605:(HUD) began encouraging the remaining residents to leave Pruitt–Igoe. A 1970 report assessed the extent of the physical damage to the buildings as "nearly unbelievable" and far worse than in the other St. Louis projects. Many buildings had been practically ransacked, with broken windows and doors, walls stripped for wire and pipe, and garbage strewn about the site. Only 10 of the original 33 buildings were still occupied. In December 1971, state and federal authorities agreed to demolish two of the Pruitt–Igoe buildings. They hoped that a gradual reduction in population and building density could improve the situation; by this time, Pruitt–Igoe had consumed $ 57 million, an investment which they felt could not be wholly abandoned. Authorities considered different possibilities for rehabilitating Pruitt–Igoe, including conversion to a low-rise neighborhood by collapsing the towers down to a few floors to reduce the density. After 1971, most tenants were consolidated into the Igoe section. Despite the impending demolition, more than $ 1 million was spent on renovation in the 1970s, mainly funded by grants from the federal government.
713:, in which structures are laid out so that residents have control and responsibility over their surroundings. Newman criticized the large spaces shared by dozens of families as "anonymous public spaces made it impossible for even neighboring residents to develop an accord about acceptable behavior", and attributed Pruitt–Igoe's social problems to its high-rise design and lack of defensible space, contrasting it unfavorably with the adjacent Carr Village, a low-rise area with a similar demographic makeup that remained fully occupied and largely trouble-free in the same period. Newman's analysis was one of the most influential in attributing the project's failure to "environmentally determined architecture".
524:, a situation exacerbated by the skip-stop elevators. Its location in "a sea of decaying and abandoned buildings" and limited access to shopping and recreation (ground-floor businesses had been eliminated from the design to save money, and the complex had no public mailbox) contributed to its problems. The huge, 11-story buildings of the development were reportedly a magnet for criminals and vagrants from the surrounding low-rise slums; a 1959 audit reported that most of the vandalism was done by transients rather than residents, and a 1967 report similarly found that a "relatively large proportion" of crimes were committed by outsiders. Large criminal
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lack of resources, though numerous programs, including the hiring of private security, rent incentives to attract new tenants, and grants for academic studies, were tried. As the financial position of the authority worsened, it raised the minimum rent from $ 20 a month in 1952, to $ 32 in 1958, $ 43 in 1962, and $ 58 in 1968. The increases forced some families to devote as much as 75 percent of their income to rent. In addition to the rent increases, tenants were charged for basic services like replacing fuses and door locks. The rent increases were a major factor in a nine-month
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project's design, Bristol cited the underfunding of public housing and consequent inability for the housing authority to properly maintain the buildings and the deleterious effects of poverty and racial discrimination on its residents as crucial factors in Pruitt–Igoe's decline. The steep fall in St. Louis's population exacerbated the project's vacancy problem—instead of growing from 850,000 in the 1940s to 1 million in 1970 as projected, the city lost 30 percent of its residents in that timespan due to
585:... responded to their sick society in a healthy manner." 78 percent of residents reported that they were satisfied with their apartment, and 80 percent said that Pruitt–Igoe met their needs "a little better" or "much better" than their previous place of residence. The project contained isolated pockets of well-being throughout its worst years, and apartments clustered around small, two-family landings with tenants working to maintain and clear their common areas were often relatively successful.
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to fiscal problems. The "mindless concentration on dollar costs" and "voracious and inefficient" local construction industry also contributed to the project's maintenance woes. Widespread voter opposition to public housing, both locally and nationally, created a "hostile climate" that limited financial assistance from the government; in turn, the eventual failure of the project contributed to the further unpopularity of public housing, both locally and nationally. According to
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690:" was cut from the final plan, and the surrounding area subsequently turned to wasteland. In addition to the architectural flaws, the overall quality of construction was extremely poor: the buildings were described by housing researcher Eugene Meehan as "little more than steel and concrete rabbit warrens, poorly designed, badly equipped, inadequate in size, badly located, unventilated, and virtually impossible to maintain".
336:'s north side, bounded by Cass Avenue on the north, North Jefferson Avenue on the west, Carr Street on the south, and North 20th Street on the east. Each building was 170 feet (52 m) long; most contained between 80 and 90 units, although some buildings had up to 150. The complex totaled 2,870 apartments (1,736 in Pruitt and 1,132 in Igoe) housing more than 10,000 people at full occupancy.
343:" elevators stopped only at the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth "anchor" floors in an attempt to lessen elevator congestion, forcing many residents to use the stairs. The same anchor floors were equipped with large south-facing communal corridors called "galleries", as well as laundry rooms and garbage chutes.
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Other critics argue that the Pruitt–Igoe's architecture has been overemphasized compared to political and social factors, a view prominently advanced by
Katharine Bristol (at the time a doctoral student in architecture) in a 1991 article titled "The Pruitt–Igoe Myth". While acknowledging flaws in the
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The withdrawal in 1967 of a private security force that patrolled the buildings led to a further escalation in crime and vandalism, which was partially attributed to the large number of juveniles in single-parent households; a census undertaken in
September 1965 found that 69.2 percent of inhabitants
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and tensions in the
Congress further tightened federal controls. Overall density was set at a level of 50 units per acre, higher than in downtown slums. Although each row of buildings was supposed to be flanked by a "river of open space", landscaping was omitted from the final plan and few trees were
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Pruitt–Igoe has received extensive commentary in the architectural literature; architect
William Ramroth describes it as "the most infamous public housing disaster in American history" and a "poster child" for the failures of public housing projects. Nonetheless, the initial reception of Pruitt–Igoe
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announced its intention to construct an $ 80 million facility on the site. When completed, the facility is planned to house the Ponce Health
Sciences University School of Medicine in St. Louis. In 2021, a developer submitted zoning applications for the construction of office buildings and a hotel on
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After months of preparation, the first building was demolished with explosives on March 16, 1972. More buildings followed on April 21, June 9, and July 15. HUD announced in August 1973 their decision to demolish the rest of the complex. A last-minute attempt to purchase and rehabilitate a few of the
562:. In 1966, the Pruitt–Igoe Neighborhood Corporation commissioned a survey of the housing project that catalogued numerous issues with its maintenance, security, and management. Basic services like elevators and heating often failed, and maintenance sometimes took years to respond to tenant requests.
