330:. Radioactive material was released over a large portion of northern and southern Europe—including Sweden—where evidence of the nuclear disaster was first registered outside of the Soviet Union, and before the Chernobyl accident was finally communicated by the Soviet Union to the rest of the world. The disaster prompted worldwide calls for the reactors to be completely decommissioned; however, there is still considerable reliance on RBMK facilities for power in Russia. Most of the flaws in the design of RBMK-1000 reactors were corrected after the Chernobyl accident and a dozen reactors have since been operating without any serious incidents for over thirty years.
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was predicted to be at most a rupture of one or two pressure channels, the steam was to be bubbled through the water and condensed there, reducing the overpressure in the leaktight compartment. The flow capacity of the pipes to the pools limited the protection capacity to simultaneous rupture of two pressure channels; a higher number of failures would cause pressure buildup sufficient to lift the cover plate ("Structure E", after the explosion nicknamed "Elena", not to be confused with the
Russian
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the color of the housing of the dials matches that of the control rods, whose colors correspond to their function, for example, red for automatic control rods. The other display is a core map or core channel cartogram and is circular, is made of tiles, and represents every channel on the reactor. Each tile is made of a single light cover with a channel number and an incandescent light bulb, and each light bulb illuminates to represent out-of-spec (higher or lower than normal) channel parameters.
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782:, and joined with the central zircaloy segment with zirconium-steel alloy couplings. The pressure tube is held in the graphite stack channels with two alternating types of 20mm high split graphite rings. One is in direct contact with the tube and has 1.5mm clearance to the graphite stack, the other one is directly touching the graphite stack and has 1.3mm clearance to the tube. This assembly reduces transfer of mechanical loads caused by
1644:. The largest of these updates fixed the RBMK control rod design. The control rods have 4.5-metre (14 ft 9 in) graphite displacers, which prevent coolant water from entering the space vacated as the rods are withdrawn. In the original design, those displacers, being shorter than the height of the core, left 1.25-metre (4.1 ft) columns of water at the bottom (and 1.25 metres at the top) when the rods were fully extracted.
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followed closely. However, the manuals were vague and Soviet power plant staff already had a habit of bending the rules in order to meet economic targets, despite inadequate or malfunctioning equipment. Crucially, it was not made clear that a number of control rods had to stay in the reactor at all times in order to protect against an accident, as loosely articulated by the
Operational Reactivity Margin (ORM) parameter. An ORM
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1699:-1 was offline while repairs were made related to deformed graphite moderator blocks. The 18-month project included research and the development of maintenance machines and monitoring systems. Similar work will be applied to the remaining operational RBMKs. Graphite moderator blocks in the RBMK can be repaired and replaced in situ, unlike in the other current large graphite moderated reactor, the
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542:. This prompted a sudden overhaul of the RBMK. Plutonium production in an RBMK would have been achieved by operating the reactor under special thermal parameters, but this capability was abandoned early on. This was the design that was finalized in 1968. The redesign did not solve further flaws that were not discovered until years later. Construction of the first RBMK, which was at
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high. This situation, however, does make it considerably harder to control the reactor, especially at low power. Thus, control systems must be very reliable and control-room personnel must be rigorously trained in the peculiarities and limits of the system. Neither of these requirements were in place at
Chernobyl: since the reactor's actual design bore the approval stamp of the
1025:, a holding tank for allowing the gaseous radioactive products to decay before being discharged, an aerosol filter to remove solid decay products, and a ventilator stack, the iconic chimney above the space between reactors in second generation RBMKs such as Kursk and Chernobyl 3/4 or some distance away from the reactors in first generation RBMKs such as Kursk and Chernobyl 1/2.
750:. The serpentinite provides the radiation shielding of the biological shield and was applied as a special concrete mixture. The disk is supported on 16 rollers, located on the upper side of the reinforced cylindrical water tank. The structure of the UBS supports the fuel and control channels, the floor above the reactor in the central hall, and the steam-water pipes.
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flow. ECCS for long-term cooling of the intact circuit consists of three separate pumps drawing water from the condensate storage tanks, each able to supply half of the maximum flow. The ECCS pumps are powered from the essential internal 6 kV lines, backed up by diesel generators. Some valves that require uninterrupted power are also backed up by batteries.
