded post-tensioned concrete slabs under fire conditions"
1847:
1164:
1121:
958:
868:
763:, leading to a progressive failure of the main bridge span and the death of one person.
515:
391:
376:
170:, which occurs after the concrete is cast. Tensioning systems may be classed as either
116:
96:
84:
3861:
The story of prestressed concrete from 1930 to 1945: A step towards the
European Union
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1527:
1117:
1103:
748:
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523:
459:
351:
211:
162:
First used in the late nineteenth century, prestressed concrete has developed beyond
100:
72:
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4369:
4278:
4144:
4104:
3983:
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3709:
3284:
3227:
3157:
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281:
274:
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256:
24:
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3713:
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2817:
2056:
1279:
1208:
1014:
892:
766:
297:
215:
3162:
3137:
867:
Some notable building structures constructed from prestressed concrete include:
734:
structure constructed in 1953 with longitudinal and transverse post-tensioning.
544:
Individually greased-and-sheathed tendons are usually fabricated off-site by an
402:
251:
4386:
4318:
4159:
4078:
4048:
4043:
3935:
2776:
781:
A multi-span steel and concrete structure constructed in 1995. An unauthorised
752:
641:
280:
Pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural
233:
210:, following which the end-anchoring of the tendons is released, and the tendon
4035:
1179:
Some notable civil structures constructed using prestressed concrete include:
782:
611:
The benefits that unbonded post-tensioning can offer over bonded systems are:
561:
The benefits that bonded post-tensioning can offer over unbonded systems are:
4534:
4359:
4258:
4248:
4154:
2631:
2332:
1397:
1311:
1247:
1200:
1184:
1052:
900:
806:
616:
285:
128:
794:
793:
Sixteen-span prestressed structure constructed in 1961. Corrosion from road
119:, reduced structural thicknesses, and material savings compared with simple
4263:
4149:
4124:
3917:
1327:
1188:
1095:
1071:
1033:
908:
896:
712:
627:
490:
479:
436:
345:
245:
92:
88:
4073:
316:
207:
19:
4364:
4083:
4020:
1343:
1192:
995:
872:
634:
558:
the structural strength and serviceability requirements of the designer.
552:
447:
works typically using between 2 and 6 strands per tendon, to specialized
301:
148:
124:
2405:
194:
4468:
4253:
4233:
4025:
3138:"Rock-engineering design of post-tensioned anchors for dams - A review"
1726:(2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire. pp. 1–13.
588:
strains in the tendons than if they were unbonded, allowing their full
440:
430:
Bonded post-tensioning characteristically uses tendons each comprising
360:
40:
After concrete solidifies, tendons apply compressive stress to concrete
3443:(Second ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 472–494.
2947:
2863:. Vol. 123. Simmons-Boardman Publishing Company. pp. 54–58.
2553:
1885:"Nonprestresed Bonded Reinforcement in Post-Tensioned Building Design"
1848:"Unbonded and bonded post-tensioning systems in building construction"
1680:. South Melbourne, Australia: Addison Welsley Longman. pp. 8–19.
324:
37:
Before concrete solidifies, tendons embedded in concrete are tensioned
4499:
3865:
3401:
Structures for
Nuclear Facilities – Analysis, Design and Construction
1465:
813:
760:
735:
660:-type action instead of pure flexure, allowing significantly greater
653:
620:
545:
511:
463:
420:
387:
152:
80:
3356:
Gilbert, R. I.; Mickleborough, N. C.; Ranzi, G. (17 February 2016).
3274:"Analysis and Design of Prestressed Circular Concrete Storage Tanks"
3231:
371:
post-tensioning); and those where the tendon element is permanently
206:
to the concrete being cast. The concrete bonds to the tendons as it
4483:
4478:
4114:
3909:
3779:
2135:
Bridge
Management 4: Inspection, Maintenance, Assessment and Repair
1412:
1295:
1212:
880:
756:
657:
455:
444:
241:
226:
57:
1676:
Warner, R. F.; Rangan, B. V.; Hall, A. S.; Faulkes, K. A. (1988).
1571:
599:, bonded tendons respond similarly to conventional reinforcement (
174:, where each tendon's strand or wire is stressed individually, or
4442:
4010:
3554:
Merritt, David; Rogers, Richard; Rasmussen, Robert (March 2008).
1408:
577:
519:
412:
289:
221:
4169:
4129:
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1110:
320:
Forces on post-tensioned concrete with profiled (curved) tendon
293:
136:
3176:
2331:
Australian
Society for History of Engineering and Technology.
691:
grout, without leaving any voids, following strand-tensioning.
592:
to be realised, and producing a higher ultimate load capacity.
4088:
3990:
2435:
Knoll, Franz; Prosser, M. John; Otter, John (May–June 1976).
