25:
68:
442:
520:
hazards for slaughterhouse workers and for people in contact with birds. Serovar E isolates (known as Cal-10, MP, or MN) have been obtained from a variety of avian hosts worldwide, and although they were associated with the 1920s–1930s outbreak in humans, a specific reservoir for serovar E has not been identified. The M56 and WC serovars were isolated during outbreaks in mammals.
519:
serovar A is endemic among psittacine birds and has caused sporadic zoonotic disease in humans, other mammals, and tortoises. Serovar B is endemic among pigeons, has been isolated from turkeys, and has also been identified as the cause of abortion in a dairy herd. Serovars C and D are occupational
504:
strains in birds infect mucosal epithelial cells and macrophages of the respiratory tract. Septicaemia eventually develops and the bacteria become localized in epithelial cells and macrophages of most organs, conjunctiva, and gastrointestinal tract. It can also be passed in the eggs. Stress commonly
457:
infection is referred to as avian chlamydiosis. Infected birds shed the bacteria through feces and nasal discharges, which can remain infectious for several months. Many strains remain quiescent in birds until activated under stress. Birds are excellent, highly mobile vectors for the distribution of
421:
hit the United States. Although not the first report of psittacosis in the United States, it was the largest up to that time. It led to greater controls on the import of pet parrots. The aftermath of the outbreak and how it was handled led to the establishment of the
433:, and macaws. Many more cases may occur that are not correctly diagnosed or reported. Bird owners, pet shop employees, zookeepers, and veterinarians are at risk of the infection. Some outbreaks of psittacosis in poultry-processing plants have been reported.
318:
bacterium that causes psittacosis can be transmitted by mouth-to-beak contact, or through the airborne inhalation of feather dust, dried faeces, or the respiratory secretions of infected birds. Person-to-person transmission is possible, but rare.
490:-based test is also available. Although any of these tests can confirm psittacosis, false negatives are possible, so a combination of clinical and laboratory tests is recommended before giving the bird a clean bill of health.
243:
is common towards the end of the first week, after which psittacosis may develop into a serious lung infection. Diagnosis is indicated where respiratory infection occurs simultaneously with splenomegaly and/or epistaxis.
469:
in birds is often systemic and infections can be inapparent, severe, acute, or chronic with intermittent shedding. Signs in birds include "inflamed eyes, difficulty in breathing, watery droppings, and green urates."
1049:
1034:
1019:
369:
in blood samples combined with the probable course of the disease. Typical inclusions called "Leventhal-Cole-Lillie bodies" can be seen within macrophages in BAL (bronchoalveolar lavage) fluid. Culture of
299:
599:
429:
From 2002 through 2009, 66 human cases of psittacosis were reported to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and most resulted from exposure to infected pet birds, usually cockatiels,
732:
1160:
339:. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein can be markedly elevated. Differential diagnosis must be made with typhus, typhoid, and atypical pneumonia by
498:
Infection is usually by the droppings of another infected bird, though it can also be transmitted by feathers and eggs, and is typically either inhaled or ingested.
406:. Remission of symptoms is usually evident within 48–72 hours. However, relapse can occur, and treatment must continue for at least 10–14 days after fever subsides.
1153:
711:
528:
Treatment is usually with antibiotics, such as doxycycline or tetracycline, and can be administered through drops in the water or injections. Many strains of
1146:
306:) may occasionally occur. Severe pneumonia requiring intensive-care support may also occur. Fatal cases have been reported (less than 1% of cases).
755:
1181:
1585:
741:
509:
strains are similar in virulence, grow readily in cell culture, have 16S-rRNA genes that differ by <0.8%, and belong to eight known
402:
hydrochloride, or chloramphenicol palmitate. For initial treatment of severely ill patients, doxycycline hyclate may be administered
884:
882:
880:
549:
877:
942:
195:
In humans, after an incubation period of 5–19 days, the disease course ranges from asymptomatic to systemic illness with severe
991:
972:
917:
749:
418:
1620:
889:
604:
561:
789:
167:
and many other species of birds. The incidence of infection in canaries and finches is believed to be lower than in
1138:
235:
sometimes appear during this stage. These are pink, blanching maculopapular eruptions resembling the rose spots of
174:
In certain contexts, the word is used when the disease is carried by any species of birds belonging to the family
660:
Dembek, Zygmunt F.; Mothershead, Jerry L.; Owens, Akeisha N.; Chekol, Tesema; Wu, Aiguo (September 15, 2023).
