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971:. The beautifully engineered and intricate structure of many of these frustules is such that they are often referred to as "jewels of the sea". Each frustule is made from two interlocking parts covered with tiny holes through which the diatom exchanges nutrients and wastes. The frustules of dead diatoms drift to the ocean floor where, over millions of years, they can build up as much as
2073:
998:. Since diatoms are one of the main users of these forms of silicon, they contribute greatly to the concentration of silicon throughout the ocean. Silicon forms a nutrient-like profile in the ocean due to the diatom productivity in shallow depths, which means there is less concentration of silicon in the upper ocean and more concentration of silicon in the deep ocean.
2171:, from several silica strips cemented together. The functional significance of the periplast is unknown, but in sessile organisms, it is thought to aid attachment to the substrate. In planktonic organisms, there is speculation that the periplast increases drag, thereby counteracting the force generated by the flagellum and increasing feeding efficiency.
1230:
1839:
There are also costs for protists that carry protective shells. The diagram on the right above shows some of the energetic costs coccolithophore incur from carrying coccoliths. In the diagram, the energetic costs are reported in percentage of total photosynthetic budget. (A) represents transport
1439:
encased in elaborate globular shells (or "capsules"), usually made of silica and pierced with holes. Their name comes from the Latin for "radius". They catch prey by extending parts of their body through the holes. As with the silica frustules of diatoms, radiolarian shells can sink to the ocean
1024:
organisms and greatly contribute to biogenic silica production. In the open ocean, however, diatoms have a reduced role in global annual silica production. Diatoms in North
Atlantic and North Pacific subtropical gyres contribute only about 6% of global annual marine silica production, while the
1785:
There are benefits for protists that carry protective shells. The diagram on the left below shows some benefits coccolithophore get from carrying coccoliths. In the diagram, (A) represents accelerated photosynthesis including carbon concentrating mechanisms (CCM) and enhanced light uptake via
830:
Most protists are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They are highly diverse organisms currently organised into 18 phyla, but are not easy to classify. Studies have shown high protist diversity exists in oceans, deep sea-vents and river sediments, suggesting large numbers of eukaryotic
1876:
crystals. (C) Mechanical and structural processes account for the secretion of the completed coccoliths that are transported from their original position adjacent to the nucleus to the cell periphery, where they are transferred to the surface of the cell.
775:
In addition to protection and support, protist shells also serve scientists as a means of identification. By examining the characteristics of the shells, different species of protists can be identified and their ecology and evolution can be studied.
1202:
1790:(UV) and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) and energy dissipation under high-light conditions. (C) represents armour protection includes protection against viral/bacterial infections and grazing by selective and nonselective grazers.
1025:
Southern Ocean produces about one-third of the global marine biogenic silica. The
Southern Ocean is referred to as having a "biogeochemical divide", since only minuscule amounts of silicon is transported out of this region.
959:
form a (disputed) phylum containing about 100,000 recognised species of mainly unicellular algae. Diatoms generate about 20 per cent of the oxygen produced on the planet each year, take in over 6.7 billion metric tons of
2662:
Foraminifera: notes for a short course organized by M.A. Buzas and B.K. Sen Gupta: prepared for the short course on foraminifera sponsored by the
Paleontological Society, held at New Orleans, Louisiana, October 17,
1017:. Availability of silicon appears crucial for diatom productivity, and as long as silicic acid is available for diatoms to utilize, the diatoms contribute other important nutrient concentrations in the deep ocean.
1183:
3754:
Monteiro, F.M., Bach, L.T., Brownlee, C., Bown, P., Rickaby, R.E., Poulton, A.J., Tyrrell, T., Beaufort, L., Dutkiewicz, S., Gibbs, S. and
Gutowska, M.A. (2016) "Why marine phytoplankton calcify".
2167:. These cell coverings vary greatly in structure and composition and are used by taxonomists for classification purposes. Many choanoflagellates build complex basket-shaped "houses", called
3511:
De
Tommasi, E., Congestri, R., Dardano, P., De Luca, A.C., ManagΓ², S., Rea, I. and De Stefano, M. (2018) "UV-shielding and wavelength conversion by centric diatom nanopatterned frustules".
1290:
around the globe. The evolutionary causes for the generation of nano and microstructured silica by photosynthetic algae are not yet clear. However, in 2018 it was shown that absorption of
1852:+ through the cytoplasm to the coccolith vesicle (CV) is the dominant cost associated with calcification. (B) represents metabolic processes include the synthesis of coccolith-associated
1474:
1961:. They are widely researched with well established fossil records which allow scientists to infer a lot about past environments and climates. Some foraminifera lack tests altogether.
1462:
3571:
Kuwata, A., Yamada, K., Ichinomiya, M., Yoshikawa, S., Tragin, M., Vaulot, D. and Lopes dos Santos, A. (2018) "Bolidophyceae, a sister picoplanktonic group of diatoms β a review".
1937:
for short) are single-celled predatory protists, also protected with shells that have holes in them. Their name comes from the Latin for "hole bearers". Their shells, often called
2424:
Gafar, N. A., Eyre, B. D. and Schulz, K. G. (2019) "A comparison of species specific sensitivities to changing light and carbonate chemistry in calcifying marine phytoplankton".
1941:, may be single-chambered or multi-chambered; multi-chambered forams add more chambers as they grow. The most famous of these are made of calcite, but tests may also be made of
1214:
1265:. "The microscopic structures of diatoms help them manipulate light, leading to hopes they could be used in new technologies for light detection, computing or robotics.
3639:
Kachovich, S., Sheng, J. and
Aitchison, J. C., 2019. Adding a new dimension to investigations of early radiolarian evolution. Scientific reports, 9(1), pp. 1β10.
2937:
3458:
2121:
2848:
Treguer, P.; Nelson, D. M.; Van
Bennekom, A. J.; Demaster, D. J.; Leynaert, A.; Queguiner, B. (1995). "The Silica Balance in the World Ocean: A Reestimate".
3966:
Dodd, Matthew S.; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; slack, John F.; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T. S. (2 March 2017).
870:
In contrast to the cells of bacteria and archaea, the cells of protists and other eukaryotes are highly organised. Plants, animals and fungi are usually
756:
that are hard and protective, and serve as a barrier to prevent water loss. The shells have small pores that allow for gas exchange and nutrient uptake.