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led to increased crime, vacancy, and rent delinquency in the development, which cut into the housing authority's revenue. In response, the authority reduced maintenance by 10 percent, and the reduction in maintenance coupled with a grand jury report that criticized crime levels in Pruitt–Igoe caused
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By 1958, just four years after the opening of the project, deteriorating conditions were already evident. Elevator breakdowns and vandalism were cited as major problems—Yamasaki later lamented that he "never thought people were that destructive". Ventilation was poor during St. Louis's hot and humid
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In his book-length study of St. Louis public housing policy, Eugene Meehan assessed the root cause as "a set of policies programmed for failure", in particular the requirement of the
Housing Act of 1949 that local housing authorities pay their expenses from rental income, which made them vulnerable
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Criticism of the project's architectural design began in the 1960s. The skip-stop elevators forced many residents to use the stairwells, where muggings were frequent. The galleries, which were unpainted, unfurnished, and dimly-lit, served as hang-outs for criminal gangs rather than communal spaces.
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concept, many design decisions were imposed by federal authorities, including vetoing the original proposal of a mix of structures of different heights. Even before the completion of the project, Yamasaki was skeptical that high-rise buildings would be beneficial to tenants, stating that "The low
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Since Pruitt–Igoe's demolition, various plans have been put forth for the use of its site, including a golf course, a business park, and a 50-story tower. An elementary school was built on part of the site in 1995, but as of 2023 a significant part of it remains vacant, even as adjacent lots have
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After 1960, the rental income from Pruitt–Igoe failed to cover the cost of operation, forcing the housing authority to tap into its reserves and causing cutbacks at other developments, which were themselves profitable. Attempts by local authorities to improve living conditions were handicapped by
482:, then early in his career, and performed under supervision and constraints imposed by the federal authorities. His initial proposal, which included walk-up and mid-rise buildings as well as high-rises, was accepted by the St. Louis authorities, but exceeded the federal cost limits imposed by the
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article lauded
Yamasaki's original proposal, praising the layout as "vertical neighborhoods for poor people", and Yamasaki biographer Paul Kidder appraised it as "an amazingly ambitious effort to turn the embarrassment of tenement squalor in a great American city into something decent and good".
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Construction began in 1951. Pruitt accepted its first tenants in
November 1954, Igoe in July 1955. When the two projects opened, they were one of the largest public housing developments in the country. Even under federal cost-cutting regulations, Pruitt–Igoe initially cost $ 36 million, 60
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where the loss of revenue from rent forced the housing authority to curtail maintenance, further reducing the project's desirability. Occupancy at both Pruitt and Igoe peaked in the first years, at 95 and 86 percent, respectively. In the 1960s, Pruitt remained about 75 percent full and Igoe 65
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by tenants in 1969. The strike began on
February 2 at other public housing projects in the city and spread to Pruitt–Igoe by April 1. It ended with a settlement under which the board of commissioners of the housing authority resigned and tenant organizations were granted more influence.
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After the demolition of the first buildings in 1972, Pruitt–Igoe received wider attention and began to be perceived as a failure of modernist architecture as a whole. By the late 1970s, this view had coalesced into "architectural dogma", especially for the nascent movements of
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In the aftermath of its demolition, Pruitt–Igoe became a symbol of the failings of the society-changing aspirations of modernist architecture, as the project's problems were widely attributed to architectural flaws that created a hostile and unsafe environment. Critic
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percent above the national average for public housing; one factor was the installation of an expensive heating system. Despite the poor build quality, material suppliers cited Pruitt–Igoe in their advertisements to capitalize on the national exposure of the project.
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state leaders favored clearing the slums and replacing them with high-rise, high-density public housing. They reasoned that the new projects would help the city through increased revenues, new parks, playgrounds and shopping space. Darst stated in 1951:
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was authorized to acquire and demolish the slums of the inner ring and then sell the land at reduced prices to private developers in the hopes of fostering middle-class development and luring families back from the suburbs. Another agency, the
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In 1965, the project received a federal grant to improve the physical condition of the buildings and establish social programs for residents, but the grant failed to reverse the decline. Between 1963 and 1966 it was the subject of a
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in the north and white slums in the south were expanding and threatening to engulf the city center. To save central properties from an imminent loss of value, city authorities settled on redevelopment of the inner ring around the
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described its demolition as "the day Modern architecture died". More recent appraisals have placed a greater emphasis on St. Louis's precipitously declining population, and fiscal problems with the local housing authority.
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In 1947, St. Louis planners proposed to replace DeSoto-Carr, a run-down neighborhood with many black residents, with new two- and three-story residential blocks and a public park. The plan did not materialize; instead,
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and opened in 1942 as two identical but racially segregated low-rise developments: Carr Square in the northwest for
African Americans, and Clinton Peabody in the southwest for whites. The projects, intended for the
455:, was completed in 1953. It contained 704 units in a mix of medium- and high-rise buildings. It was followed by three more projects: Pruitt–Igoe, Vaughn, and Darst–Webbe. Pruitt–Igoe was named for St. Louisans
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percent. In 1969, those numbers fell to 57.1 percent and 48.9 percent; at one point the vacancy rate was higher than any other public housing complex in the country. The annual turn-over rate was 20 percent.
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We must rebuild, open up and clean up the hearts of our cities. The fact that slums were created with all the intrinsic evils was everybody's fault. Now it is everybody's responsibility to repair the damage.
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states in a summary of the modern consensus that the project was "doomed from the outset". As of 2024, a large portion of the Pruitt–Igoe site remains vacant, although new development is pending.