458:
chlamydial infection because they feed on, and have access to, the detritus of infected animals of all sorts.
1615:
1313:
423:
1337:
1590:
1554:
1229:
1600:
1595:
75:
1610:
1545:
1526:
1492:
487:
199:. It presents chiefly as an atypical pneumonia. In the first week of psittacosis, the symptoms mimic
1499:
1448:
1064:
912:
910:
866:
1538:
354:
1605:
1531:
1372:
1173:
907:
544:
Psittacosis was one of more than a dozen agents that the United States researched as potential
336:
1104:
1028:
890:"Winged Wisdom Pet Bird Magazine - Zoonotic (Bird-Human) Diseases: Psittacosis, Salmonellosis"
618:
1506:
1437:
569:
641:
1485:
1478:
1428:
1308:
1276:
295:
8:
1254:
1169:
1053:
836:
118:
91:
688:
661:
38:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
1416:
1242:
1219:
950:
127:
1406:
1075:
968:
848:
814:
785:
745:
693:
565:
545:
446:
232:
152:
86:
1168:
1058:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1298:
1293:
1282:
1115:
683:
673:
921:
67:
1563:
1247:
1199:
1069:
996:
391:
253:
893:
1559:
1517:
1352:
1177:
734:
Australian
Guidelines for the Prevention and Control of Infection in Healthcare
505:
triggers onset of severe symptoms, resulting in rapid deterioration and death.
216:
1126:
1080:
678:
1579:
1377:
1190:
533:
236:
200:
1043:
275:
at that stage show patchy infiltrates or a diffuse whiteout of lung fields.
1469:
1288:
697:
582:
The initial content for this article was adapted from sources available at
399:
387:
328:
303:
279:
264:
240:
852:
818:
441:
394:
are the choice for treating patients. Most people respond to oral therapy
1396:
1099:
943:
Chemical and
Biological Weapons: Possession and Programs Past and Present
403:
395:
287:
175:
95:
1362:
1121:
646:
564:, Lena Rose Pepperdine died of parrot fever. She was the first wife of
383:
374:
is hazardous and should only be carried out in biosafety laboratories.
345:
341:
249:
228:
224:
208:
144:
1011:
1443:
1209:
1110:
478:
Initial diagnosis may be by symptoms, but is usually confirmed by an
430:
335:
enzymes are abnormal in half of the patients, with mild elevation of
291:
283:
220:
196:
140:
122:
1453:
1266:
1225:
483:
362:
358:
327:
Blood analysis usually shows a normal white cell count, but marked
256:
is not unusual. Towards the end of the first week, stupor or even
245:
212:
115:
513:. All should be considered to be readily transmissible to humans.
510:
479:
353:. Exposure history is paramount to diagnosis. Diagnosis involves
350:
268:
160:
965:
Quest for
Distinction: Pepperdine University in the 20th Century
662:"Psittacosis: An Underappreciated and Often Undiagnosed Disease"
1038:
1023:
272:
168:
148:
132:
332:
267:
pneumonia with continuous high fevers, headaches, cough, and
204:
136:
918:"PSITTACOSIS DISEASE - Pet Birds, Pet Parrots, Exotic Birds"
659:
302:
of the lacrimal gland/orbit), and neurologic complications (
1234:
257:
164:
156:
834:
727:
725:
967:. Malibu: Pepperdine University Press. pp. 9–10.
835:
Potter ME, Kaufmann AK, Plikaytis BD (February 1983).
583:
1001:
722:
640:
414:Psittacosis was first reported in Europe in 1879.
263:The second week is more akin to acute bacteremic
1577:
947:James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies
804:
773:
78:stain of a mouse brain impression smear showing
805:Gregory DW, Schaffner W (1997). "Psittacosis".
1154:
784:. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State Press. p. 863.
539:
953:, April 9, 2002, accessed November 14, 2008.
742:National Health and Medical Research Council
182:is used when other birds carry the disease.