689:
1700:
2060:
1171:
1069:
3546:
Booth, B.C. and
Marchant, H.J. (1987) "Parmales, a new order of marine chrysophytes, with descriptions of three new genera and seven new species".
1286:
Diatom frustules have been accumulating for over 100 million years, leaving rich deposits of nano and microstructured silicon oxide in the form of
3126:
Baines, Stephen B.; Twining, Benjamin S.; Brzezinski, Mark A.; Krause, Jeffrey W.; Vogt, Stefan; Assael, Dylan; McDaniel, Hannah (December 2012).
2072:
815:
The term protist came into use historically to refer to a group of biologically similar organisms; however, modern research has shown it to be a
733:. Although protists are typically very small, they are ubiquitous. Their numbers are such that their shells play a huge part in the formation of
420:
2246:. This sample consists of a mixture of centric (radially symmetric) and pennate (bilaterally symmetric) diatoms. Click 3 times to fully enlarge.
2190:
3476:
Aguirre, L. E., Ouyang, L., Elfwing, A., Hedblom, M., Wulff, A. and InganΓ€s, O. (2018) "Diatom frustules protect DNA from ultraviolet light".
1681:, referring to their small size and the coccolith stones they carry. Under the right conditions they bloom, like other phytoplankton, and can
792:. Eukaryotes include organisms such as plants, animals, fungi and "protists". Protists are usually single-celled and microscopic. They can be
1504:
2619:
2391:
4.54 billion years ago. Nonetheless, life may have started even earlier, at nearly 4.5 billion years ago, as claimed by some researchers.
2090:
4076:
1720:
1084:
641:
1786:
scattering of scarce photons for deep-dwelling species. (B) represents protection from photodamage including sunshade protection from
990:
to be predominantly used in constructing these protective cell wall structures. Silicon enters the ocean in a dissolved form such as
3627:
1450:
936:, need silica for their growth. Silica has been shown to improve plant cell wall strength and structural integrity in some plants.
3363:
Arsenieff, L.; Simon, N.; Rigaut-Jalabert, F.; Le Gall, F.; Chaffron, S.; Corre, E.; Com, E.; Bigeard, E.; Baudoux, A.C. (2018).
682:
2102:
1669:
are minute unicellular photosynthetic protists with two flagella for locomotion. Most of them are protected by a shell called a
4211:
2187:
1001:
Diatom productivity in the upper ocean contribute to the amount of silicon exported to the lower ocean. When diatom cells are
4134:
Betts, Holly C.; Putick, Mark N.; Clark, James W.; Williams, Tom A.; Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Pisani, Davide (20 August 2018).
3801:
2718:
2384:
3312:
Marinov, I.; Gnanadesikan, A.; Toggweiler, J. R.; Sarmiento, J. L. (June 2006). "The
Southern Ocean biogeochemical divide".
2798:"Silicon-Induced Cell Wall Fortification of Rice Leaves: A Possible Cellular Mechanism of Enhanced Host Resistance to Blast"
1005:
in the upper ocean, their nutrients like, iron, zinc, and silicon, are brought to the lower ocean through a process called
729:
Protists shells are often tough, mineralised forms that resist degradation, and can survive the death of the protist as a
3871:
823:
and is not currently in formal scientific use. Nonetheless, the term continues to be used informally to refer to those
675:
3726:
Rost, B. and
Riebesell, U. (2004) "Coccolithophores and the biological pump: responses to environmental changes". In:
2286:. Fossils which can be studied by the naked eye or low-powered magnification, such as a hand lens, are referred to as
964:
each year from the waters in which they live, and contribute nearly half of the organic material found in the oceans.
3735:
2671:
4188:
Xu, K., Hutchins, D. and Gao, K. (2018) "Coccolith arrangement follows Eulerian mathematics in the coccolithophore
2282:
that are generally between 0.001mm and 1 mm in size, the study of which requires the use of light or electron
3967:
2460:
1840:
processes include the transport into the cell from the surrounding seawater of primary calcification substrates Ca
4022:
831:
microbial communities have yet to be discovered. As eukaryotes, protists possess within their cell at least one
2666:. Thomas W. Broadhead, Paleontological Society. : University of Tennessee, Dept. of Geological Sciences. 1982.
2145:
1826:
2251:
1650:
552:
547:
380:
181:
1749:
3817:
Pawlowski, Jan; Bolivar, Ignacio; Fahrni, Jose F.; Vargas, Colomban De; Bowser, Samuel S. (November 1999).
2405:
2376:
1872:
crystals. The completed coccolith (gray plate) is a complex structure of intricately arranged CAPs and CaCO
1560:
with four nested spheres. The innermost sphere is highlighted red. Each segment is shown at the same scale.
856:
3944:
1327:
Exploded drawing of the shell, D = dorsal plate, G = girdle plate, S = shield plate and V = ventral plate.
3818:
2836:
1706:
1539:
375:
1677:. The coccoliths are made from calcium carbonate. The term coccolithophore derives from the Greek for a
4231:
3221:
2695:
1010:
662:
609:
1848:β (black arrows) and the removal of the end product H+ from the cell (gray arrow). The transport of Ca
1516:
3889:
2380:
1105:
603:
262:
4107:
4236:
2383:, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" (in a geological time-scale sense), after
1014:
819:
group that does not contain all descendants of a common ancestor. As such it does not constitute a
149:
3610:
3087:"Sources and fates of silicon in the ocean: the role of diatoms in the climate and glacial cycles"
1440:
floor when radiolarians die and become preserved as part of the ocean sediment. These remains, as
1946:
385:
257:
4136:"Integrated genomic and fossil evidence illuminates life's early evolution and eukaryote origin"
1803:
1298:
in the algal cells, and this may be an evolutionary cause for the formation of the glass cages.
3885:
871:
574:
399:
4084:
3277:
TrΓ©guer, Paul J.; De La Rocha, Christina L. (3 January 2013). "The World Ocean Silica Cycle".
2899:
2274:
The shells or skeletons of many protists survive over geological time scales as microfossils.
3710:
1589:
1545:
932:(opal phytoliths) are rigid microscopic bodies occurring in the cell; some plants, including
137:
3982:
3676:
3459:
Biodegradable glitter and pollution-eating microalgae: the new materials inspired by nature
3431:
3321:
3233:
3186:
3139:
2975:
2857:
2571:"The extent of protist diversity: insights from molecular ecology of freshwater eukaryotes"
2205:
2160:
1273:
848:
738:
723:
169:
4050:
3965:
3907:
An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa, Second Edition. Lawrence: Society of Protozoologists
2964:"Regulation of Oceanic Silicon and Carbon Preservation by Temperature Control on Bacteria"
1389:
8:
3290:
864:
91:
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3680:
3630:
Blog of the Tectonics and Structural Geology Division of the European Geosciences Union.