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Pruitt–Igoe was initially seen as a breakthrough in urban renewal. One early resident described her 11th floor apartment as a "poor man's penthouse". Pruitt–Igoe was officially desegregated by a
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were considered major problems by the residents. Families at Pruitt–Igoe were large: the average household had four minors. Nearly half of births (and 73 percent of first-born children) were
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buildings by a neighborhood community development corporation was rejected by HUD. The last tenant moved out in May 1974, and the project was fully cleared by 1976 at a total cost of $ 3.5
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summers. Meanwhile, the St. Louis Housing Authority was in the midst of a decades-long problem with inefficient and costly maintenance of its buildings, partly attributed to the power of
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The apartments were deliberately small, with undersized kitchen appliances, and few units were designed for larger families. The apartments were not equipped with balconies. "
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housing it replaced, living conditions in Pruitt–Igoe began to deteriorate soon after completion. By the mid-1960s it was plagued by poor maintenance and crime, particularly
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In spite of the widespread issues, most inhabitants of Pruitt–Igoe continued to live ordinary lives, and, according to Rainwater and activist Joan Miller, "the vast majority
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305:. Numerous initiatives to reverse the decline failed, and by 1970 more than two-thirds of the complex was vacant. Demolition of the complex began in 1972 with a televised
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By 1950, St. Louis had received a federal commitment under the Housing Act of 1949 to finance 5,800 public housing units. The first large public housing in St. Louis,
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building with low density is unquestionably more satisfactory than multi-story living." Nonetheless, he defended the high-rise design as a practical necessity for
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274:. At the time of opening, it was one of the largest public housing developments in the country. It was constructed with federal funds on the site of a former
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471:. Originally, the city planned two partitions: Pruitt for black residents and Igoe for whites, as St. Louis public housing was segregated until 1955.
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Birmingham, Elizabeth (1998). "Reframing the Ruins: Pruitt–Igoe, Structural Racism, and African American Rhetoric as a Space for Cultural Critique".
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was positive, although contrary to popular belief the project never won any architectural awards. In 1951, before construction had finished, an
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decision in 1954, and as many as 40 percent of the initial tenants were white, but by the mid 1960s it had become exclusively African American.
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The failure and demolition of Pruitt–Igoe damaged Yamasaki's reputation as an architect, and he personally regretted designing the buildings.
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million – becoming the first major housing projects in the United States to be demolished. Footage of the demolition was featured in the film
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called its destruction "the day Modern architecture died" and considered it a direct indictment of the society-changing aspirations of the
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During the 1940s, the city of St. Louis was overcrowded, with housing conditions in some areas being said to resemble "something out of a
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In 1948, voters rejected the proposal for a municipal loan to finance urban redevelopment, but soon the situation was changed with the
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364:. An official survey from 1947 found that 33,000 homes had communal toilets. Middle-class, predominantly white, residents were
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Mendelson, Robert E.; Quinn, Michael A. (1985). "Residential Patterns in a Midwestern City: The Saint Louis Experience".
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Pruitt–Igoe consisted of 33 eleven-story concrete apartment buildings, clad in brick, on a 57-acre (23 ha) site, on
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478:, an architectural firm based in St. Louis, to design the new public housing complex. The project was led by architect
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Miller, Joan; Rainwater, Lee (October 1967). Frances A. Koestler (ed.). "Pruitt-Igoe: Survival in a Concrete Ghetto".
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Brown, Sylvester (May 8, 2005). "School on Pruitt-Igoe land is testament to area's past, residents' determination".
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and fellow mayors of other cities overwhelmed by industrial workers recruited during the war. Specifically, the
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novel". Its housing stock had deteriorated by the 1940s, and more than 85,000 families lived in 19th century
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James P. Hubbard, Decent, Safe and Sanitary Dwellings: The National Conversation About Public Housing, 2018.
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of architecture and an example of modernists' intentions running contrary to real-world social development.
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and Missouri state laws that provided co-financing of public housing projects. The approach taken by Darst,
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of several of the buildings. Over the next four years, the rest of the complex was vacated and demolished.
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Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century
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Brown, Sylvester (March 1, 2005). "Development plans for Pruitt-Igoe site quietly faded away".
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was built in 2022, but restrictions related to the construction of a new headquarters for the
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2113:"McKee, Clayco plan office buildings and hotel on Pruitt-Igoe site near new NGA headquarters"
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2542:. US Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research.
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were minors, and less than 30 percent of households with children had both parents present.
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a significant drop in applications to the development. Increasing vacancy rates set off a
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Facadomy: A Critique on Capitalism and Its Assault on Mid-Century Modern Architecture
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Planning for Disaster: How Natural and Man-made Disasters Shape the Built Environment
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2142:"Nurses group sues to stop 'Homer G. Phillips' from being used on St. Louis hospital"
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578:, though this statistic was no higher in Pruitt–Igoe than in nearby private housing.
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The second, widely televised demolition of a Pruitt–Igoe building on April 21, 1972.
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2171:"Measure to control development around new NGA campus in north St. Louis advances"
2024:"Development of former Pruitt-Igoe site, near St. Louis' new NGA campus, advances"
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1995:"McKee buys Pruitt-Igoe site, a symbol of St. Louis's decline, and now, rebirth"
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2093:"From Triage to Recovery: Pruitt Igoe Becomes New Medical Campus in St. Louis"
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and environment and behavior architecture. Postmodern architectural historian
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443:, had to clear land to construct public housing for the former slum dwellers.
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Montgomery, Roger (1985). "Pruitt–Igoe: Policy Failure or Societal Symptom".
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368:, and their former residences became occupied by low-income families. Black
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on an adjacent lot were reportedly stalling the redevelopment of the site.
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The Quality of Federal Policymaking: Programmed Failure in Public Housing
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Barker, Jacob; Kukuljan, Steph; Schlinkmann, Mark (September 24, 2021).