871:National Public Radio All Things Considered
867:"In 1929, Parrot Fever Gripped The Country"
779:
357:from respiratory secretions of patients or
1161:
1147:
66:
1360:
687:
677:
1404:
935:
837:"Psittacosis in the United States, 1979"
830:
828:
798:
440:
361:with a fourfold or greater increase in
1578:
1142:
962:
825:
555:
309:
190:
712:"Chlamydia Psittaci (Chlamydophila)"
18:
1586:Biological anti-agriculture weapons
997:Ornithosis in Pigeons - Pigeonpedia
616:
13:
288:inflammation of the heart's muscle
248:can be so severe that it suggests
14:
1632:
985:
493:
300:extranodal marginal zone lymphoma
548:before the nation suspended its
23:
956:
859:
409:
704:
653:
633:
610:
593:
562:1929–1930 psittacosis pandemic
523:
473:
382:The infection is treated with
225:low level of white blood cells
1:
575:
424:National Institutes of Health
417:In 1929, a highly publicized
278:Complications in the form of
131:and contracted from infected
1555:Streptobacillus moniliformis
841:MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep
605:Dorland's Medical Dictionary
377:
322:
260:can result in severe cases.
185:
16:Infectious disease in humans
7:
1621:Zoonotic bacterial diseases
1314:Louse borne relapsing fever
992:Psittacosis on Birds n Ways
436:
76:Direct fluorescent antibody
10:
1637:
1338:Tick borne relapsing fever
716:Infectious Disease Advisor
550:biological weapons program
540:Use as a biological weapon
331:is occasionally apparent.
1546:Fusobacterium polymorphum
1527:Fusobacterium necrophorum
1516:
1493:Capnocytophaga canimorsus
1468:
1395:
1351:
1264:
1207:
1198:
1189:
1090:
1005:
744:. May 2019. p. 274.
679:10.3390/pathogens12091165
488:polymerase chain reaction
85:
74:
65:
60:
32:This article needs to be
1500:Porphyromonas gingivalis
1449:Lymphogranuloma venereum
963:Baird, W. David (2016).
461:
355:microbiological cultures
1539:Fusobacterium nucleatum
419:outbreak of psittacosis
1373:Leptospira interrogans
450:
337:aspartate transaminase
121:in humans caused by a
1507:Prevotella intermedia
1438:Chlamydia trachomatis
570:Pepperdine University
444:
1616:Respiratory diseases
1486:Tannerella forsythia
1479:Bacteroides fragilis
1429:Chlamydia pneumoniae
1309:Borrelia recurrentis
1277:Borrelia burgdorferi
780:Saif, Y. M. (2003).
560:In 1930, during the
296:keratoconjunctivitis
1591:Atypical pneumonias
1532:Lemierre's syndrome
1255:Treponema denticola
807:Semin Respir Infect
782:Diseases of poultry
718:. January 20, 2019.
584:https://www.cdc.gov
532:are susceptible to
92:Infectious medicine
1601:Biological weapons
1596:Bacterial diseases
1417:Chlamydia psittaci
1243:Treponema carateum
1220:Treponema pallidum
1170:Bacterial diseases
1091:External resources
951:Middlebury College
556:Notable casualties
546:biological weapons
455:Chlamydia psittaci
451:
316:Chlamydia psittaci
310:Transmission route
304:brain inflammation
292:joint inflammation
284:liver inflammation
241:Spleen enlargement
191:Signs and symptoms
128:Chlamydia psittaci
119:infectious disease
1573:
1572:
1464:
1463:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1347:
1346:
1136:
1135:
974:978-0-9977004-0-4
751:978-1-86496-028-0
568:, the founder of
566:George Pepperdine
447:little blue heron
101:
100:
55:Medical condition
53:
52:
1628:
1611:Poultry diseases
1402:
1401:
1358:
1357:
1333:Borrelia parkeri
1327:Borrelia duttoni
1321:Borrelia hermsii
1299:Neuroborreliosis
1294:Erythema migrans
1283:Borrelia afzelii
1205:
1204:
1196:
1195:
1163:
1156:
1149:
1140:
1139:
1003:
1002:
979:
978:
960:
954:
939:
933:
932:
930:
929:
920:. Archived from
914:
905:
904:
902:
901:
892:. Archived from
886:
875:
874:
863:
857:
856:
847:(1): 27SS–31SS.
832:
823:
822:
802:
796:
795:
777:
771:
770:
768:
766:
760:
754:. Archived from
739:
729:
720:
719:
708:
702:
701:
691:
681:
657:
651:
650:
644:
642:"Horder's spots"
637:
631:
630:
628:
626:
617:Dugdale, David.