3435:
3325:
3237:
3190:
3143:
2979:
2861:
2734:
Exley, C. (1998). "Silicon in life:A bioinorganic solution to bioorganic essentiality".
2534:
Corliss JO (1992). "Should there be a separate code of nomenclature for the protists?".
4162:
4135:
4027:
3854:
3834:
3559:
3395:
3364:
3345:
3259:
3175:"Zooplankton fecal pellets, marine snow, phytodetritus and the ocean's biological pump"
3059:
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1359:
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431:
348:
341:
252:
101:
3025:
Durkin, Colleen A.; Koester, Julie A.; Bender, Sara J.; Armbrust, E. Virginia (2016).
2963:
2747:
2638:
2511:
2486:
878:. Most protists are single-celled and microscopic, but there are exceptions, and some
4226:
4167:
4000:
3924:
Leadbeater BS, Kelly M (2001). "Evolution of animals choanoflagellates and sponges".
3846:
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208:
142:
67:
49:
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34:
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2502:
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589:
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176:
96:
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as a structural material for their skeletons. In more advanced plants, the silica
3791:
3198:
2869:
2306:
2223:
1776:
1727:
1711:
1666:
1321:
1021:
979:
945:
925:
903:
757:
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organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. They are typically microscopic
455:
331:
245:
213:
41:
24:
3103:
3086:
1237:
3819:"Molecular Evidence That Reticulomyxa Filosa Is A Freshwater Naked Foraminifer"
3777:
3667:
Varea, C.; Aragon, J. L.; Barrio, R. A. (1999). "Turing patterns on a sphere".
3654:
3644:
3594:
3534:
3524:
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3489:
2447:
2437:
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447:
301:
274:
269:
4153:
3444:
3419:
2037:
2025:
1636:
1624:
1371:
1229:
768:. These shells can help with buoyancy, allowing the organisms to float in the
4220:
3842:
3688:
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619:
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230:
159:
154:
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The role of protist shells depends on the type of protist. Protists such as
4171:
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3850:
3767:
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3341:
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3127:
3068:
3003:
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2823:
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2681:
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2400:
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1930:
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Diatoms, major components of marine plankton, have silica skeletons called
991:
860:
844:
840:
832:
769:
761:
634:
311:
306:
288:
106:
3968:"Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates"
2555:
2520:
1910:
1413:
812:, meaning they produce their own food through a mixture of those methods.
4018:
3246:
2334:
2330:
2310:
2298:
2287:
2275:
2257:
1986:
1764:
1670:
1553:
1481:
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1193:
1006:
894:
875:
809:
797:
730:
584:
569:
512:
426:
193:
125:
3995:
3333:
2660:
1691:
1673:. Coccospheres are covered with ornate circular plates or scales called
1577:
75:
3420:"Bio-manufacturing technology based on diatom micro- and nanostructure"
2346:
2283:
1974:
1861:
1661:
1404:
917:
785:
749:
164:
3311:
3042:
2620:"The molecular ecology of microbial eukaryotes unveils a hidden world"
2321:
is represented in the microfossil record, the most abundant forms are
1901:
1255:
3151:
2342:
2338:
2231:
2164:
2132:
2109:
1942:
1756:
1674:
1132:
1047:
929:
836:
824:
816:
789:
719:
507:
500:
394:
240:
198:
3418:
Zhang, D.; Wang, Y.; Cai, J.; Pan, J.; Jiang, X.; Jiang, Y. (2012).
3362:
2045:
4212:
Protistan Skeletons: A Geologic History of Evolution and Constraint
4112:
4054:
2302:
2239:
1958:
1333:
1262:
1177:
Silicified frustule of a pennate diatom with two overlapping halves
1159:
1146:
1038:
995:
968:
909:
495:
485:
220:
203:
4108:"A timescale for the origin and evolution of all of life on Earth"
2962:
Bidle, Kay D.; Manganelli, Maura; Azam, Farooq (6 December 2002).
1468:
Also like diatoms, radiolarian shells are usually made of silicate
4080:
3776:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3653:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3593:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3533:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
3498:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
2847:
2446:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
2322:
2279:
2243:
2003:
1954:
961:
883:
852:
796:, meaning they obtain nutrients by consuming other organisms, or
715:
490:
415:
336:
225:
111:
4023:"Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest"
2309:, but also occur in brackish water, fresh water and terrestrial
967:
Diatoms are enclosed in protective silica (glass) shells called
4077:"Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life"
2354:
2350:
2113:
1950:
1221:
1155:
1075:
956:
913:
788:(including modern bacteria and archaea) and later evolved into
753:
745:
707:
519:
3128:"Significant silicon accumulation by marine picocyanobacteria"
2796:
Kim, Sang Gyu; Kim, Ki Woo; Park, Eun Woo; Choi, Doil (2002).
2053:, together with nanofossils enclosed inside the shell hexagons
1444:, provide valuable information about past oceanic conditions.
3772:
3649:
3589:
3529:
3494:
3125:
2763:
Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology
2442:
1980:
Empty Foraminiferan test, showing multiple chambers and pores
1605:
on a sphere closely replicate some radiolarian shell patterns
1002:
820:
764:
also have hard protective shells, but the shells are made of
235:
3816:
1779:
build calcite skeletons important to the marine carbon cycle
3905:
Leadbeater BS, Thomsen H (2000). "Order Choanoflagellida".
3728:
Coccolithophores: From Molecular Processes to Global Impact
3024:
933:
353:
292:
2568:
1809:
Benefits in coccolithophore calcification β see text above
1510:
Cutaway schematic diagram of a spherical radiolarian shell
3222:"Role of diatoms in regulating the ocean's silicon cycle"
1295:
4133:
3789:
1992:...and in life, showing pseudopodia streaming from pores
47:
and the relatively small but ubiquitous coccolithophore
3628:"Minds over Methods: Linking microfossils to tectonics"
2575:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1224:
which account for 50% of the ocean's primary production
1162:) with radial (centric) or bilateral (pennate) symmetry
827:
that cannot be classified as plants, fungi or animals.