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2075:"For-Profit Medical School Plots $ 80 Million North St. Louis Facility"
1446:"Pruitt-Igoe: the troubled high-rise that came to define urban America"
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2858:. Joint Center for Housing Studies, Harvard University. Archived from
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The first generation of St. Louis public housing was enabled by the
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725:, as well as 11,000 manufacturing jobs in an overall shift from a
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Comerio, Mary C. (Summer 1981). "Pruitt Igoe and Other Stories".
1273:"Igoe Homes' First Families Move Into 72-Unit Apartment Building"
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Pruitt–Igoe served as a case study for Oscar Newman's concept of
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The Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments complex
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Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Detroit Branch Building annex
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Larsen, Lawrence Harold; Kirkendall, Richard Stewart (2004).
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Buildings and structures demolished by controlled implosion
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World Trade Center Tower 1, Tower 2, Buildings 4, 5 and 6
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Bristol, Katharine (May 1991). "The Pruitt–Igoe Myth".
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the site. An urgent care center named after the former
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St. Louis Lambert International Airport main terminal
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Fishman, Robert (2004). "Rethinking Public Housing".
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Behind Ghetto Walls: Black Families in a Federal Slum
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Although initially viewed as an improvement over the
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1633:"Pruitt-Igoe Leaders Split Over Joining Rent Strike"
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1370:"Segregation Banned Here in Public Housing Projects"
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St. Louis Land Clearance and Redevelopment Authority
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23:For Philip Glass's musical piece "Pruit Igoe", see
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393:rather than the truly destitute, were successful.
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2439:Minoru Yamasaki and the Fragility of Architecture
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262:, United States. The complex of 33 eleven-story
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686:The landscaping intended to make Pruitt–Igoe "
3144:Prentis Building and DeRoy Auditorium Complex
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2097:United States Environmental Protection Agency
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2978:Montgomery Ward Corporate Headquarters Tower
1940:"Why the Pruitt-Igoe housing project failed"
3278:Buildings and structures demolished in 1976
3273:Buildings and structures demolished in 1972
3066:King Fahd International Airport master plan
2649:Cendón, Sara Fernández (February 3, 2012).
18:Demolished housing project in St. Louis, US
3060:Eastern Airlines terminal at Logan Airport
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1344:"Towers of Dreams: One Ended in Nightmare"
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603:Department of Housing of Urban Development
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377:. Due to the state of decay, neighborhood
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2774:Bristol, Kate; Montgomery, Roger (1987).
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520:. The stairwells and corridors attracted
2856:"Why They Built the Pruitt–Igoe Project"
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2420:The Language of Post-Modern Architecture
2403:. Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated.
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3268:Residential buildings completed in 1955
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2695:Gyure, Dale Allen (February 21, 2019).
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2199:
2014:
1839:
1431:
1406:
1341:Kimmelman, Michael (January 25, 2012).
1316:
1235:
1186:
1147:
1114:
1029:
937:
823:, in Wallington, Sutton, United Kingdom
642:National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
459:, an African-American fighter pilot in
3250:
3174:Robertson Hall at Princeton University
3054:Dhahran International Airport terminal
2832:
2776:Pruitt–Igoe: An Annotated Bibliography
2648:
2535:
2476:
2436:
2417:
2363:
2351:
2339:
2298:
2223:
2167:
2020:
1991:
1925:
1875:
1863:
1851:
1827:
1743:
1731:
1683:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1559:
1523:
1511:
1484:
1472:
1328:
1216:
1171:
1159:
1102:
1071:
1041:
981:
964:
949:
903:
381:never received serious consideration.
3303:African-American history in St. Louis
2904:
2833:Pipkin, John S.; et al. (1983).
2694:
2049:
1968:
994:Wilensky, Harry (September 9, 1956).
922:
286:, it almost exclusively accommodated
3298:Residential skyscrapers in St. Louis
3227:University of Regina - Regina Campus
2738:"High Buildings for public housing?"
2396:
2138:
2072:
1659:"Rent Strike Spreads to Pruitt-Igoe"
1247:
663:Although Yamasaki's design followed
3168:Northwestern National Life Building
3138:McGregor Memorial Conference Center
2930:
2459:A History of Missouri: 1953 to 2003
835:, in Poplar, London, United Kingdom
803:Conjunto Urbano Nonoalco Tlatelolco
13:
3318:1976 disestablishments in Missouri
3156:Irwin Library at Butler University
2778:. Council of Planning Librarians.
2754:
2676:Journal of Architectural Education
2613:Journal of Architectural Education
1444:Marshall, Colin (April 22, 2015).
863:Brewster-Douglass Housing Projects
667:conventions and was influenced by
476:Leinweber, Yamasaki & Hellmuth
14:
3329:
3132:Military Personnel Records Center
2867:
1992:Barker, Jacob (August 14, 2016).
3293:Urban decay in the United States
3239:List of works by Minoru Yamasaki
3029:
3002:Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond
2879:University of Missouri–St. Louis
2655:American Institute of Architects
2521:. University of Illinois Press.
2502:. University of Illinois Press.
2483:. University of Missouri Press.
2462:. University of Missouri Press.
2168:Barker, Jacob (March 14, 2022).
2073:Ruff, Corinne (March 16, 2020).
762:
633:Ponce Health Sciences University
528:were not common in the project.
209:
3313:1955 establishments in Missouri
3126:Grosse Pointe University School
3097:Shinji Shumeikai Founder's Hall
3085:North Shore Congregation Israel
2161:
2132:
2103:
2085:
2066:
2043:
2021:Barker, Jacob (March 2, 2023).
1881:
1651:
1625:
1437:
1362:
1334:
1265:
1047:
282:program. Despite being legally
3180:Quo Vadis Entertainment Center
2887:"Before and After Pruitt Igoe"
2688:10.1080/10464883.1981.10758667
2626:10.1080/10464883.1991.11102687
1376:. December 29, 1955. p. 1
498:
327:
1:
3162:Oberlin Conservatory of Music
2697:"Minoru Yamasaki (1912–1986)"
2563:. Aldine Publishing Company.