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separators, fed by the first-stage condensate pump to a chemical (ion-exchange) purifier, then by a second-stage condensate pump to four deaerators where dissolved and entrained gases are removed; deaerators also serve as storage tanks for feedwater. From the deaerators, the water is pumped through filters and into the bottom parts of the steam separator drums.
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and sticking of some emergency protection rods. However, the slow insertion speed of the control rods, together with their design causing localized positive reactivity as the displacer moves through the lower part of the core, created a number of possible situations where initiation of the EPS could itself cause or aggravate a reactor runaway.
1343:, operating during both accident and normal operation, are fed from the pressure suppression pools through heat exchangers cooled by the plant service water, and cool the air above the pools. Jet coolers are located in the topmost parts of the compartments; their role is to cool the air and remove the steam and radioactive aerosol particles.
1610:, discussion of the reactor's flaws was forbidden, even among the actual personnel operating the plant. Some later RBMK designs did include control rods on electromagnetic grapples, thus controlling the reaction speed and, if necessary, stopping the reaction completely. The RBMK reactor at Chernobyl, however, had manual clutch control rods.
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determine the height at which the boiling begins in the reactor; if the coolant temperature is not sufficiently below its boiling point at the system pressure, the boiling starts at the very bottom part of the reactor instead of its higher parts. With few absorbers in the reactor core, such as during the
Chernobyl accident, the positive
1637:, revealed that the institute's scientists had long known that the RBMK had significant design flaws. Legasov's suicide in 1988, following frustrated attempts to promote nuclear and industrial safety reform, caused shockwaves throughout the scientific community. The RBMK's design problems were discussed increasingly openly.
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biological shield and for thermal insulation of the reactor space. They consist of serpentinite concrete blocks that cover individual removable steel-graphite plugs, located over the tops of the channels, forming what resembles a circle with a grid pattern. The floor above the reactor is thus known by RBMK plant workers as
1305:, the pressure rose to levels high enough to blow the top off the reactor, breaking open the fuel channels in the process and starting a massive fire when air contacted the superheated graphite core. After the Chernobyl accident, some RBMK reactors were retrofitted with a partial containment structure, in lieu of a full
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Chernobyl disaster, the control rod servos on other RBMK reactors were exchanged to allow faster rod movements, and even faster movement was achieved by cooling of the control rod channels by a thin layer of water between an inner jacket and the
Zircaloy tube of the channel while letting the rods themselves move in gas.
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mentally and physically demanding task requiring the timely adjustment of dozens of parameters every minute, around the clock, constantly wearing out switches such as those used for the control rods and causing operators to sweat. The enrichment percentage was increased to 2.0%, up from 1.8% to alleviate these issues.
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reliably and have to rely on their intuition. During startup of a reactor with a poison-free core this lack of information can be manageable because the reactor behaves predictably, but a non-uniformly poisoned core can cause large nonhomogenities of power distribution, with potentially catastrophic results.
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solutions to many of the RBMK's flaws such as a lack of protection against no feedwater supply. Leningrad and
Chernobyl units 1 both had partial meltdowns that were treated, alongside other nuclear accidents at power plants, as state secrets and so were unknown even to other workers at those same plants.