3778:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3655:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3595:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3535:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3500:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
2448:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
1315:
and a drawing of its silicate shell, scale bar = 1 ΞΌm.
1090:
Their protective shells (frustles) are made of silicon
3085:
Dugdale, R. C.; Wilkerson, F. P. (30 December 2001).
1998:
Foraminiferans are important unicellular zooplankton
908:
Although silicon is readily available in the form of
3900:
3898:
3790:Hemleben, C.; Anderson, O.R.; Spindler, M. (1989).
2961:
2617:
1497:
An animation of the diversity of radiolarian shells
882:are neither single-celled nor microscopic, such as
3605:
3603:
3276:
3027:"The evolution of silicon transporters in diatoms"
2379:that may be as old as 4.28 billion years old, the
3904:
3895:
3666:
1078:are one of the most common types of phytoplankton
16:Protective shell of a type of eukaryotic organism
4218:
3084:
2484:
1832:Energetic costs in coccolithophore calcification
1009:. Marine snow involves the downward transfer of
972:
3923:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3600:
3417:
2188:Testate amoebas: blobby, modest shell dwellers
2131:were constructed from limestone that contained
1441:
3472:
3470:
2913:
2795:
2084:streaming granular ectoplasm for catching food
1456:Like diatoms, radiolarians come in many shapes
1360:Diatoms: Tiny factories you can see from space
800:, meaning they produce their own food through
3633:
3505:
2569:Slapeta J, Moreira D, LΓ³pez-GarcΓa P (2005).
2218:
1020:In coastal zones, diatoms serve as the major
683:
40:Size comparison between the relatively large
4127:
4099:
4042:
4011:
3959:
3876:European Geosciences Union, 9 November 2020.
3741:
2837:The Air You're Breathing? A Diatom Made That
4068:
4051:"Earliest evidence of life on Earth 'found"
3467:
3365:"First Viruses Infecting the Marine Diatom
3270:
3219:
2238:made up of microfossils in the form of the
2533:
2066:section showing chambers of a spiral foram
1233:Different diatom frustule shapes and sizes
752:have intricate, glass-like shells made of
726:that live in water or moist environments.
690:
676:
4161:
3994:
3443:
3394:
3384:
3245:
3102:
3058:
2813:
2594:
2510:
2293:Microfossils are a common feature of the
1953:, or (rarely) of silica. Most forams are
986:) form, which is taken up by the silicon
3783:
3715:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
3615:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
2925:Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
2461:"Groups of Protists | Boundless Biology"
2222:
2144:
2044:
1492:
1372:How diatoms build their beautiful shells
1236:
1228:
1196:in the North Sea and the English Channel
898:A diatom, enclosed in a silica cell wall
893:
702:Many protists have protective shells or
2938:"King's College London - Lake Megachad"
2789:
2760:
1709:named after the BBC documentary series
1644:
1279:SEM images of pores in diatom frustules
889:
4219:
4074:
4017:
3823:The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
3172:
2754:
2708:
2385:ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago
2368:, or microfossils, were discovered in
1637:Ernst Haeckel's radiolarian engravings
1294:by nanostructured silica protects the
1241:Structure of a centric diatom frustule
912:, very few organisms use it directly.
4182:
4105:
4048:
3173:Turner, Jefferson T. (January 2015).
3080:
3078:
2733:
2711:Studies in Natural Products Chemistry
1860:(white rectangles) that regulate the
3291:10.1146/annurev-marine-121211-172346
3220:Yool, Andrew; Tyrrell, Toby (2003).
2761:Epstein, Emanuel (1999). "SILICON".
2709:Rahman, Atta-ur- (2008). "Silicon".
1390:Radiolaria Β§ Radiolarian shells
3945:"Discovering Devonian Microfossils"
2487:"Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla"
1655:
1484:radiolarians have shells made from
784:Cellular life likely originated as
13:
3942:
3835:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb05137.x
3560:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1987.tb04132.x
3075:
2727:
2618:Moreira D, LΓ³pez-GarcΓa P (2002).
2485:Cavalier-Smith T (December 1993).
2159:is surrounded by a distinguishing
1957:, but about 40 living species are
1220:There are over 100,000 species of
1111:They come in many shapes and sizes
851:but can reproduce rapidly through
14:
4248:
2736:Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry
2112:forams of various sizes from the
2038:Foraminiferal networks and growth
1880:
1570:Turing and radiolarian morphology
3771:
3648:
3588:
3528:
3493:
2775:10.1146/annurev.arplant.50.1.641
2441:
2204:
2182:
2120:
2101:
2089:
2071:
2059:
2032:
2020:
1985:
1973:
1909:
1900:
1856:(CAPs β gray rectangles) by the
1825:
1802:
1763:
1748:
1719:
1699:
1690:
1631:
1619:
1588:
1583:Shell of a spherical radiolarian
1576:
1538:
1515:
1503:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1412:
1403:
1366:
1354:
1340:, a sister taxon to the diatoms.
1320:
1305:
1272:
1254:
1213:
1201:
1182:
1170:
1139:
1125:
1104:
1095:
1083:
1068:
1046:
1037:
657:
656:
74:
33:
3936:
3917:
3879:
3865:
3810:
3720:
3703:
3660:
3620:
3565:
3540:
3452:
3411:
3356:
3305:
3279:Annual Review of Marine Science
3213:
3166:
3119:
3018:
2955:
2930:
2892:
2841:
2830:
2140:
1383:
421:microbial calcite precipitation
4049:Ghosh, Pallab (1 March 2017).
3892:. Retrieved: 18 November 2019.
3886:Foraminifera: History of Study
3793:Modern Planktonic Foraminifera
2702:
2653:
2611:
2562:
2527:
2503:10.1128/mmbr.57.4.953-994.1993
2478:
2453:
2418:
2381:oldest record of life on Earth
1:
4075:Dunham, Will (1 March 2017).
2815:10.1094/PHYTO.2002.92.10.1095
2748:10.1016/S0162-0134(97)10010-1
2713:. Vol. 35. p. 856.
2639:10.1016/S0966-842X(01)02257-0
2411:
2252:Protists in the fossil record
1999:
1651:Marine biogenic calcification
1436:
772:and move around more easily.
381:marine biogenic calcification
3717:. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
3617:. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
3611:"Plankton - Animal plankton"
3226:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
3199:10.1016/j.pocean.2014.08.005
2927:. Accessed: 2 November 2019.