1998:"Survey on the Durability of Prestressed Concrete Structures"
668:
600:
566:
416:
364:
359:
Tendon encapsulation systems are constructed from plastic or
2204:"Corrosdion Failures: Lowe's Motor Speedway Bridge Collapse"
738:
attacked the under-protected tendons where they crossed the
390:. When the tendons are tensioned, this profiling results in
375:
bonded from the surrounding concrete, usually by means of a
3878:
3591:"Design of the Main Spans, Second Gateway Bridge, Brisbane"
2857:"Prestressed Concrete Bridge Beams Being Tested in England"
801:
Petrulla Viaduct ("Viadotto Petrulla"), Sicily, Italy, 2014
144:
76:
3831:
3805:
2370:"Structural Design of the 84 Storey World Tower in Sydney"
3355:
3012:
Bridge Construction Practices Using Incremental Launching
2232:
1749:
1422:: Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete; and
903:, Madrid; Guoco Tower (Tanjong Pagar Centre), Singapore;
522:
based. Anchorages at each end of the tendon transfer the
448:
140:
103:. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or
60:
used in construction. It is substantially "prestressed" (
27:(top) and prestressed concrete beam (bottom) under load:
3589:
Connall, John; Wheeler, Paul; Pau, Andrew; Mihov, Miho.
2971:
2235:"TfL report warned of Hammersmith Flyover collapse risk"
742:
joints between the segments, leading to sudden collapse.
1675:
1616:
1526:(Third ed.). New York, US: John Wiley & Sons.
1099:
3753:
3553:
2551:
553:
Comparison between bonded and unbonded post-tensioning
182:
the concrete volume (internal prestressing) or wholly
3695:"1300-Ton-Capacity Prestressed Anchors Stabilize Dam"
3142:
Journal of Rock Mechnanics and Geological Engineering
2819:
Prestressed Concrete bridges: design and Construction
2038:"Corrosion of Prestressing Steels and its Mitigation"
1857:(5). Phoenix, Arizona US: Post-Tensioning Institute.
2292:"Giù il viadotto Petrulla, panico sulla Statale 626"
1572:
Federation Internationale du Beton (February 2005).
724:
Several durability-related events are listed below:
623:
may need to be allowed for this fabrication process.
595:
Improved crack-control. In the presence of concrete
2915:
2854:
2333:"An Engineering Walk around the Sydney Opera House"
99:and of ductile high-strength steel when subject to
3588:
2131:
1957:"Two way post-tensioned slabs with bonded tendons"
1384:
336:the surrounding concrete structure has been cast.
214:are transferred to the concrete as compression by
83:or threaded bars that are most commonly made from
3754:"Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute"
3261:. London UK: Institution of Civil Engineers: 262.
2434:
1782:
4532:
4453:International Federation for Structural Concrete
3692:
3488:(Fourth ed.). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.
3046:"Cable Stayed Bridges with Prestressed Concrete"
2582:
656:. In extremes, unbonded tendons can resort to a
3440:Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures
3323:(Third ed.). CRC Press. pp. 149–165.
2379:. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat.
1396:These organizations are not the authorities of
728:Ynys-y-Gwas bridge, West Glamorgan, Wales, 1985
529:Unbonded post-tensioning can take the form of:
2691:
2486:"Kai Tak Cruise Terminal Building - Hong Kong"
2306:"Churchill Way Flyovers Deconstruction Scheme"
2132:Ryall, M. J.; Woodward, R.; Milne, D. (2000).
1919:
1758:(6th ed.). Phoenix, AZ US: PTI. pp.
3894:
3693:Eberhardt, A.; Veltrop, J. A. (August 1965).
3359:Design of Prestressed Concrete to AS3600-2009
2613:
2406:"The Tower, One St. George Wharf, London, UK"
2233:Ed Davey and Rebecca Cafe (3 December 2012).
1721:
1575:fib Bulletin 31: Post-tensioning in Buildings
462:and the tendon stressing-ends sealed against
3213:
2650:
2614:Martinez, Julio; Gomez, Miguel (July 2008).
2585:"Eureka Tower, Melbourne Victoria Australia"
2138:. London: Thomas Telford. pp. 170–173.
167:
3832:"South African Post Tensioning Association"
2697:
2656:
2262:"Extending the Life of Hammersmith Flyover"
2092:
1170:
1098:, a railway bridge constructed 1946 in the
674:since the earliest systems were developed.
469:
163:
3901:
3887:
3393:
3391:
3086:
3008:
2361:
2031:
2029:
1745:
1743:
1717:
1648:
844:Longer spans for the same structural depth
745:Scheldt River bridge, Melle, Belgium, 1991
669:Tendon durability and corrosion protection
311:
3563:. US DOT Federal Highway Administration.
3271:
3265:
3170:
3161:
3043:
2738:
1920:Bailey, Colin G.; Ellobody, Ehab (2009).
1841:
1839:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1825:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1655:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1523:Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures
702:Prestressing tendons requiring permanent
451:works using up to 91 strands per tendon.
397:
248:for bonding than bundled-strand tendons.
189:
3806:"Post Tensioning Institute of Australia"
3650:
3525:"Building Post-Tensioned Slabs on Grade"
2226:
1970:(2). US: Post-Tensioning Institute: 44.
1519:
401:
350:
323:
315:
250:
220:
193:
18:
3619:
3582:
3474:
3472:
3436:
3430:
3397:
3388:
3349:
3214:Xu, Haixue; Benmokrane, Brahim (1996).