614:
608:
597:
449:with psittacosis
70:
58:
57:
48:
45:
39:
27:
26:
19:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1569:
1564:Haverhill fever
1512:
1460:
1383:
1343:
1260:
1200:Spirochaetaceae
1185:
1167:
1137:
1132:
1131:
1086:
1085:
1014:
988:
983:
982:
975:
961:
957:
940:
936:
927:
925:
916:
915:
908:
899:
897:
888:
887:
878:
873:. May 31, 2009.
865:
864:
860:
833:
826:
803:
799:
792:
778:
774:
764:
762:
758:
752:
737:
731:
730:
723:
710:
709:
705:
658:
654:
639:
638:
634:
624:
622:
621:. MediLine Plus
615:
611:
598:
594:
578:
558:
542:
526:
496:
476:
464:
439:
412:
392:chloramphenicol
380:
365:titers against
325:
312:
254:nuchal rigidity
203:, causing high
193:
188:
106:—also known as
94:
56:
49:
43:
40:
37:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1634:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1571:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1560:Rat-bite fever
1550:
1549:
1542:
1535:
1522:
1520:
1518:Fusobacteriota
1514:
1513:
1511:
1510:
1503:
1496:
1489:
1482:
1474:
1472:
1466:
1465:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1412:
1410:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1368:
1366:
1355:
1353:Leptospiraceae
1349:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1317:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1272:
1270:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1251:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1232:
1215:
1213:
1202:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1178:proteobacteria
1166:
1165:
1158:
1151:
1143:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1129:
1118:
1107:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1072:
1061:
1046:
1031:
1015:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1006:Classification
1000:
999:
994:
987:
986:External links
984:
981:
980:
973:
955:
934:
906:
876:
858:
824:
797:
790:
772:
761:on 14 May 2020
750:
721:
703:
652:
632:
609:
591:
590:
589:
588:
577:
574:
557:
554:
541:
538:
534:bacteriophages
525:
522:
495:
492:
475:
472:
463:
460:
438:
435:
411:
408:
379:
376:
324:
321:
311:
308:
298:(occasionally
233:Horder's spots
217:conjunctivitis
192:
189:
187:
184:
99:
98:
89:
83:
82:
72:
71:
63:
62:
54:
51:
50:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1633:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1606:Bird diseases
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1581:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1379:
1378:Leptospirosis
1375:
1374:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1273:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1191:Spirochaetota
1188:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1174:gram negative
1171:
1164:
1159:
1157:
1152:
1150:
1145:
1144:
1141:
1128:
1124:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1008:
1004:
998:
995:
993:
990:
989:
976:
970:
966:
959:
952:
948:
944:
938:
924:on 2007-11-29
923:
919:
913:
911:
896:on 2007-11-01
895:
891:
885:
883:
881:
872:
868:
862:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
831:
829:
820:
816:
812:
808:
801:
793:
791:0-8138-0423-X
787:
783:
776:
757:
753:
747:
743:
736:
735:
728:
726:
717:
713:
707:
699:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
656:
648:
643:
636:
620:
619:"Psittacosis"
613:
607:
606:
601:
596:
592:
587:
585:
580:
579:
573:
571:
567:
563:
553:
551:
547:
537:
535:
531:
521:
518:
514:
512:
508:
503:
499:
491:
489:
485:
481:
471:
468:
459:
456:
448:
443:
434:
432:
427:
425:
420:
415:
407:
405:
404:intravenously
401:
397:
393:
389:
388:tetracyclines
385:
375:
373:
368:
364:
360:
359:serologically
356:
352:
348:
347:
343:
338:
334:
330:
320:
317:
307:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
276:
274:
270:
266:
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
242:
238:
237:typhoid fever
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
201:typhoid fever
198:
183:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
129:
124:
120:
117:
113:
109:
105:
97:
93:
90:
88:
84:
81:
77:
73:
69:
64:
59:
47:
35:
30:
21:
20:
1553:
1544:
1537:
1525:
1505:
1498:
1491:
1484:
1477:
1470:Bacteroidota
1436:
1427:
1421:
1415:
1405:
1371:
1361:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1307:
1289:Lyme disease
1281:
1275:
1265:
1253:
1241:
1218:
1208:
1120:
1109:
1098:
1074:
1063:
1048:
1033:
1018:
964:
958:
946:
937:
926:. Retrieved
922:the original
898:. Retrieved
894:the original
870:
861:
844:
840:
810:
806:
800:
781:
775:
763:. Retrieved
756:the original
733:
715:
706:
669:
665:
655:
635:
623:. Retrieved
612:
603:
600:"ornithosis"
595:
581:
559:
543:
529:
527:
516:
515:
506:
501:
500:
497:
494:Epidemiology
477:
466:
465:
454:
452:
445:An immature
428:
416:
413:
410:Epidemiology
400:tetracycline
381:
371:
366:
340:
329:leukocytosis
326:
315:
313:
280:endocarditis
277:
265:pneumococcal
262:
194:
179:
173:
126:
111:
108:parrot fever
107:
103:
102:
79:
41:
33:
1422:Psittacosis
1397:Chlamydiota
1127:Psittacosis
1100:MedlinePlus
813:(1): 7–11.