2870:10.1126/science.268.5209.375
2548:10.1016/0303-2647(92)90003-H
2406:Particulate inorganic matter
978:Diatoms uses silicon in the
7:
3926:Water and Atmosphere Online
3573:Frontiers in Marine Science
3104:10.3989/scimar.2001.65s2141
2921:"Plankton - Plant plankton"
2394:
1192:, a diatom responsible for
779:
741:of elements and nutrients.
610:Biomineralising polychaetes
376:amorphous calcium carbonate
62:Part of a series related to
10:
4253:
3730:, pages 99β125, Springer.
3645:10.1038/s41598-019-42771-0
3525:10.1038/s41598-018-34651-w
3490:10.1038/s41598-018-21810-2
2438:10.1038/s41598-019-38661-0
2305:. They are most common in
2255:
2249:
2219:Microfossils and sediments
2194:Journey to the Microcosmos
2096:Group of planktonic forams
1884:
1683:turn the ocean milky white
1659:
1648:
1435:are unicellular predatory
1387:
1376:Journey to the Microcosmos
1011:particulate organic matter
949:
943:
939:
901:
642:Burgess Shale preservation
4154:10.1038/s41559-018-0644-x
3890:University College London
3709:Wassilieff, Maggy (2006)
3609:Wassilieff, Maggy (2006)
3445:10.1007/s11434-012-5410-x
3373:Frontiers in Microbiology
2919:Wassilieff, Maggy (2006)
2465:courses.lumenlearning.com
2387:, and not long after the
2181:
2176:
2031:
2019:
2014:
1796:Benefits of having shells
1630:
1618:
1613:
1365:
1353:
1348:
786:single-celled prokaryotes
604:Cupriavidus metallidurans
4106:Staff (20 August 2018).
3689:10.1103/PhysRevE.60.4588
3626:Kachovich, Sarah (2018)
3585:10.3389/fmars.2018.00370
3424:Chinese Science Bulletin
3386:10.3389/fmicb.2018.03235
3179:Progress in Oceanography
2900:"Engineering with algae"
2242:(shells) of single cell
1601:Computer simulations of
1015:dissolved organic matter
325:Teeth, scales, tusks etc
4206:10.1126/science.aaa7378
3947:. Iowa State University
2988:10.1126/science.1076076
2491:Microbiological Reviews
1550:Triplococcus acanthicus
863:) may reproduce either
790:more complex eukaryotes
718:are a diverse group of
386:calcareous nannofossils
182:Choanoflagellate lorica
45:Scyphosphaera apsteinii
3768:10.1126/sciadv.1501822
2694:: CS1 maint: others (
2627:Trends in Microbiology
2587:10.1098/rspb.2005.3195
2389:formation of the Earth
2313:deposits. While every
2247:
2155:The cell body of many
2152:
2054:
1819:Costs of having shells
1498:
1242:
1234:
1013:by vertical mixing of
899:
575:Magnetotactic bacteria
400:oolitic aragonite sand
258:scaly-foot snail shell
2226:
2148:
2049:Benthic foraminifera
2048:
1660:Further information:
1546:X-ray microtomography
1523:Cladococcus abietinus
1496:
1388:Further information:
1240:
1232:
897:
724:unicellular organisms
3548:Journal of Phycology
3367:Guinardia delicatula
3247:10.1029/2002GB002018
3031:Journal of Phycology
2364:In 2017, fossilized
2161:extracellular matrix
1949:sediment particles,
1894:Foraminiferan shapes
1645:Calcium-based shells
1625:Radiolarian geometry
1190:Guinardia delicatula
890:Silicon-based shells
859:; others (including
847:. Many protists are
706:, usually made from
3996:10.1038/nature21377
3987:2017Natur.543...60D
3796:. Springer-Verlag.
3711:"A coccolithophore"
3681:1999PhRvE..60.4588V
3436:2012ChSBu..57.3836Z
3334:10.1038/nature04883
3326:2006Natur.441..964M
3238:2003GBioC..17.1103Y
3191:2015PrOce.130..205T
3144:2012NatGe...5..886B
2980:2002Sci...298.1980B
2974:(5600): 1980β1984.
2862:1995Sci...268..375T
1929:Like radiolarians,
1755:Have plates called
1679:seed carrying stone
302:Vertebrate skeleton
92:Mineralized tissues
4183:Further references
4028:The New York Times
3513:Scientific Reports
3478:Scientific reports
2426:Scientific Reports
2266:Diatomaceous earth
2248:
2228:Diatomaceous earth
2153:
2055:
1532:Fossil radiolarian
1499:
1397:Radiolarian shapes
1288:diatomaceous earth
1243:
1235:
952:diatomaceous earth
900:
874:and are typically
466:diatomaceous earth
432:Great Calcite Belt
349:Scale microfossils
342:otolithic membrane
253:small shelly fauna
226:echinoderm stereom
102:Biocrystallization
4232:Biomineralization
4190:Emiliania huxleyi
4148:(10): 1556β1562.
3943:Drewes, Charlie.
3873:Favulina hexagona
3803:978-3-540-96815-3
3669:Physical Review E
3430:(30): 3836β3849.
3320:(7096): 964β967.
3132:Nature Geoscience
3043:10.1111/jpy.12441
2720:978-0-444-53181-0
2581:(1576): 2073β81.
2377:Nuvvuagittuq Belt
2370:hydrothermal vent
2295:geological record
2200:
2199:
2157:choanoflagellates
2129:Egyptian pyramids
2051:Favulina hexagona
2043:
2042:
1887:foraminifera test
1788:ultraviolet light
1732:Emiliania huxleyi
1642:
1641:
1595:Shell micrographs
1558:Middle Ordovician
1486:strontium sulfate
1381:
1380:
1292:ultraviolet light
988:transport protein
922:siliceous sponges
766:calcium carbonate
712:calcium carbonate
700:
699:
630:permineralization
615:Mineral nutrients
540:Mineral evolution
209:foraminifera test
68:Biomineralization
50:Emiliania huxleyi
4244:
4176:
4175:
4165:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4083:. Archived from
4072:
4066:
4065:
4063:
4061:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4035:
4021:(1 March 2017).
4015:
4009:
4008:
3998:
3972:
3963:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3952:
3940:
3934:
3933:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3902:
3893:
3883:
3877:
3869:
3863:
3862:
3814:
3808:
3807:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3756:Science Advances
3752:
3739:
3724:
3718:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3675:(4): 4588β4592.