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as dense as liquid water). Because of this lower density (of mass, and consequently of atom nuclei able to absorb neutrons), light water's neutron-absorption capability practically disappears when it boils. This allows more neutrons to fission more U-235 nuclei and thereby increase the reactor power,
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through the channels. The RBMK-1500 also uses less uranium. The helical flow is created by turbulators in the fuel assembly and increases heat removal. Because of the RBMK's positive void coefficient, the reduced cooling water volume causes a higher power output. As the name suggests, it was designed
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connected to the 750 kV grid by a single generator transformer. The generators are connected to their common transformer by two switches in series. Between them, the unit transformers are connected to supply power to the power plant's own systems; each generator can therefore be connected to the
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and opening into the Steam
Distribution Corridor below the reactor, on level +6. The floor of the corridor contains entrances of a large number of vertical pipes, leading to the bottoms of the Pressure Suppression Pools ("bubbler" pools) located on levels +3 and +0. In the event of an accident, which
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In RBMK control rooms there are two large panels or mimic displays representing a top view of the reactor. One display is made up mostly or completely (in first generation RBMKs) of colored dials or rod position indicators: these dials represent the position of the control rods inside the reactor and
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The reactor emergency protection system (EPS) was designed to shut down the reactor when its operational parameters are exceeded. The design accounted for steam collapse in the core when the fuel element temperature falls below 265 °C, coolant vaporization in fuel channels in cold reactor state,
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to lower the reactivity differences between a new and partially spent fuel assembly. To reduce thermal expansion issues and interaction with the cladding, the pellets have hemispherical indentations. A 2 mm hole through the axis of the pellet serves to reduce the temperature in the center of the
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Above the UBS, there is a space with upper channel piping and instrumentation and control (I&C) or control and monitoring cabling. Above that is
Assembly 11, made up of the upper shield cover or channel covers. Their top surfaces form part of the floor of the reactor hall and serve as part of the
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Below the bottom of the reactor core there is the lower biological shield (LBS), similar to the UBS, but only 2m x 14.5m in size. It is penetrated by the tubes for the lower ends of the pressure channels and carries the weight of the graphite stack and the coolant inlet piping. A steel structure, two
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In RBMK reactors, generation of steam in the coolant water would then in practice create a void: a bubble that does not absorb neutrons. The reduction in moderation by light water is irrelevant, as graphite still moderates the neutrons. However, the loss of absorption dramatically alters the balance
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directly in the reactor core in special fuel channels with fuel rods with stainless steel cladding instead of the more common
Zircaloy cladding, for a steam outlet temperature of 450 °C. No reactor with this power output has ever been built, with the most powerful one currently being as of 2018
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The PPDDCS and RCPS are supposed to complement each other. The RCPS system consists of 211 movable control rods. Both systems, however, have deficiencies, most noticeably at low reactor power levels. The PPDDCS is designed to maintain reactor power density distribution between 10 and 120% of nominal
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The gas is injected to the core stack from the bottom in a low flow rate, and exits from the standpipe of each channel via an individual pipe. The moisture and temperature of the outlet gas is monitored; an increase of them is an indicator of a coolant leak. A single gas circuit serves two RBMK-1000
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The narrow space between the rod and its channel hinders water flow around the rods during their movement and acts as a fluid damper, which is the primary cause of their slow insertion time (nominally 18–21 seconds for the reactor control and protection system rods, or about 0.4 m/s). After the
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When the control rod is fully retracted, the graphite displacer is located in the middle of the core height, with 1.25 m of water at each of its ends. The displacement of water in the lower 1.25 m of the core as the rod moves down could cause a local increase of reactivity in the bottom of
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are inserted from above; 24 shortened rods are inserted from below and are used to augment the axial power distribution control of the core. With the exception of 12 automatic rods, the control rods have a 4.5 m (14 ft 9 in) long graphite section at the end, separated by a 1.25 m
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The fuel assemblies consist of two sets ("sub-assemblies") with 18 fuel rods and 1 carrier rod. The fuel rods are arranged along the central carrier rod, which has an outer diameter of 1.3 cm. All rods of a fuel assembly are held in place with 10 stainless steel spacers separated by 360 mm
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and has dimensions 21.6m × 21.6m × 25.5m. It houses the vessel of the reactor, which is annular, made of an inner and outer cylindrical wall and top and bottom metal plates that cover the space between the inner and outer walls, without covering the space surrounded by the vessel. The reactor vessel
489:
The RBMK was proclaimed by some as the national reactor of the Soviet Union, probably due to nationalism because of its unique design, large size and power output. Meanwhile the VVER design was called the "American reactor" due to the pressurized water (PWR) design shared with many
Western reactors.