2397:Hall, Peter Geoffrey (2004).
2139:Kull, Katie (July 15, 2022).
888:
588:
484:Public Housing Administration
351:
3198:Tulsa Performing Arts Center
2966:M&T Bank Center, Buffalo
2651:"Pruitt-Igoe 40 Years Later"
2578:Ramroth, William G. (2007).
1639:. March 17, 1969. p. 12
1298:Larsen & Kirkendall 2004
1127:Larsen & Kirkendall 2004
1091:Larsen & Kirkendall 2004
859:, in Bridgeport, Connecticut
817:, in Glasgow, United Kingdom
7:
3263:Public housing in St. Louis
3120:Pruitt–Igoe housing project
2602:
1895:. June 10, 1972. p. 3A
1804:Miller & Rainwater 1967
1720:Miller & Rainwater 1967
1708:Miller & Rainwater 1967
1673:– via Newspapers.com.
1665:. March 12, 1969. p. 3
1647:– via Newspapers.com.
1620:Miller & Rainwater 1967
1536:Miller & Rainwater 1967
1497:Miller & Rainwater 1967
1384:– via Newspapers.com.
1287:– via Newspapers.com.
1010:– via Newspapers.com.
871:, in Scampia, Napoli, Italy
829:, in London, United Kingdom
811:, in Amsterdam, Netherlands
755:
441:St. Louis Housing Authority
10:
3334:
2384:
2376:Mendelson & Quinn 1985
1279:. July 23, 1955. p. 3
638:Homer G. Phillips Hospital
510:
426:, was shared by President
346:
254:first occupied in 1954 in
144:50 units per acre (120/ha)
25:Koyaanisqatsi § Music
22:
3308:Minoru Yamasaki buildings
3236:
3213:
3106:
3075:
3038:
3027:
2938:
2875:"Pruitt-Igoe photographs"
2736:Yamasaki, Minoru (1952).
2539:Creating Defensible Space
996:"The Fight Against Decay"
647:
474:In 1950, the city picked
375:central business district
185:
171:
161:
153:
148:
140:
132:
124:
116:
108:
93:38.6422889°N 90.2094306°W
69:
54:
49:
37:
32:
2854:von Hoffman, Alexander.
2793:Cornetet, James (2013).
2701:The Architectural Review
2519:The Metropolitan Midwest
2500:The Metropolitan Midwest
2418:Jencks, Charles (1984).
2389:
1374:St. Louis Globe-Democrat
805:, in Mexico City, Mexico
746:The Architectural Review
321:The Architectural Review
3186:Dr. John Archer Library
2960:The Century Plaza Hotel
2557:Rainwater, Lee (1970).
2477:Meehan, Eugene (1979).
2176:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
2147:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
2118:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
2052:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
2029:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
2000:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
1971:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
1893:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
1663:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
1637:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
1277:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
1000:St. Louis Post-Dispatch
851:Glenny Drive Apartments
696:postmodern architecture
622:
447:Design and construction
405:, elected in 1949, and
270:architectural style by
201:William Igoe Apartments
197:Wendell O. Pruitt Homes
98:38.6422889; -90.2094306
3215:Landscape architecture
3150:Pacific Science Center
2536:Newman, Oscar (1996).
2079:St. Louis Public Radio
865:, in Detroit, Michigan
853:, in Buffalo, New York
847:, in Chicago, Illinois
841:, in Chicago, Illinois
598:
416:
278:as part of the city's
3008:100 Washington Square
2586:. Kaplan Publishing.
2437:Kidder, Paul (2022).
883:, in Košice, Slovakia
601:In 1968, the federal
596:
412:
120:57 acres (23 ha)
3258:History of St. Louis
2984:Century Plaza Towers
857:Father Panik Village
799:, in Dublin, Ireland
793:, in Toronto, Canada
787:, in Toronto, Canada
736:The Pruitt-Igoe Myth
704:International school
572:juvenile delinquency
303:juvenile delinquency
266:was designed in the
250:), were joint urban
203:, known together as
2948:One Woodward Avenue
2862:on August 30, 2002.
2265:, pp. 170–171.
1916:, pp. 232–233.
940:, pp. 163–164.
845:Robert Taylor Homes
656:Architectural Forum
420:Housing Act of 1949
386:Housing Act of 1937
176:International Style
89: /
50:General information
2996:Rainier Bank Tower
2742:Journal of Housing
1947:. October 15, 2011
1928:, p. 56, 112.
1770:, pp. 57, 64.
1349:The New York Times
1174:, pp. 67, 74.
833:Robin Hood Gardens
688:towers in the park
628:been redeveloped.
599:
3245:
3244:
3077:Houses of worship
2846:978-0-87395-677-2
2836:Remaking the City
2804:978-0-9888108-0-8
2797:. Process Press.
2785:978-0-86602-205-7
2729:10.1093/sw/12.4.3
2661:on March 14, 2014
2593:978-1-4195-9373-4
2570:978-0-202-30907-1
2549:978-0-7881-4528-5
2528:978-0-252-01114-6
2509:978-0-252-01114-6
2469:978-0-8262-1546-8
2448:978-0-367-62952-6
2429:978-0-8478-0571-6
2410:978-0-631-23252-0
2354:, pp. 64–65.
1889:"Taking a Tumble"
1758:, pp. 13–14.
1746:, pp. 86–87.
1686:, pp. 91–92.
1598:, pp. 79–81.
1105:, pp. 56–58.
1044:, pp. 70–72.
875:Million Programme
568:Teenage pregnancy
533:Recession of 1958
457:Wendell O. Pruitt
288:African Americans
193:
192:
3325:
3204:Istanbul Cevahir
3033:
2990:Bank of Oklahoma
2925:
2918:
2911:
2902:
2901:
2894:
2882:
2863:
2850:
2829:
2808:
2789:
2770:
2749:
2732:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2691:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2657:. Archived from
2645:
2597:
2585:
2574:
2553:
2532:
2513:
2494:
2473:
2452:
2433:
2414:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2331:
2325:
2319:
2313:
2302:
2301:, pp. 9–11.