672:(9): 1165.
625:9 September
530:C. psittaci
517:C. psittaci
507:C. psittaci
502:C. psittaci
467:C. psittaci
396:doxycycline
384:antibiotics
372:C. psittaci
367:C. psittaci
221:nose bleeds
176:Psittacidae
147:, and from
145:budgerigars
104:Psittacosis
96:Pulmonology
80:C. psittaci
61:Psittacosis
1580:Categories
1363:Leptospira
1122:Patient UK
1076:DiseasesDB
928:2007-12-29
900:2007-12-29
765:23 January
647:GPnotebook
576:References
453:In birds,
346:Legionella
342:Mycoplasma
250:meningitis
229:Rose spots
209:joint pain
180:ornithosis
178:, whereas
169:psittacine
141:cockatiels
135:, such as
112:ornithosis
1444:Chlamydia
1407:Chlamydia
1210:Treponema
1111:eMedicine
666:Pathogens
524:Treatment
486:test. A
474:Diagnosis
431:parakeets
378:Treatment
323:Diagnosis
252:and some
197:pneumonia
186:In humans
123:bacterium
87:Specialty
44:July 2014
1454:Trachoma
1267:Borrelia
1226:Syphilis
1116:med/1951
698:37764973
689:10536718
511:serovars
484:antibody
437:In birds
363:antibody
246:Headache
213:diarrhea
153:sparrows
116:zoonotic
1172:due to
1070:D009956
853:6621602
819:9097370
480:antigen
351:Q fever
269:dyspnea
231:called
171:birds.
149:pigeons
133:parrots
125:called
34:updated
1105:000088
971:
851:
817:
788:
748:
696:
686:
273:X-rays
223:, and
205:fevers
143:, and
137:macaws
114:—is a
110:, and
1248:Pinta
1230:bejel
759:(PDF)
738:(PDF)
462:Signs
349:, or
333:Liver
165:gulls
157:ducks
1235:Yaws
1176:non-
1081:2375
1065:MeSH
1054:9-CM
1029:1C22
969:ISBN
849:PMID
815:PMID
786:ISBN
767:2020
746:ISBN
694:PMID
627:2012
482:and
390:and
314:The
258:coma
161:hens
1182:BV4
1059:073
1050:ICD
1044:A70
1035:ICD
1020:ICD
945:",
684:PMC
674:doi
602:at
1582::
1125::
1114::
1103::
1079::
1068::
1057::
1042::
1039:10
1027::
1024:11
949:,
909:^
879:^
869:.
845:32
843:.
839:.
827:^
811:12
809:.
740:.
724:^
714:.
692:.
682:.
670:12
668:.
664:.
645:.
572:.
552:.
536:.
426:.
398:,
386:;
344:,
294:,
290:,
286:,
282:,
271:.
239:.
227:.
219:,
215:,
211:,
207:,
163:,
159:,
155:,
151:,
139:,
1566:)
1562:/
1558:(
1534:)
1530:(
1424:)
1420:(
1380:)
1376:(
1340:)
1336:(
1330:/
1324:/
1316:)
1312:(
1280:/
1250:)
1246:(
1228:/
1184:)
1180:(
1162:e
1155:t
1148:v
1052:-
1037:-
1022:-
1012:D
977:.
941:"
931:.
903:.
855:.
821:.
794:.
769:.
700:.
676::
649:.
629:.
586:.
46:)
42:(
36:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