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During insertion, the graphite would first displace that lower water, locally increasing reactivity. Also, when the rods were in their uppermost position, the absorber ends were outside the core, requiring a relatively large displacement before achieving a significant reduction in reactivity. These
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is 39 m (127 ft 11 in) long and its total weight is 1,200 t (1,300 short tons). The coolant flow for each turbine is 82,880 t (91,360 short tons)/h. The generator produces 20 kV 50 Hz AC power. The generator's stator is cooled by water while its rotor is cooled by
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inherently safe when operated within established parameters, the Soviet authorities assumed proper adherence to doctrine by workers would make any accident impossible. RBMK reactors were designed to allow fuel rods to be changed at full power without shutting down, as in the pressurized heavy water
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The RBMK design was built primarily to be powerful, quick to build and easy to maintain. Full physical containment structures for each reactor would have more than doubled the cost and construction time of each plant, and since the design had been certified by the Soviet nuclear science ministry as
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The short-term ECCS subsystem consists of two groups of six accumulator tanks, containing water blanketed with nitrogen under pressure of 10 megapascals (1,500 psi), connected by fast-acting valves to the reactor. Each group can supply 50% of the maximum coolant flow to the damaged half of the
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The reactor has two independent cooling circuits, each having four main circulating pumps (three operating, one standby) that service one half of the reactor. The cooling water is fed to the reactor through lower water lines to a common pressure header (one for each cooling circuit), which is split
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plutonium and, in a civilian context, for better reactor uptime. When a fuel assembly has to be replaced, the machine is positioned above the fuel channel: then it mates to the latter, equalizes pressure within, pulls the rod, and inserts a fresh one. The spent rod is then placed in a cooling pond.
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to be already obsolete shortly after the commissioning of Chernobyl unit 1. Aleksandrov and Dollezhal did not investigate further or even deeply understand the problems in the RBMK, and the void coefficient was not analyzed in the manuals for the reactor. Engineers at Chernobyl unit 1 had to create
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Of the 17 RBMKs built, all three surviving reactors at the Chernobyl plant have now been closed. Unit 1 was closed in 1996, Unit 3 in 2000, Unit 4 having been destroyed in the accident, and Unit 2 disabled after a hydrogen explosion in 1991. Chernobyl 5 and 6 were under construction at the time of
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A high void coefficient does not necessarily make a reactor inherently unsafe, as some of the fission neutrons are emitted with a delay of seconds or even minutes (post-fission neutron emission from daughter nuclei), and therefore steps can be taken to reduce the fission rate before it becomes too
1477:
The RBMK-2000 and RBMK-3600 were designed to produce 2000 and 3600 MW of electrical power respectively. The RBMK-2000 would have had an increased channel diameter and number of fuel rods per fuel assembly while maintaining the same dimensions of the reactor core as the RBMK-1000 and RBMK-1500. The
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that replace the mimic displays and most chart recorders and eliminate the need to type in channel numbers and instead operators lay a cursor over a (now representative) tile to reveal its parameters that are shown on the lower side of the video wall. The control room is located below the floor of
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located inside and outside the core. The physical power density distribution control system (PPDDCS) has sensors inside the core; the reactor control and protection system (RCPS) uses sensors in the core and in the lateral biological shield tank. The external sensors in the tank are located around
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ECCS for long-term cooling of the damaged circuit consists of three pairs of electrical pumps, drawing water from the pressure suppression pools; the water is cooled by the plant service water by means of heat exchangers in the suction lines. Each pair is able to supply half of the maximum coolant
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The nominal temperature of the coolant at the inlet of the reactor is about 265–270 °C (509–518 °F) and the outlet temperature 284 °C (543 °F), at pressure in the drum separator and reactor of 6.9 megapascals (69 bar; 1,000 psi). The pressure and the inlet temperature
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neutron absorber section. The role of the graphite section, known as "displacer", is to enhance the difference between the neutron flux attenuation levels of inserted and retracted rods, as the graphite displaces water that would otherwise act as a neutron absorber, although much weaker than boron
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There are 1693 fuel channels and 170 control rod channels in the first generation RBMK reactor cores. Second generation reactor cores (such as Kursk and Chernobyl 3/4) have 1661 fuel channels and 211 control rod channels. The fuel assembly is suspended in the fuel channel on a bracket, with a seal
700:
The reactor vessel has on its outer side an integral cylindrical annular water tank, a welded structure with 3 cm thick walls, an inner diameter of 16.6m and an outer diameter of 19m, internally divided to 16 vertical compartments. The water is supplied to the compartments from the bottom and