2887:"History of Prestressed Concrete in UK"
2732:
2607:
2035:
2026:
1995:
1989:
1740:
1669:
1610:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
4533:
3812:from the original on 25 September 2016
3786:from the original on 19 September 2016
3742:Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
3723:from the original on 16 September 2016
3607:from the original on 17 September 2016
3570:from the original on 15 September 2016
3535:from the original on 18 September 2016
3505:from the original on 11 September 2016
3298:from the original on 16 September 2016
3256:
3250:
3195:from the original on 14 September 2016
3117:from the original on 16 September 2016
3089:"Prestressed Concrete Dams: 1936–1964"
2990:from the original on 16 September 2016
2974:"Structures Engineering Design Manual"
2815:
2809:
2797:from the original on 17 September 2016
2720:from the original on 22 September 2016
2679:from the original on 22 September 2016
2576:
2564:from the original on 24 September 2016
2502:from the original on 14 September 2016
2477:
2465:from the original on 15 September 2016
2272:from the original on 15 September 2016
2259:
2074:from the original on 16 September 2016
2014:from the original on 16 September 2016
1936:from the original on 17 September 2016
1913:
1882:
1845:
1822:
1722:Warner, R. F.; Faulkes, K. A. (1988).
1694:
1625:. Farmington Hills, Michigan US: ACI.
1461:Glossary of prestressed concrete terms
831:
3882:
3674:from the original on 26 February 2017
3316:
3310:
3220:Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering
3135:
3129:
3025:from the original on 30 November 2016
2855:R. L. M'ilmoyle (20 September 1947).
2741:"Case Study: Capital Gate, Abu Dhabi"
2595:from the original on 13 February 2012
2545:
2533:from the original on 4 September 2016
2523:"International Commerce Centre (ICC)"
2398:
2367:
1954:
1948:
1876:
1864:from the original on 23 November 2016
1846:Aalami, Bijan O. (5 September 1994).
1629:from the original on 11 December 2016
751:constructed in the 1950s. Inadequate
16:Form of concrete used in construction
4016:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
3628:"Incheon Bridge, Seoul, South Korea"
3478:
3469:
3437:Gerwick, Ben C. (13 February 1997).
3404:. London: Springer. pp. 36–37.
3177:Institution of Engineers Australia.
2965:
2775:
2638:from the original on 8 February 2017
2349:from the original on 8 February 2017
2241:from the original on 3 December 2012
1901:from the original on 8 February 2017
1801:from the original on 8 February 2017
1552:
1540:from the original on 8 February 2017
1494:
1153:
344:anchoring (for strand tendons), and
71:This compression is produced by the
4433:Institution of Structural Engineers
3638:from the original on 10 August 2016
3625:
3087:Roemermann, A. C. (February 1965).
3044:Leonhardt, Fritz (September 1987).
2616:"Torre Espacio. Building Structure"
2514:
2324:
1977:from the original on 28 August 2016
1955:Bondy, Kenneth B. (December 2012).
1083:
406:Multi-strand post-tensioning anchor
13:
3457:from the original on 17 April 2021
3418:from the original on 17 April 2021
3376:from the original on 17 April 2021
3337:from the original on 17 April 2021
3009:LaViolette, Mike (December 2007).
2926:National Heritage List for England
2867:from the original on 17 April 2021
2836:from the original on 17 April 2021
2428:
2416:from the original on 30 April 2021
2386:from the original on 14 April 2016
2152:from the original on 17 April 2021
2113:from the original on 17 April 2021
2093:De Schutter, Geert (10 May 2012).
2036:Podolny, Walter (September 1992).
1883:Aalami, Bijan O. (February 2001).
1750:Post-Tensioning Institute (2006).
1428:AS 3600-2009: Concrete Structures.
1144:
14:
4567:
4546:Concrete buildings and structures
3854:
3479:Raju, Krishna (1 December 2006).
3320:Circular Storage Tasnks and Silos
3272:Priestley, M. J. N. (July 1985).
3238:from the original on 29 June 2021
2952:Concrete Bridge Development Group
2757:from the original on 30 July 2016
2700:"Gateway to South Eastern Europe"
2312:from the original on 9 April 2021
2183:from the original on 11 June 2016
2170:
1996:Szilard, Rudolph (October 1969).
1619:"CT-13: ACI Concrete Terminology"
1520:Lin, T.Y.; Burns, Ned H. (1981).
1415:2: Design of Concrete Structures;
706:and/or force adjustment, such as
694:Tendon coating (unbonded tendons)
427:of the final concrete structure.
273:elements, such as shallow beams,
31:Non-prestressed beam without load
4513:
4512:
3838:from the original on 25 May 2016
2781:"Evolution of Bridge Technology"
2520:
2201:
1368:
1352:
1336:
1320:
1304:
1288:
1272:
1256:
1240:
1224:
1064:
1045:
1026:
1007:
988:
969:
951:
935:
916:
685:Tendon grouting (bonded tendons)
489:
478:
379:sheath over the tendon strands (
3824:
3798:
3772:
3760:from the original on 5 May 2021
3746:
3735:
3686:
3547:
3517:
3207:
3080:
3037:
3002:
2940:
2909:
2879:
2848:
2769:
2483:
2298:
2284:
2253:
2195:
2164:
2125:
2086:
1385:Design agencies and regulations
822:
123:. Typical applications include
3931:Roman architectural revolution
3869:Federal Highway Administration
3362:(Second ed.). CRC Press.