3664:
3658:
3652:
3637:
3631:
3624:
3618:
3607:
3598:
3592:
3569:
3563:
3544:
3538:
3532:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3474:
3465:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3398:
3388:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3309:
3303:
3302:
3274:
3268:
3267:
3249:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3152:10.1038/ngeo1641
3123:
3117:
3116:
3106:
3082:
3073:
3072:
3062:
3022:
3016:
3015:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2934:
2928:
2917:
2911:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2845:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2827:
2817:
2808:(10): 1095β103.
2793:
2787:
2786:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2693:
2685:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2624:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2598:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2514:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2473:
2471:
2457:
2451:
2445:
2422:
2349:, together with
2307:marine sediments
2262:Pelagic sediment
2236:sedimentary rock
2212:Choanoflagellate
2208:
2191:
2186:
2185:
2174:
2173:
2124:
2105:
2093:
2075:
2063:
2036:
2035:
2024:
2023:
2012:
2011:
1989:
1977:
1913:
1904:
1829:
1806:
1777:Coccolithophores
1767:
1752:
1742:Coccolithophores
1723:
1707:Coccolithophores
1703:
1694:
1667:Coccolithophores
1656:Coccolithophores
1635:
1634:
1623:
1622:
1611:
1610:
1592:
1580:
1542:
1519:
1507:
1477:
1465:
1453:
1416:
1407:
1370:
1369:
1358:
1357:
1346:
1345:
1324:
1309:
1276:
1258:
1217:
1205:
1186:
1174:
1143:
1129:
1108:
1099:
1087:
1072:
1050:
1041:
973:half a mile deep
758:Coccolithophores
692:
685:
678:
665:
660:
659:
580:Magnetoreception
560:Ballast minerals
155:Cephalopod shell
150:Brachiopod shell
97:Remineralisation
78:
59:
58:
37:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4237:Skeletal system
4217:
4216:
4185:
4180:
4179:
4132:
4128:
4118:
4116:
4104:
4100:
4090:
4088:
4087:on 2 March 2017
4073:
4069:
4059:
4057:
4047:
4043:
4033:
4031:
4016:
4012:
3981:(7643): 60β64.
3970:
3964:
3960:
3950:
3948:
3941:
3937:
3922:
3918:
3903:
3896:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3866:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3788:
3784:
3762:(7): e1501822.
3753:
3742:
3725:
3721:
3708:
3704:
3665:
3661:
3638:
3634:
3625:
3621:
3608:
3601:
3570:
3566:
3545:
3541:
3510:
3506:
3475:
3468:
3457:
3453:
3416:
3412:
3361:
3357:
3310:
3306:
3275:
3271:
3218:
3214:
3171:
3167:
3138:(12): 886β891.
3124:
3120:
3097:(S2): 141β152.
3091:Scientia Marina
3083:
3076:
3023:
3019:
2960:
2956:
2946:
2944:
2936:
2935:
2931:
2918:
2914:
2897:
2893:
2856:(5209): 375β9.
2846:
2842:
2835:
2831:
2794:
2790:
2759:
2755:
2732:
2728:
2721:
2707:
2703:
2687:
2686:
2674:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2567:
2563:
2532:
2528:
2483:
2479:
2469:
2467:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2397:
2359:vascular plants
2272:
2254:
2221:
2214:
2209:
2189:
2183:
2177:External videos
2143:
2136:
2125:
2116:
2106:
2097:
2094:
2085:
2076:
2067:
2064:
2033:
2021:
2015:External videos
2010:
2009:
2008:
2007:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1969:
1968:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1924:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1906:
1905:
1896:
1895:
1889:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1854:polysaccharides
1851:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1821:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1798:
1797:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1780:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1760:
1759:
1753:
1744:
1743:
1735:
1728:coccolithophore
1724:
1715:
1712:The Blue Planet
1704:
1695:
1664:
1658:
1653:
1647:
1632:
1620:
1614:External videos
1609:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1603:Turing patterns
1598:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1585:
1584:
1581:
1572:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1543:
1534:
1533:
1525:
1520:
1511:
1508:
1489:
1478:
1469:
1466:
1457:
1454:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1427:
1419:
1418:
1417:
1409:
1408:
1399:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1367:
1355:
1349:External videos
1344:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1336:belongs to the
1334:Triparma laevis
1330:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1317:
1316:
1313:Triparma laevis
1310:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1259:
1250:
1249:
1225:
1218:
1209:
1206:
1197:
1187:
1178:
1175:
1166:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1154:Diatoms have a
1151:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1109:
1100:
1091:
1088:
1079:
1073:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1061:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1043:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1022:phytoplanktonic
985:
980:biogenic silica
954:
948:
946:diatom frustule
942:
926:biogenic silica
906:
904:Biogenic silica
892:
880:marine protists
782:
735:ocean sediments
696:
655:
648:
647:
646:
534:
526:
525:
524:
480:
472:
471:
470:
456:biogenic silica
450:
440:
439:
438:
423:
411:
390:
370:
360:
359:
358:
326:
318:
317:
316:
296:
281:
280:
279:
246:gastropod shell
214:testate amoebae
204:diatom frustule
129:
118:
117:
116:
86:
57:
56:
55:
54:
53:
42:coccolithophore
38:
29:
28:
25:Coccolithophore
17:
12:
11:
5:
4250:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4215:
4214:
4209:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4126:
4098:
4067:
4041:
4010:
3958:
3935:
3916:
3894:
3878:
3864:
3829:(6): 612β617.
3809:
3802:
3782:
3740:
3719:
3702:
3659:
3632:
3619:
3599:
3564:
3539:
3504:
3466:
3464:, 28 May 2020.
3451:
3410:
3355:
3304:
3285:(1): 477β501.
3269:
3212:
3165:
3118:
3074:
3037:(5): 716β731.
3017:
2954:
2929:
2912:
2891:
2840:
2829:
2802:Phytopathology
2788:
2753:
2742:(3): 139β144.