2296:
2290:
2284:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2260:
2254:
2253:, p. 10–11.
2248:
2242:
2236:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2188:
2187:
2173:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2144:
2136:
2130:
2129:
2115:
2107:
2101:
2100:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2070:
2064:
2063:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2026:
2018:
2012:
2011:
1997:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1966:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1942:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1854:, p. 94–96.
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1705:
1699:
1693:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1562:, p. 78–79.
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1346:
1338:
1332:
1331:, p. 71–73.
1326:
1320:
1314:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1269:
1263:
1257:
1251:
1245:
1239:
1233:
1220:
1214:
1205:
1199:
1190:
1184:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1130:
1124:
1118:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1075:
1069:
1054:
1051:
1045:
1039:
1033:
1027:
1012:
1011:
1009:
1007:
991:
985:
979:
968:
962:
953:
947:
941:
935:
926:
920:
907:
901:
827:Aylesbury Estate
821:Roundshaw Estate
772:
767:
766:
765:
711:defensible space
612:
584:
366:leaving the city
252:housing projects
249:
248:
245:
244:
241:
238:
235:
231:
230:
227:
224:
221:
218:
215:
104:
103:
101:
100:
99:
94:
90:
87:
86:
85:
82:
42:
30:
29:
3333:
3332:
3328:
3327:
3326:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3232:
3209:
3107:Other buildings
3102:
3071:
3034:
3025:
3020:Columbia Center
2934:
2932:Minoru Yamasaki
2929:
2898:
2891:Pruitt Igoe Now
2885:
2873:
2870:
2847:
2805:
2786:
2757:
2755:Further reading
2752:
2705:
2703:
2664:
2662:
2605:
2600:
2594:
2571:
2550:
2529:
2510:
2491:
2470:
2449:
2430:
2411:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2346:
2338:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2316:Montgomery 1985
2314:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2285:
2281:
2273:
2269:
2261:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2237:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2191:
2166:
2162:
2137:
2133:
2108:
2104:
2099:. July 5, 2022.
2091:
2090:
2086:
2071:
2067:
2048:
2044:
2019:
2015:
1990:
1986:
1967:
1960:
1950:
1948:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1920:
1914:Montgomery 1985
1912:
1908:
1898:
1896:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1814:
1810:
1802:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1750:
1742:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1722:, pp. 7–8.
1718:
1714:
1710:, pp. 6–7.
1706:
1702:
1694:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1594:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1558:
1554:
1546:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1464:
1454:
1452:
1442:
1438:
1430:
1413:
1405:
1401:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1377:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1353:
1351:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1282:
1280:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1260:Montgomery 1985
1258:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1223:
1215:
1208:
1200:
1193:
1185:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1089:
1078:
1070:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1040:
1036:
1028:
1015:
1005:
1003:
992:
988:
980:
971:
963:
956:
948:
944:
936:
929:
921:
910:
902:
895:
891:
886:
869:Vele di Scampia
770:Missouri portal
768:
763:
761:
758:
719:suburbanization
650:
625:
610:
591:
582:
513:
501:
480:Minoru Yamasaki
465:William L. Igoe
453:Cochran Gardens
449:
428:Harry S. Truman
358:Charles Dickens
354:
349:
330:
272:Minoru Yamasaki
232:
212:
208:
166:Minoru Yamasaki
97:
95:
91:
88:
83:
80:
78:
76:
75:
45:
28:
19:
12:
11:
5:
3331:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3230:
3223:Wascana Centre
3219:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3201:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3171:
3165:
3159:
3153:
3147:
3141:
3135:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3103:
3101:
3100:
3094:
3091:Temple Beth El
3088:
3081:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3044:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3017:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2944:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2928:
2927:
2920:
2913:
2905:
2896:
2895:
2883:
2869:
2868:External links
2866:
2865:
2864:
2851:
2845:
2839:. SUNY Press.
2830:
2809:
2803:
2790:
2784:
2771:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2733:
2712:
2692:
2671:
2646:
2620:(3): 163–171.
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2598:
2592:
2575:
2569:
2554:
2548:
2533:
2527:
2514:
2508:
2495:
2489:
2474:
2468:
2453:
2447:
2434:
2428:
2415:
2409:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2378:, p. 163.
2368:
2356:
2344:
2332:
2330:, p. 167.
2320:
2318:, p. 239.
2303:
2291:
2289:, p. 170.
2279:
2277:, p. 169.
2267:
2255:
2251:Rainwater 1970
2243:
2241:, p. 226.
2228:
2216:
2214:, p. 168.
2204:
2189:
2160:
2131:
2102:
2084:
2065:
2042:
2013:
1984:
1958:
1930:
1918:
1906:
1880:
1878:, p. 112.
1868:
1856:
1844:
1842:, p. 171.
1832:
1820:
1816:Rainwater 1970
1808:
1796:
1792:Rainwater 1970
1784:
1782:, p. 215.
1780:Rainwater 1970
1772:
1768:Rainwater 1970
1760:
1756:Rainwater 1970
1748:
1736:
1724:
1712:
1700:
1698:, p. vii.
1696:Rainwater 1970
1688:
1676:
1650:
1624:
1612:
1600:
1588:
1576:
1564:
1552:
1550:, p. 282.
1548:Rainwater 1970
1540:
1528:
1516:
1501:
1489:
1477:
1462:
1436:
1434:, p. 166.
1411:
1409:, p. 165.
1399:
1395:Rainwater 1970
1387:
1361:
1333:
1321:
1319:, p. 165.
1302:
1290:
1264:
1262:, p. 231.
1252:
1250:, p. 256.
1240:
1238:, p. 170.
1221:
1206:
1202:Rainwater 1970
1191:
1189:, p. 163.