3136:Brown, E. T. (February 2015).
3018:. AASHTO. p. Appendix A.
2972:Main Roads Western Australia.
1813:
1776:
1642:
1122:incrementally-launched designs
157:nuclear containment structures
34:Non-prestressed beam with load
23:Comparison of non-prestressed
1:
3780:"Post-Tensioning Association"
3186:www.engineersaustralia.org.au
2948:"History of Concrete Bridges"
2626:(249). Madrid, Spain: 19–43.
2456:10.15554/pcij.05011976.84.111
2099:. CRC Press. pp. 31–33.
2096:Damage to Concrete Structures
1617:American Concrete Institute.
1487:
889:International Commerce Centre
367:of the duct after stressing (
348:anchoring (for bar tendons).
107:compared with conventionally
43:Prestressed beam without load
3908:
3714:10.15554/pcij.08011965.18.36
3529:www.concreteconstruction.net
3289:10.15554/pcij.07011985.64.85
3108:10.15554/pcij.02011965.76.88
3062:10.15554/pcij.09011987.52.80
2554:"Ocean Heights 2, Dubai UAE"
2552:CM Engineering Consultants.
2057:10.15554/pcij.09011992.34.55
1785:"CFCC Pre-tensioning Manual"
905:Zagreb International Airport
849:Reduced structural thickness
7:
4448:Portland Cement Association
4423:American Concrete Institute
3667:. SRG Limited. p. 10.
3317:Ghali, Amin (12 May 2014).
3163:10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.08.001
2788:IABSE Symposium Proceedings
2589:www.designbuild-network.com
2437:"Prestressing the CN Tower"
2368:Martin, Owen; Lal, Nalean.
1892:ADAPT Technical Publication
1623:American Concrete Institute
1432:
759:resulted in tie-down cable
232:Pre-tensioning is a common
10:
4572:
3926:Ancient Roman architecture
3398:Bangash, M. Y. H. (2011).
1649:Billington, David (1985).
1088:
779:, North Carolina, US, 2000
700:Double-layer encapsulation
664:before structural failure.
46:Prestressed beam with load
4508:
4492:
4461:
4438:Indian Concrete Institute
4415:
4352:
4224:
4178:
4097:
4034:
3954:
3916:
3531:. Concrete Construction.
2816:Hewson, Nigel R. (2012).
2173:"Post-Tensioning Systems"
1391:Post-Tensioning Institute
1106:being the dominant form.
747:A three-span prestressed
3179:"Catagunya Dam Tasmania"
2983:. MRWA. pp. 17–23.
2921:"Adam Viaduct (1061327)"
2739:Schofield, Jeff (2012).
2659:"Reaching for the Skies"
2591:. Design Build Network.
1652:The Tower and the Bridge
1445:Dyckerhoff & Widmann
1219:, Videbergshamn Sweden.
1217:Ringhals nuclear reactor
1171:Hardstands and pavements
812:Churchill Way flyovers,
777:Charlotte Motor Speedway
470:Unbonded post-tensioning
2981:www.mainroads.wa.gov.au
1926:The Structural Engineer
1783:Tokyo Rope Mfg Co Ltd.
1215:, Toronto, Canada; and
1207:, Itz Valley, Germany;
1131:
885:Kai Tak Cruise Terminal
312:Post-tensioned concrete
255:Pre-tensioned, precast
240:The amount of bond (or
4556:Structural engineering
4216:Alkali–silica reaction
3974:Energetically modified
3259:Conference Proceedings
2893:. 2004. Archived from
2583:Design Build Network.
2210:. NACE. Archived from
1754:Post-Tensioning Manual
1476:Properties of concrete
1376:Ringhals nuclear plant
1183:, Brisbane Australia;
942:Guoco Tower, Singapore
860:Reduced material costs
633:Improved installation
407:
398:Bonded post-tensioning
356:
329:
321:
260:
229:
199:
198:Pre-tensioning process
190:Pre-tensioned concrete
50:
3665:www.srglimited.com.au
3658:"SRG Remote Projects"
3632:www.dywidag-systems.a
1471:Prestressed structure
1379:Videbergshamn, Sweden
1199:, South Hook, Wales;
877:St George Wharf Tower
854:Faster stripping time
807:Genoa bridge collapse
791:London, England, 2011
405:
354:
327:
319:
288:, hollow-core slabs,
254:
224:
197:
22:
4201:Environmental impact
4059:Reversing drum mixer
3482:Prestressed Concrete
3068:on 16 September 2016
2891:Cambridge University
2698:BBR Network (2016).
2657:BBR Network (2016).
2237:. BBC News, London.