2726:
2719:
2701:
2672:
2652:
2610:
2561:
2526:
2477:
2452:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2393:
2366:microorganisms
2270:Siliceous ooze
2250:Main article:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2179:
2178:
2150:Testate amoeba
2142:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2126:
2119:
2117:
2107:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2088:
2086:
2081:Ammonia tepida
2077:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2058:
2041:
2040:
2029:
2028:
2026:foraminiferans
2017:
2016:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1967:Foraminiferans
1966:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1931:foraminiferans
1918:
1917:
1908:
1907:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1885:Main article:
1882:
1881:Foraminiferans
1879:
1873:
1869:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1831:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1808:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1775:
1774:
1770:Extinct fossil
1769:
1762:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1725:
1718:
1716:
1705:
1698:
1696:
1689:
1657:
1654:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1628:
1627:
1616:
1615:
1600:
1599:
1594:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1544:
1537:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1521:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1502:
1491:
1490:
1479:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1448:
1421:
1420:
1411:
1410:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1363:
1362:
1351:
1350:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1300:
1278:
1271:
1270:
1269:
1260:
1253:
1252:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1227:
1226:
1219:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1200:
1198:
1188:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1169:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1138:
1137:
1131:
1124:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1103:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1082:
1080:
1074:
1067:
1055:
1054:
1045:
1044:
1036:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1027:
983:
944:Main article:
941:
938:
891:
888:
867:or asexually.
806:chemosynthesis
802:photosynthesis
781:
778:
739:global cycling
698:
697:
695:
694:
687:
680:
672:
669:
668:
667:
666:
650:
649:
645:
644:
639:
638:
637:
632:
622:
617:
612:
607:
600:
595:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
556:
555:
553:immobilization
550:
548:mineralization
542:
536:
535:
532:
531:
528:
527:
523:
522:
517:
516:
515:
505:
504:
503:
498:
488:
482:
481:
478:
477:
474:
473:
469:
468:
463:
461:siliceous ooze
458:
452:
451:
448:Silicification
446:
445:
442:
441:
437:
436:
435:
434:
429:
424:
412:
410:
409:
408:
407:
402:
391:
389:
388:
383:
378:
372:
371:
366:
365:
362:
361:
357:
356:
351:
346:
345:
344:
334:
328:
327:
324:
323:
320:
319:
315:
314:
309:
304:
298:
297:
287:
286:
283:
282:
278:
277:
272:
270:Sponge spicule
267:
266:
265:
263:estuary shells
260:
255:
250:
249:
248:
243:
238:
228:
218:
217:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
186:
185:
184:
174:
173:
172:
167:
162:
152:
147:
146:
145:
140:
131:
130:
124:
123:
120:
119:
115:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
88:
87:
84:
83:
80:
79:
71:
70:
64:
63:
39:
32:
31:
30:
23:
22:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4249:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4213:
4210:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4186:
4173:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4142:
4137:
4130:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4102:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4071:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4030:
4029:
4024:
4020:
4014:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3969:
3962:
3946:
3939:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3908:
3901:
3899:
3891:
3887:
3882:
3875:
3874:
3868:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3805:
3799:
3795:
3794:
3786:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3751:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3737:
3736:9783662062784
3733:
3729:
3723:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3663:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3642:
3636:
3629:
3623:
3616:
3612:
3606:
3604:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3473:
3471:
3463:
3460:
3455:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3406:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3368:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3308:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3273:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3216:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3169:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3079:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2958:
2943:
2942:www.kcl.ac.uk
2939:
2933:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2898:Ireland, T.,
2895:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2844:
2838:
2833:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2730:
2722:
2716:
2712:
2705:
2697:
2691:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2673:0-910249-05-9
2669:
2665:
2664:
2656:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2621:
2614:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2542:(1β3): 1β14.
2541:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2497:(4): 953β94.
2496:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2417:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2325:skeletons or
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2213:
2207:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2195:
2180:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2147:
2134:
2130:
2123:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2099:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2082:
2074:
2069:
2062:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2039:
2030:
2027:
2018:
2013:
2005:
2002:, often with
2001:
1988:
1976:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1922:
1912:
1903:
1888:
1878:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1858:Golgi complex
1855:
1828:
1805:
1791:
1789:
1778:
1766:
1758:
1751:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1687:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1652:
1638:
1629:
1626:
1617:
1612:
1604:
1591:
1579:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1524:
1518:
1513:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1464:
1459:
1452:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1425:
1415:
1406:
1391:
1377:
1373:
1364:
1361:
1352:
1347:
1339:
1338:Bolidophyceae
1335:
1323:
1314:
1308:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1275:
1264:
1257:
1239:
1231:
1223:
1216:
1211:
1208:Fossil diatom
1204:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1180:
1173:
1168:
1167:
1161:
1157:
1148:
1142:
1134:
1128:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1086:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1066:
1065:
1059:
1049:
1040:
1031:Diatom shapes
1026:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
997:
993:
989:
981:
976:
974:
970:
965:
963:
958:
953:
947:
937:
935:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
905:
896:
887:
885:
881:
877:
873:
868:
866:
862:
858:
857:fragmentation
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
835:, as well as
834:
828:
826:
822:
818:
813:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
794:heterotrophic
791:
787:
777:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
742:
740:
736:
732:
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
693:
688:
686:
681:
679:
674:
673:
671:
670:
664:
654:
653:
652:
651:
643:
640:
636:
633:
631:
628:
627:
626:
625:Fossilization
623:
621:
620:Microbial mat
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
606:
605:
601:
599:
596:
594:
592:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
565:Magnetofossil
563:
561:
558:
554:
551:
549:
546:
545:
543:
541:
538:
537:
530:
529:
521:
518:
514:
511:
510:
509:
506:
502:
499:
497:
494:
493:
492:
489:
487:
484:
483:
476:
475:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
453:
449:
444:
443:
433:
430:
428:
425:
422:
419:
418:
417:
414:
413:
406:
405:aragonite sea
403:
401:
398:
397:
396:
393:
392:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
373:
369:
368:Calcification
364:
363:
355:
352:
350:
347:
343:
340:
339:
338:
335:
333:
330:
329:
322:
321:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
299:
294:
290:
289:Endoskeletons
285:
284:
276:
273:
271:
268:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
251:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
232:
231:mollusc shell
229:
227:
224:
223:
222:
219:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
191:
190:
189:Protist shell
187:
183:
180:
179:
178:
175:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
160:cirrate shell
158:
157:
156:
153:
151:
148:
144:
141:
139:
136:
135:
133:
132:
127:
122:
121:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
89:
82:
81:
77:
73:
72:
69:
66:
65:
61:
60:
52:
51:
46:
43:
36:
26:
19:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4145:
4139:
4129:
4117:. Retrieved
4111:
4101:
4089:. Retrieved
4085:the original
4070:
4058:. Retrieved
4044:
4032:. Retrieved
4026:
4019:Zimmer, Carl
4013:
3978:
3974:
3961:
3949:. Retrieved
3938:
3929:
3925:
3919:
3910:
3906:
3881:
3872:
3867:
3826:
3822:
3812:
3792:
3785:
3759:
3755:
3727:
3722:
3714:
3705:
3672:
3668:
3662:
3635:
3622:
3614:
3576:
3572:
3567:
3551:
3547:
3542:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3481:
3477:
3461:
3454:
3427:
3423:
3413:
3376:
3372:
3366:
3358:
3317:
3313:
3307:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3229:
3225:
3215:
3182:
3178:
3168:
3135:
3131:
3121:
3094:
3090:
3034:
3030:
3020:
2971:
2967:
2957:
2945:. Retrieved
2941:
2932:
2924:
2915:
2907:
2903:
2894:
2853:
2849:
2843:
2832:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2766:
2762:
2756:
2739:
2735:
2729:
2710:
2704:
2661:
2655:
2630:
2626:
2613:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2468:. Retrieved
2464:
2455:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2401:Cytoskeleton
2373:precipitates
2363:
2347:chitinozoans
2292:
2288:macrofossils
2276:Microfossils
2273:
2193:
2154:
2141:Other shells
2079:
2050:
1947:agglutinated
1934:
1928:
1919:Drawings by
1838:
1784:
1730:
1710:
1678:
1665:
1552:. This is a
1549:
1522:
1442:microfossils
1433:Radiolarians
1431:
1422:Drawings by
1384:Radiolarians
1375:
1312:
1285:
1194:algal blooms
1189:
1056:Drawings by
1019:
1000:
992:silicic acid
977:
966:
955:
907:
872:multi-celled
869:
861:foraminifera
845:Golgi bodies
841:mitochondria
829:
817:paraphyletic
814:
783:
774:
770:water column
762:foraminifera
743:
728:
701:
635:petrifaction
602:
590:
585:Microfossils
332:Limpet teeth
312:Ossification
307:Bone mineral
241:chiton shell
188:
126:Exoskeletons
107:Biointerface
48:
44:
18:
3554:: 245β260.
3519:(1): 1β14.
3185:: 205β248.
2769:: 641β664.
2633:(1): 31β8.
2470:16 February
2432:(1): 1β12.
2335:Pyrrhophyta
2331:Chrysophyta
2311:sedimentary
2299:Precambrian
2297:, from the
2258:Microfossil
2230:is a soft,
1671:coccosphere
1554:microfossil
1482:acantharian
1007:marine snow
876:macroscopic
810:mixotrophic
798:autotrophic
737:and in the
731:microfossil
710:(glass) or
570:Magnetosome
513:phosphorite
479:Other forms
427:calcite sea
194:coccosphere
138:exoskeleton
4221:Categories
3932:(2): 9β11.
3484:(1): 1β6.
3232:(4): n/a.
2536:BioSystems
2412:References
2343:acritarchs
2284:microscopy
2256:See also:
2133:nummulites
2110:nummulitid
1862:nucleation
1757:coccoliths
1675:coccoliths
1662:coccoliths
1649:See also:
950:See also:
930:phytoliths
918:radiolaria
902:See also:
837:organelles
825:eukaryotes
750:radiolaria
165:cuttlebone
134:Arthropod
4200:: e4608.
4119:20 August
3843:1066-5234
3256:1944-9224
3207:0079-6611
3160:1752-0908
3113:1886-8134
3051:1529-8817
2996:0036-8075
2904:Biologist
2690:cite book
2357:from the
2339:Sarcodina
2329:from the
2240:frustules
2232:siliceous
2165:periplast
1943:aragonite
1844:+ and HCO
1556:from the
1263:frustules
969:frustules
910:silicates
720:eukaryote
714:(chalk).
591:engrailed
508:Phosphate
501:oil shale
395:Aragonite
199:coccolith
4227:Protista
4172:30127539
4113:Phys.org
4055:BBC News
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3851:10568034
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2878:17746543
2824:18944220
2783:15012222
2647:11755083
2605:16191619
2395:See also
2303:Holocene
2000:protists
1959:planktic
1866:geometry
1488:crystals
1480:However
1437:protists
1160:frustule
996:silicate
865:sexually
839:such as
780:Protists
716:Protists
663:Category
544:In soil
496:alginite
486:Bone bed
221:Seashell
128:(shells)
4163:6152910
4091:1 March
4081:Reuters
4060:2 March
4034:2 March
3983:Bibcode
3951:4 March
3677:Bibcode
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3462:Horizon
3432:Bibcode
3396:6334475
3350:4428683
3322:Bibcode
3234:Bibcode
3187:Bibcode
3140:Bibcode
3060:5129515
2976:Bibcode
2968:Science
2886:5672525
2858:Bibcode
2850:Science
2682:9276403
2596:1559898
2556:1292654
2521:8302218
2375:in the
2323:protist
2315:kingdom
2301:to the
2280:fossils
2244:diatoms
2108:Fossil
2004:calcite
1955:benthic
1921:Haeckel
1868:of CaCO
1424:Haeckel
1248:Diatoms
1222:diatoms
1158:shell (
1147:Pennate
1133:Centric
1119:Diatoms
1076:Diatoms
1058:Haeckel
962:silicon
957:Diatoms
940:Diatoms
914:Diatoms
884:seaweed
853:mitosis
849:asexual
833:nucleus
746:diatoms
533:Related
491:Kerogen
416:Calcite
337:Otolith
170:gladius
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2268:, and
2169:lorica
2114:Eocene
1951:chiton
1935:forams
1156:silica
920:, and
855:or by
754:silica
708:silica
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177:Lorica
27:shells
4194:PeerJ
3971:(PDF)
3855:S2CID
3346:S2CID
3260:S2CID
3008:S2CID
2947:5 May
2882:S2CID
2623:(PDF)
2327:cysts
2078:Live
2006:tests
1939:tests
1003:lysed
982:(BSiO
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808:, or
704:tests
598:Druse
293:bones
236:nacre
4168:PMID
4121:2018
4093:2017
4062:2017
4036:2017
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3953:2017
3847:PMID
3839:ISSN
3798:ISBN
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2992:ISSN
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2715:ISBN
2696:link
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2668:ISBN
2663:1982
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1864:and
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1060:1904
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924:use
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