1176:
1164:
1152:
1150:, p. 164.
1131:
1119:
1117:, p. 169.
1107:
1095:
1076:
1055:
1046:
1034:
1032:, p. 164.
1013:
986:
969:
954:
942:
927:
908:
892:
890:
887:
885:
884:
878:
872:
866:
860:
854:
848:
842:
836:
830:
824:
818:
815:Red Road Flats
812:
806:
800:
797:Ballymun Flats
794:
791:St. James Town
788:
782:
775:
774:
773:
757:
754:
700:Charles Jencks
680:clearing slums
674:ville radieuse
649:
646:
624:
621:
590:
587:
576:out of wedlock
512:
509:
500:
497:
467:, a former US
448:
445:
432:administration
379:gentrification
353:
350:
348:
345:
329:
326:
315:Charles Jencks
191:
190:
187:
183:
182:
173:
169:
168:
163:
159:
158:
155:
151:
150:
146:
145:
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3018:
3015:
3014:Torre Picasso
3012:
3009:
3006:
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3000:
2997:
2994:
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2988:
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2496:
2492:
2490:0-8262-0272-1
2486:
2482:
2481:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2454:
2450:
2444:
2441:. Routledge.
2440:
2435:
2431:
2425:
2421:
2416:
2412:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2377:
2372:
2366:, p. 65.
2365:
2360:
2353:
2348:
2341:
2336:
2329:
2324:
2317:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2300:
2295:
2288:
2283:
2276:
2271:
2264:
2259:
2252:
2247:
2240:
2239:Yamasaki 1952
2235:
2233:
2225:
2220:
2213:
2208:
2202:, p. 26.
2201:
2196:
2194:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2164:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2143:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2106:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1988:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1963:
1946:
1945:The Economist
1941:
1934:
1927:
1922:
1915:
1910:
1894:
1890:
1884:
1877:
1872:
1866:, p. 96.
1865:
1860:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1836:
1830:, p. 11.
1829:
1824:
1818:, p. 11.
1817:
1812:
1805:
1800:
1794:, p. 12.
1793:
1788:
1781:
1776:
1769:
1764:
1757:
1752:
1745:
1740:
1734:, p. 97.
1733:
1728:
1721:
1716:
1709:
1704:
1697:
1692:
1685:
1680:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1621:
1616:
1610:, p. 83.
1609:
1604:
1597:
1592:
1586:, p. 76.
1585:
1580:
1574:, p. 77.
1573:
1568:
1561:
1556:
1549:
1544:
1537:
1532:
1526:, p. 78.
1525:
1520:
1514:, p. 68.
1513:
1508:
1506:
1498:
1493:
1487:, p. 63.
1486:
1481:
1475:, p. 73.
1474:
1469:
1467:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1408:
1403:
1397:, p. 10.
1396:
1391:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1350:
1345:
1337:
1330:
1325:
1318:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1300:, p. 62.
1299:
1294:
1278:
1274:
1268:
1261:
1256:
1249:
1244:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1219:, p. 85.
1218:
1213:
1211:
1203:
1198:
1196:
1188:
1183:
1181:
1173:
1168:
1162:, p. 64.
1161:
1156:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1129:, p. 61.
1128:
1123:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1099:
1093:, p. 60.
1092:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1073:
1068:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1060:
1050:
1043:
1038:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1002:. p. 142
1001:
997:
990:
984:, p. 72.
983:
978:
976:
974:
967:, p. 67.
966:
961:
959:
952:, p. 47.
951:
946:
939:
934:
932:
924:
919:
917:
915:
913:
905:
900:
898:
893:
882:
879:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
861:
858:
855:
852:
849:
846:
843:
840:
839:Cabrini–Green
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
819:
816:
813:
810:
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
792:
789:
786:
783:
780:
777:
776:
771:
760:
753:
750:
748:
747:
740:
738:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
714:
712:
707:
705:
701:
697:
691:
689:
683:
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675:
670:
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645:
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629:
620:
618:
617:
616:Koyaanisqatsi
606:
604:
595:
586:
579:
577:
573:
569:
563:
561:
560:Lee Rainwater
557:
551:
548:
542:
539:
538:feedback loop
534:
529:
527:
523:
519:
508:
506:
505:Supreme Court
496:
492:
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
444:
442:
437:
433:
429:
425:
424:urban renewal
421:
415:
411:
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371:
367:
363:
359:
344:
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291:
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280:urban renewal
277:
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206:
202:
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188:
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181:
177:
174:
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167:
164:
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156:
152:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
125:No. of blocks
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
102:
84:90°12′33.95″W
81:38°38′32.24″N
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
57:
53:
48:
41:
36:
31:
26:
21:
16:
3192:Japan Center
3119:
2954:IBM Building
2897:
2890:
2860:the original
2835:
2817:
2813:
2794:
2775:
2766:
2762:
2745:
2741:
2720:
2716:
2704:. Retrieved
2700:
2682:(4): 26–31.
2679:
2675:
2665:December 31,
2663:. Retrieved
2659:the original
2617:
2611:
2581:
2559:
2538:
2518:
2499:
2479:
2458:
2438:
2419:
2399:
2371:
2359:
2347:
2342:, p. 1.
2335:
2328:Bristol 1991
2323:
2294:
2287:Bristol 1991
2282:
2275:Bristol 1991
2270:
2263:Ramroth 2007
2258:
2246:
2226:, p. 4.
2219:
2212:Bristol 1991
2207:
2200:Comerio 1981
2175:
2163:
2146:
2134:
2117:
2105:
2096:
2087:
2078:
2068:
2051:
2045:
2028:
2016:
1999:
1987:
1970:
1949:. Retrieved
1944:
1933:
1921:
1909:
1897:. Retrieved
1892:
1883:
1871:
1859:
1847:
1840:Ramroth 2007
1835:
1823:
1811:
1806:, p. 6.