2214:on 24 September 2016
1724:Prestressed Concrete
1456:Freyssinet Test Arch
1126:cable-stayed designs
749:cantilever structure
718:Anchorage protection
689:corrosion-inhibiting
425:structural behaviors
153:industrial pavements
54:Prestressed concrete
4551:Reinforced concrete
3154:2015JRMGE...7....1B
1855:PTI Technical Notes
1678:Concrete Structures
1440:Cable stayed bridge
1426:Australian Standard
1267:Itz Valley, Germany
1205:Autobahn A73 bridge
1118:balanced-cantilever
832:Building structures
789:Hammersmith Flyover
775:Pedestrian bridge,
125:high-rise buildings
121:reinforced concrete
109:reinforced concrete
85:high-tensile steels
4541:Building materials
4304:Self-consolidating
3996:Water–cement ratio
2266:www.freyssinet.com
1598:on 8 February 2017
1407:European Standard
1211:, Moscow, Russia;
1195:, Washington, US;
1165:liquid natural gas
959:Sydney Opera House
869:Sydney Opera House
767:UK Highways Agency
408:
383:post-tensioning).
357:
330:
322:
261:
230:
200:
133:foundation systems
97:compression forces
51:
4526:
4525:
4518:Category:Concrete
4299:Roller-compacting
4120:Climbing formwork
3969:Calcium aluminate
3941:Roman engineering
3411:978-3-642-12560-7
3369:978-1-4665-7277-5
3330:978-1-4665-7104-4
2897:on 25 August 2018
2829:978-0-7277-4113-4
2145:978-0-7277-2854-8
2106:978-0-415-60388-1
1588:978-2-88394-071-0
1451:Eugène Freyssinet
1363:South Hook, Wales
1331:Ad Damazin, Sudan
1203:, Brevik Norway;
1154:Nuclear and blast
911:, Abu Dhabi UAE.
732:precast-segmental
574:ultimate strength
275:hollow-core slabs
66:Eugène Freyssinet
4563:
4516:
4515:
4428:Concrete Society
4239:Fiber-reinforced
4054:Volumetric mixer
3946:Roman technology
3903:
3896:
3889:
3880:
3879:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3750:
3744:
3739:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3728:
3722:
3699:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3673:
3662:
3654:
3648:
3647:
3645:
3643:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3612:
3606:
3595:
3586:
3580:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3569:
3562:
3551:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3521:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3504:
3487:
3476:
3467:
3466:
3464:
3462:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3395:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3381:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3303:
3297:
3278:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3254:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3243:
3226:(6): 1151–1171.
3211:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3194:
3183:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3116:
3093:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3073:
3064:. Archived from
3041:
3035:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3024:
3017:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2989:
2978:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2958:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2917:Historic England
2913:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2796:
2785:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2756:
2745:
2736:
2730:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2719:
2704:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2678:
2663:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2620:Hormigon y Acero
2611:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2580:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2538:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2507:
2501:
2490:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2470:
2464:
2441:
2432:
2426:
2425:
2423:
2421:
2402:
2396:
2395:
2393:
2391:
2385:
2374:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2348:
2337:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2073:
2042:
2033:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2013:
2002:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1976:
1961:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1900:
1889:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1863:
1852:
1843:
1820:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1800:
1789:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1757:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1719:
1692:
1691:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1646:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1614:
1608:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1597:
1591:. Archived from
1580:
1569:
1550:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1517:
1481:Segmental bridge
1372:
1356:
1340:
1324:
1308:
1292:
1276:
1260:
1244:
1228:
1084:Civil structures
1068:
1049:
1030:
1011:
992:
977:Kai Tak Terminal
973:
955:
939:
920:
493:
482:
460:pressure-grouted
271:precast concrete
257:hollow-core slab
4571:
4570:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4561:
4560:
4531:
4530:
4527:
4522:
4504:
4488:
4457:
4411:
4348:
4220:
4174:
4093:
4069:Flow table test
4030:
3950:
3912:
3907:
3857:
3852:
3851:
3841:
3839:
3830:
3829:
3825:
3815:
3813:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3789:
3787:
3778:
3777:
3773:
3763:
3761:
3752:
3751:
3747:
3740:
3736:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3697:
3691:
3687:
3677:
3675:
3671:
3660:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3641:
3639:
3624:
3620:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3598:www.cmnzl.co.nz
3593:
3587:
3583:
3573:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3552:
3548:
3538:
3536:
3523:
3522:
3518:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3485:
3477:
3470:
3460:
3458:
3451:
3435:
3431:
3421:
3419:
3412:
3396:
3389:
3379:
3377:
3370:
3354:
3350:
3340:
3338:
3331:
3315:
3311:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3276:
3270:
3266:
3255:
3251:
3241:
3239:
3232:10.1139/l96-925
3212:
3208:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3181:
3175:
3171:
3134:
3130:
3120:
3118:
3114:
3091:
3085:
3081:
3071:
3069:
3042:
3038:
3028:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2976:
2970:
2966:
2956:
2954:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2914:
2910:
2900:
2898:
2885:
2884:
2880:
2870:
2868:
2853:
2849:
2839:
2837:
2830:
2814:
2810:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2783:
2777:Tang, Man-Chung
2774:
2770:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2743:
2737:
2733:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2702:
2696:
2692:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2661:
2655:
2651:
2641:
2639:
2612:
2608:
2598:
2596:
2581:
2577:
2567:
2565:
2550:
2546:
2536:
2534:
2519:
2515:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2439:
2433:
2429:
2419:
2417:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2372:
2366:
2362:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2335:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2313:
2304:
2303:
2299:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2275:
2273:
2258:
2254:
2244:
2242:
2231:
2227:
2217:
2215:
2200:
2196:
2186:
2184:
2177:www.ukcares.com
2169:
2165:
2155:
2153:
2146:
2130:
2126:
2116:
2114:
2107:
2091:
2087:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2040:
2034:
2027:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2000:
1994:
1990:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1959:
1953:
1949:
1939:
1937:
1918:
1914:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1887:
1881:
1877:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1850:
1844:
1823:
1818:
1814:
1804:
1802:
1798:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1770:
1748:
1741:
1734:
1720:
1695:
1688:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1647:
1643:
1632:
1630:
1615:
1611:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1589:
1578:
1570:
1553:
1543:
1541:
1534:
1518:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1435:
1387:
1380:
1378:
1373:
1364:
1362:
1357:
1348:
1346:
1341:
1332:
1330:
1325:
1316:
1314:
1309:
1300:
1299:Toronto, Canada
1298:
1293:
1284:
1282:
1280:Ostankino Tower
1277:
1268:
1266:
1261:
1252:
1250:
1245:
1236:
1235:Brisbane, Aust.
1234:
1229:
1209:Ostankino Tower
1187:, South Korea;
1173:
1156:
1147:
1145:Silos and tanks
1134:
1091:
1086:
1079:
1075:
1069:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1022:
1018:
1015:Ocean Heights 2
1012:
1003:
999:
993:
984:
979:
974:
965:
961:
956:
947:
943:
940:
931:
927:
921:
907:, Croatia; and
893:Ocean Heights 2
861:
855:
850:
845:
834:
825:
817:
802:
792:
780:
770:
746:
730:A single-span,
729:
719:
701:
695:
686:
671:
555:
504:
503:
502:
501:
496:
495:
494:
485:
484:
483:
472:
400:
314:
216:static friction
192:
168:post-tensioning
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4569:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4520:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4502:
4496:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4465:
4463:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4387:Concrete block
4384:
4383:
4382:
4377:
4375:voided biaxial
4372:
4367:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4346:
4345:
4344:
4339:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4230:
4228:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4182:
4180:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4101:
4099:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4079:Concrete cover
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4049:Concrete mixer
4046:
4040:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3960:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3936:Roman concrete
3933:
3928:
3922:
3920:
3914:
3913:
3906:
3905:
3898:
3891:
3883:
3877:
3876:
3871:
3863:
3856:
3855:External links
3853:
3850:
3849:
3823:
3797:
3771:
3745:
3734:
3685:
3649:
3618:
3581:
3546:
3516:
3494:
3468:
3449:
3429:
3410:
3387:
3368:
3348:
3329:
3309:
3264:
3249:
3206:
3169:
3128:
3079:
3036:
3001:
2964:
2939:
2908:
2878:
2847:
2828:
2808:
2768:
2731:
2690:
2649:
2606:
2575:
2544:
2513:
2493:vslvietnam.com
2476:
2427:
2397:
2360:
2323:
2297:
2294:. 8 July 2014.
2283:
2268:. Freyssinet.
2252:
2225:
2194:
2163:
2144:
2124:
2105:
2085:
2025:
1988:
1947:
1912:
1875:
1821:
1812:
1775:
1768:
1739:
1732:
1693:
1686:
1668:
1661:
1641:
1609:
1587:
1551:
1532:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1423:
1416:
1398:building codes
1386:
1383:
1382:
1381:
1374:
1367:
1365:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1347:Washington, US
1342:
1335:
1333:
1326:
1319:
1317:
1315:Brevik, Norway
1310:
1303:
1301:
1294:
1287:
1285:
1283:Moscow, Russia
1278:
1271:
1269:
1262:
1255:
1253:
1248:Incheon Bridge
1246:
1239:
1237:
1232:Gateway Bridge
1230:
1223:
1185:Incheon Bridge
1181:Gateway Bridge
1172:
1169:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1143:
1133:
1130:
1090:
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1080:
1070:
1063:
1061:
1051:
1044:
1042:
1032:
1025:
1023:
1013:
1006:
1004:
994:
987:
985:
975:
968:
966:
957:
950:
948:
941:
934:
932:
922:
915:
865:
864:
858:
857:"cycle-times".
852:
847:
833:
830:
824:
821:
820:
819:
810:
804:
799:
795:de-icing salts
786:
773:
764:
753:concrete cover
743:
722:
721:
716:
698:
692:
670:
667:
666:
665:
649:
645:
642:concrete cover
638:
631:
626:Improved site
624:
615:Ability to be
609:
608:
604:
593:
590:yield strength
570:
554:
551:
538:
537:
534:
498:
497:
488:
487:
486:
477:
476:
475:
474:
473:
471:
468:
399:
396:
313:
310:
234:prefabrication
212:tension forces
191:
188:
164:pre-tensioning
129:concrete slabs
127:, residential
105:serviceability
101:tension forces
48:
47:
44:
41:
38:
35:
32:
28:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4568:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4538:
4536:
4529:
4519:
4511:
4510:
4507:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4491:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4416:Organizations
4414:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4381:
4380:slab on grade
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4361:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4351:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4309:Self-leveling
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4177:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4110:Cast-in-place
4108:
4106:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4037:
4033:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4006:Reinforcement
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3904:
3899:
3897:
3892:
3890:
3885:
3884:
3881:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3811:
3807:
3801:
3785:
3781:
3775:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3738:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3696:
3689:
3670:
3666:
3659:
3653:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3622:
3603:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3566:
3559:
3558:
3550:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3520:
3501:
3497:
3495:0-07-063444-0
3491:
3484:
3483:
3475:
3473:
3456:
3452:
3450:0-471-53915-5
3446:
3442:
3441:
3433:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3403:
3402:
3394:
3392:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3361:
3360:
3352:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3322:
3321:
3313:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3268:
3260:
3253:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3210:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3173:
3164:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3083:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3021:
3014:
3013:
3005:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2968:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2851:
2835:
2831:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2812:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2753:
2749:
2748:CTBUH Journal
2742:
2735:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2694:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2579:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2548:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2517:
2498:
2494:
2487:
2480:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2450:(3): 84–111.