1799:
1787:
1775:
1763:
1751:
1739:
1727:
1715:
1703:
1691:
1679:
1667:. Retrieved
1662:
1653:
1641:. Retrieved
1636:
1627:
1622:, p. 8.
1615:
1603:
1591:
1579:
1567:
1555:
1543:
1538:, p. 9.
1531:
1519:
1499:, p. 4.
1492:
1480:
1453:. Retrieved
1450:The Guardian
1449:
1439:
1432:Bristol 1991
1407:Bristol 1991
1402:
1390:
1378:. Retrieved
1373:
1364:
1352:. Retrieved
1348:
1336:
1324:
1317:Ramroth 2007
1293:
1281:. Retrieved
1276:
1267:
1255:
1243:
1236:Ramroth 2007
1204:, p. 8.
1187:Ramroth 2007
1167:
1155:
1148:Bristol 1991
1122:
1115:Ramroth 2007
1110:
1098:
1049:
1037:
1030:Ramroth 2007
1004:. Retrieved
999:
989:
945:
938:Bristol 1991
906:, p. 9.
751:
744:
741:
734:
731:white collar
723:white flight
715:
708:
692:
684:
672:
669:Le Corbusier
662:
654:
651:
630:
626:
614:
607:
600:
580:
564:
556:sociological
552:
543:
530:
518:labor unions
514:
502:
493:
473:
461:World War II
450:
417:
413:
403:Joseph Darst
395:
391:working poor
383:
355:
338:
331:
319:
311:
292:
204:
200:
196:
194:
149:Construction
133:No. of units
20:
15:
3229:(1961–1967)
3022:(1989–2000)
2974:(1970–1971)
2940:Skyscrapers
2723:(4): 3–13.
2717:Social Work
2422:. Rizzoli.
2364:Meehan 1979
2352:Meehan 1979
2340:Meehan 1979
2299:Newman 1996
2224:Kidder 2022
1951:October 17,
1926:Meehan 1979
1876:Meehan 1979
1864:Meehan 1979
1852:Meehan 1979
1828:Newman 1996
1744:Meehan 1979
1732:Meehan 1979
1684:Meehan 1979
1608:Meehan 1979
1596:Meehan 1979
1584:Meehan 1979
1572:Meehan 1979
1560:Meehan 1979
1524:Meehan 1979
1512:Meehan 1979
1485:Meehan 1979
1473:Meehan 1979
1329:Meehan 1979
1217:Meehan 1979
1172:Meehan 1979
1160:Meehan 1979
1103:Meehan 1979
1072:Cendón 2012
1042:Meehan 1979
982:Meehan 1979
965:Meehan 1979
950:Kidder 2022
904:Jencks 1984
877:, in Sweden
809:Bijlmermeer
785:Regent Park
779:Panel house
727:blue collar
547:rent strike
499:Early years
469:Congressman
328:Description
205:Pruitt–Igoe
154:Constructed
96: /
71:Coordinates
33:Pruitt–Igoe
3252:Categories
2763:Positionen
2184:2638699647
2155:2689565965
2126:2575847796
2037:2781262277
2008:1811169215
1899:August 24,
923:Gyure 2019
889:References
589:Demolition
488:Korean War
407:Republican
399:Democratic
352:Background
284:integrated
264:high rises
186:Demolished
112:Demolished
2826:0731-0455
2706:March 27,
2642:219542179
2634:1531-314X
2060:402551048
1979:402578777
1669:April 28,
1643:April 28,
1455:March 27,
1380:April 28,
1354:March 29,
1283:April 28,
1248:Hall 2004
1006:April 28,
733:economy.
665:modernist
631:In 2020,
558:study by
491:planted.
362:tenements
341:Skip-stop
334:St. Louis
307:implosion
299:vandalism
268:modernist
256:St. Louis
189:1972–1976
162:Architect
157:1951–1955
59:St. Louis
3040:Airports
2603:Articles
2180:ProQuest
2151:ProQuest
2122:ProQuest
2056:ProQuest
2033:ProQuest
2004:ProQuest
1975:ProQuest
881:Luník IX
756:See also
295:tenement
260:Missouri
63:Missouri
55:Location
2385:Sources
522:muggers
511:Decline
347:History
141:Density
3206:(1987)
3200:(1976)
3194:(1968)
3188:(1967)
3182:(1966)
3176:(1965)
3170:(1965)
3164:(1963)
3158:(1963)
3152:(1962)
3146:(1959)
3140:(1957)
3134:(1955)
3128:(1954)
3122:(1954)
3116:(1951)
3099:(1982)
3093:(1974)
3087:(1964)
3068:(1977)
3062:(1969)
3056:(1961)
3050:(1956)
3016:(1988)
3010:(1981)
3004:(1978)
2998:(1977)
2992:(1977)
2986:(1975)
2980:(1972)
2968:(1967)
2962:(1966)
2956:(1963)
2950:(1963)
2843:
2824:
2814:Places
2801:
2782:
2640:
2632:
2590:
2567:
2546:
2525:
2506:
2487:
2466:
2445:
2426:
2407:
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2153:
2124:
2058:
2035:
2006:
1977:
648:Legacy
611:
583:
463:, and
401:mayor
180:modern
109:Status
2820:(2).
2638:S2CID
2390:Books
526:gangs
370:slums
172:Style
136:2,870
3225:and
2841:ISBN
2822:ISSN
2799:ISBN
2780:ISBN
2769:(2).
2748:(7).
2708:2022
2667:2014
2630:ISSN
2588:ISBN
2565:ISBN
2544:ISBN
2523:ISBN
2504:ISBN
2485:ISBN
2464:ISBN
2443:ISBN
2424:ISBN
2405:ISBN
1953:2011
1901:2022
1671:2022
1645:2022
1457:2022
1382:2022
1356:2022
1285:2022
1008:2022
721:and
623:Site
570:and
531:The
301:and
276:slum
199:and
195:The
117:Area
65:, US
2725:doi
2684:doi
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