2449:
2445:
2438:
2431:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2401:
2382:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2327:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2293:
2287:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2198:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2151:
2147:
2141:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2089:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2030:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1992:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1958:
1951:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1879:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1826:
1816:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1779:
1771:
1769:0-9778752-0-2
1765:
1761:
1756:
1755:
1746:
1744:
1735:
1733:0-582-71225-4
1729:
1725:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1689:
1687:0-582-80247-4
1683:
1679:
1672:
1664:
1662:0-691-02393-X
1658:
1654:
1653:
1645:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1613:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1577:
1576:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1539:
1535:
1533:0-471-01898-8
1529:
1525:
1524:
1516:
1514:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1493:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1417:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1377:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1307:
1302:
1297:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1222:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1177:
1168:
1166:
1160:
1151:
1142:
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4135:Power screed
4125:Slip forming
4098:Construction
3842:12 September
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2265:
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2208:www.nace.org
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1593:the original
1574:
1542:. Retrieved
1522:
1447:AG (Dywidag)
1418:US Standard
1402:
1395:
1388:
1328:Roseires Dam
1312:Norcem silos
1264:Autobahn A73
1201:Cement silos
1189:Roseires Dam
1178:
1174:
1161:
1157:
1148:
1139:
1135:
1114:
1108:
1096:Adam Viaduct
1092:
1076:
1072:Capital Gate
1057:
1038:
1034:Eureka Tower
1019:
1000:
981:
962:
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928:
909:Capital Gate
897:Eureka Tower
866:
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823:Applications
755:in the side
739:
723:
713:polyethylene
680:
676:
672:
628:productivity
610:
560:
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539:
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514:-inhibiting
508:longitudinal
505:
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437:polyethylene
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4370:hollow-core
4329:Waste light
4324:Translucent
4284:Prestressed
4211:Segregation
4196:Degradation
4084:Cover meter
4021:Silica fume
3956:Composition
3727:6 September
3702:PCI Journal
3678:6 September
3642:2 September
3634:. DYWIDAG.
3611:2 September
3574:5 September
3539:5 September
3509:5 September
3461:5 September
3422:5 September
3380:5 September
3341:5 September
3302:5 September
3281:PCI Journal
3242:2 September
3199:2 September
3148:(1): 1–13.
3121:2 September
3096:PCI Journal
3072:7 September
3050:PCI Journal
3029:7 September
2994:2 September
2957:22 February
2861:Railway Age
2840:2 September
2801:5 September
2761:2 September
2724:2 September
2683:2 September
2642:1 September
2599:1 September
2568:1 September
2537:2 September
2506:1 September
2469:2 September
2444:PCI Journal
2420:1 September
2390:1 September
2353:1 September
2276:7 September
2218:7 September
2187:7 September
2156:7 September
2117:7 September
2078:7 September
2045:PCI Journal
2018:7 September
2005:PCI Journal
1964:PTI Journal
1344:Wanapum Dam
1251:South Korea
1193:Wanapum Dam
1104:box girders
1074:, Abu Dhabi
1036:, Melbourne
996:World Tower
926:, Hong Kong
883:, Toronto;
873:World Tower
708:stay-cables
662:deformation
648:in-service.
635:flexibility
342:split-wedge
302:water tanks
286:floor slabs
166:to include
4535:Categories
4469:Eurocode 2
4407:Structures
4294:Reinforced
4254:Lunarcrete
4234:AstroCrete
4191:Durability
4186:Properties
4064:Slump test
4036:Production
4026:Metakaolin
3188:. IEAust.
2410:cclint.com
2245:3 December
1488:References
1411:-2:2005 –
980:Hong Kong
879:, London;
875:, Sydney;
863:materials.
704:monitoring
572:Increased
524:tensioning
518:, usually
441:galvanised
361:galvanised
172:monostrand
73:tensioning
68:in 1928.
62:compressed
4500:Hempcrete
4462:Standards
4289:Ready-mix
4206:Recycling
4001:Aggregate
3984:Rosendale
3626:DYWIDAG.
3283:: 64–85.
3102:: 76–88.
2932:25 August
2901:25 August
2871:25 August
2713:: 37–41.
2632:0439-5689
2560:. CMECS.
2377:ctbuh.org
2342:. ASHET.
2179:. CARES.
2065:109223938
2007:: 62–73.
1981:25 August
1940:22 August
1905:25 August
1868:23 August
1805:19 August
1633:25 August
1602:26 August
1544:24 August
1466:PC strand
1360:LNG tanks
1197:LNG tanks
1191:, Sudan;
1058:230m 2008
1039:297m 2006
1020:335m 2016
1001:230m 2004
945:290m 2016
929:484m 2010
924:ICC tower
895:, Dubai;
816:, England
814:Liverpool
761:corrosion
757:abutments
736:Corrosion
654:ductility
621:lead time
546:extrusion
512:corrosion
500:recesses.
464:corrosion
421:corrosion
388:curvature
296:, driven
290:balconies
266:deviators
4493:See also
4484:EN 10080
4479:EN 206-1
4474:EN 197-1
4333:Aerated
4274:Polished
4269:Pervious
4244:Filigree
4140:Finisher
4115:Formwork
3979:Portland
3910:Concrete
3836:Archived
3810:Archived
3784:Archived
3758:Archived
3718:Archived
3669:Archived
3636:Archived
3602:Archived
3565:Archived
3533:Archived
3500:Archived
3455:Archived
3416:Archived
3374:Archived
3335:Archived
3293:Archived
3236:Archived
3190:Archived
3112:Archived
3020:Archived
2985:Archived
2865:Archived
2834:Archived
2792:Archived
2779:(2007).
2752:Archived
2715:Archived
2707:Connaect
2674:Archived
2666:Connaect
2636:Archived
2593:Archived
2562:Archived
2531:Archived
2529:. ARUP.
2497:Archived
2460:Archived
2414:Archived
2381:Archived
2344:Archived
2310:Archived
2270:Archived
2239:Archived
2181:Archived
2150:Archived
2111:Archived
2069:Archived
2009:Archived
1972:Archived
1934:Archived
1896:Archived
1894:(2–01).
1859:Archived
1796:Archived
1792:MaineDOT
1627:Archived
1538:Archived
1433:See also
1413:Eurocode
1296:CN Tower
1213:CN Tower
1055:, Madrid
998:, Sydney
881:CN Tower
783:chemical
772:in 1996.
658:catenary
640:Reduced
597:cracking
456:formwork
445:building
417:grouting
392:reaction
381:unbonded
365:grouting
346:threaded
242:adhesion
227:formwork
58:concrete
4443:Nanocem
4402:Columns
4279:Polymer
4179:Science
4145:Grinder
4105:Precast
4011:Fly ash
3918:History
3150:Bibcode
2822:. ICE.
2495:. VSL.
2412:. CCL.
2316:8 April
2171:CARES.
1581:. FIB.
1409:EN 1992
1115:in-situ
1111:girders
1089:Bridges
1017:, Dubai
740:in-situ
697:tendon.
586:tensile
582:strains
578:flexure
520:lithium
432:bundles
413:in situ
377:greased
294:lintels
184:outside
81:strands
4365:waffle
4314:Sulfur
4170:Tremie
4165:Sealer
4130:Screed
4074:Curing
3964:Cement
3492:
3447:
3408:
3366:
3327:
2826:
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2202:NACE.
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1420:ACI318
769:, 1992
516:grease
369:bonded
180:within
137:bridge
4397:Roads
4319:Tabby
4226:Types
4160:Float
4089:Rebar
4044:Plant
3991:Water
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3698:(PDF)
3672:(PDF)
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2041:(PDF)
2012:(PDF)
2001:(PDF)
1975:(PDF)
1960:(PDF)
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1862:(PDF)
1851:(PDF)
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1596:(PDF)
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798:2015.
607:ones.
601:rebar
567:grout
439:) or
334:after
306:pipes
298:piles
282:beams
208:cures
204:prior
149:tanks
145:silos
117:spans
77:wires
4360:Slab
4342:RAAC
4259:Mass
4249:Foam
4155:Pump
3844:2016
3818:2016
3792:2016
3766:2016
3729:2016
3680:2016
3644:2016
3613:2016
3576:2016
3541:2016
3511:2016
3490:ISBN
3463:2016
3445:ISBN
3424:2016
3406:ISBN
3382:2016
3364:ISBN
3343:2016
3325:ISBN
3304:2016
3244:2016
3201:2016
3123:2016
3074:2016
3031:2016
2996:2016
2959:2024
2934:2018
2903:2018
2873:2018
2842:2016
2824:ISBN
2803:2016
2763:2016
2726:2016
2685:2016
2644:2016
2628:ISSN
2601:2016
2570:2016
2539:2016
2508:2016
2471:2016
2422:2016
2392:2016
2355:2016
2318:2021
2278:2016
2247:2012
2220:2016
2189:2016
2158:2016
2140:ISBN
2119:2016
2101:ISBN
2080:2016
2020:2016
1983:2016
1942:2016
1907:2016
1870:2016
1807:2016
1764:ISBN
1728:ISBN
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1635:2016
1604:2016
1583:ISBN
1546:2016
1528:ISBN
1132:Dams
1120:and
982:2013
963:1973
887:and
871:and
155:and
147:and
139:and
25:beam
4337:AAC
3710:doi
3285:doi
3228:doi
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