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the dimensions of which are 25 cm × 25 cm on the plane perpendicular to the channels, and with several longitudinal dimensions of between 20 cm and 60 cm depending on the location in the stack. There are holes of 11.4 cm diameter through the longitudinal axis of the blocks
502:
would have needed to be very large and expensive, doubling the cost of each unit, due to the large size of the RBMK, it was originally omitted from the design. It was argued by its designers that the RBMK's strategy of having each fuel assembly in its own channel with flowing cooling water, was an
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based on 1950s Soviet technology, the RBMK design was optimized for speed of production over redundancy. It was designed and constructed with several design characteristics that proved dangerously unstable when operated outside their design specifications. The decision to use a graphite core with
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Operators have to type in the number of the affected channel(s) and then view the instruments to find exactly what parameters are out of spec. The core map represented information from the SKALA computer. Each unit had its own computer housed in a separate room. The control room also has chart or
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Additional static boron-based absorbers are inserted into the core when it is loaded with fresh fuel. About 240 absorbers are added during initial core loading. These absorbers are gradually removed with increasing burnup. The reactor's void coefficient depends on the core content; it ranges from
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Hydrogen removal from the leaktight compartment is performed by removal of 800 m (28,000 cu ft)/hour of air, its filtration, and discharge into the atmosphere. The air removal is stopped automatically in case of a coolant leak and has to be reinstated manually. Hydrogen is present
1167:
The level of water in the steam separators, the percentage of steam in the reactor pressure tubes, the level at which the water begins to boil in the reactor core, the neutron flux and power distribution in the reactor, and the feedwater flow through the core have to be carefully controlled. The
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formed from fission. This energy must be removed to avoid overheating the graphite. About 80–85% of the energy deposited in the graphite is removed by the fuel rod coolant channels, using conduction via the graphite rings. The rest of the graphite heat is removed from the control rod channels by
561:
By 1980 NIKIET realized, after completing a confidential study, that accidents with the RBMK were likely even during normal operation, but no action was taken to correct the RBMK's flaws. Instead, manuals were revised, which was believed to be enough to ensure safe operation as long as they were
549:
At Leningrad it was discovered that the RBMK, due to its high positive void coefficient, became harder to control as the uranium fuel was consumed or burned up, becoming unpredictable by the time it was shut down after three years for maintenance. This made controlling the RBMK a very laborious,
533:
The flaws in the original RBMK design were recognized by others, including from within the Kurchatov Institute before the first units were built, but the orders for construction of the first RBMK units, which were at Leningrad, had already been issued in 1966 by the Soviet government by the time
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instead of considerably more expensive 4% enrichment). This allowed for an extraordinarily large and powerful reactor that could be built rapidly, largely out of parts fabricated on-site instead of by specialized factories. The initial 1000 MWe design also left room for development into yet more
1243:
The SKALA or SCALA computer system for calculation of the reactivity margin was collecting data from about 4,000 sources. Its purpose was to assist the operator with steady-state control of the reactor. Ten to fifteen minutes were required to cycle through all the measurements and calculate the
1105:
The turbine consists of one high-pressure rotor (cylinder) and four low-pressure ones. Five low-pressure separators-preheaters are used to heat steam with fresh steam before being fed to the next stage of the turbine. The uncondensed steam is fed into a condenser, mixed with condensate from the
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Initially the service life was expected to be 30 years, later it was extended to a 45-year lifetime with mid-life refurbishments (such as fixing the issue of the graphite stack deformation), eventually 50 years lifetime was proposed for some units (no plans to extend further due to condition of
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The reactor is equipped with an emergency core cooling system (ECCS), consisting of dedicated water reserve tank, hydraulic accumulators, and pumps. ECCS piping is integrated with the normal reactor cooling system. The ECCS has three systems, connected to the coolant system headers. In case of
1147:
can occur in the pumps and their operation can become erratic or even stop entirely. The feedwater temperature is dependent on the steam production; the steam phase portion is led to the turbines and condensers and returns significantly cooler (155–165 °C (311–329 °F)) than the water
525:
respectively, from 1964 to 1966. The RBMK was favored over the VVER by the Soviet Union due to its ease of manufacture, due to a lack of a large and thick-walled reactor pressure vessel and relatively complex associated steam generators, and its large power output, which would allow the Soviet
1325:
The containment was designed to handle failures of the downcomers, pumps, and distribution and inlet of the feedwater. The leaktight compartments around the pumps can withstand overpressure of 0.45 MPa (65 psi). The distribution headers and inlets enclosures can handle 0.08 MPa
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Below those levels, the automatic systems are disabled and the in-core sensors are not accessible. Without the automatic systems and relying only on the lateral ionization chambers, control of the reactor becomes very difficult; the operators do not have sufficient data to control the reactor
1227:
There are over 100 radial and 12 axial power distribution monitors, employing self-powered detectors. Reactivity meters and removable startup chambers are used for monitoring of reactor startup. Total reactor power is recorded as the sum of the currents of the lateral ionization chambers. The
1772:(2 RBMK-1000), Kursk Unit 1 was shut down via its BSM key on December 19, 2021, the last time the plant would run all four of its units side by side. There are currently no further RBMK Reactors under construction in Russia. The last RBMK Reactor in Russia is expected to shut down in 2034 at
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The bottom part of the reactor is enclosed in a watertight compartment. There is a space between the reactor bottom and the floor. The reactor cavity overpressure protection system consists of steam relief assemblies embedded in the floor and leading to Steam Distributor Headers covered with
306:
surrounding the entire core, the core is surrounded by a cylindrical annular steel tank inside a concrete vault and each fuel assembly is enclosed in an individual 8 cm (inner) diameter pipe (called a "technological channel"). The channels also contain the coolant, and are surrounded by
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to the leaktight compartment. The reactor cavity can handle overpressure of 0.18 MPa (26 psi) and is vented via check valves to the leaktight compartment. The pressure suppression system can handle a failure of one reactor channel, a pump pressure header, or a distribution header.
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distance. The two sub-assemblies are joined with a cylinder at the center of the assembly; during the operation of the reactor, this dead space without fuel lowers the neutron flux in the central plane of the reactor. The total mass of uranium in the fuel assembly is 114.7 kg. The fuel
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Leaks in the steam piping and separators are not handled, except for maintaining slightly lower pressure in the riser pipe gallery and the steam drum compartment than in the reactor hall. These spaces are also not designed to withstand overpressure. The steam distribution corridor contains
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The 7A, 7B, and 8B boards are also connected to the three essential power lines, namely for the coolant pumps, each also having its own diesel generator. In case of a coolant circuit failure with simultaneous loss of external power, the essential power can be supplied by the spinning down
813:
The small clearance between the pressure channel and the graphite block makes the graphite core susceptible to damage. If a pressure channel deforms, e.g. by too high an internal pressure, the deformation can cause significant pressure loads on the graphite blocks and lead to damage.
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unit transformer to power the plant, or to the unit transformer and the generator transformer to also feed power to the grid. The 330 kV line is normally not used, and serves as an external power supply, connected by a station transformer to the power plant's electrical systems.
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The reactor has an active core region 11.8 meters in diameter by 7 meters height. There are 1700 tons of graphite blocks in an RBMK-1000 reactor. The pressurized nitrogen in the vessel prevents the escape of the helium-nitrogen mixture used to cool the graphite stack.
1564:. As graphite already moderates neutrons, light water has a lesser effect in slowing them down, but could still absorb them. This means that the reactor's reactivity (adjustable by appropriate neutron-absorbing rods) must take into account the neutrons absorbed by light water.
1388:. Each unit transformer is connected to two 6 kV main power boards, A and B (e.g. 7A, 7B, 8A, 8B for generators 7 and 8), powering principal non-essential drivers and connected to transformers for the 4 kV main power and the 4 kV reserve busbar.
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As the RBMK reactor core is very tall (about 7 m (23 ft 0 in)), the cost and difficulty of building a heavy containment structure prevented the building of additional emergency containment structures for pipes on top of the reactor core. In the
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levels and to control the total reactor power between 5 and 120% of nominal levels. The LAC-LAP (local automatic control and local automatic protection) RPCS subsystems rely on ionization chambers inside the reactor and are active at power levels above 10%.
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damage, the first ECCS subsystem provides cooling for up to 100 seconds to the damaged half of the coolant circuit (the other half is cooled by the main circulation pumps), and the other two subsystems then handle long-term cooling of the reactor.
1504:. The development of this design was cancelled in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster. An RBMKP-4800 would have had an increased number of evaporating and superheating channels thus increasing power output. Two RBMK-2400s were planned for the
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In addition to the regular fuel assemblies, there are instrumented ones, containing neutron flux detectors in the central carrier. In this case, the rod is replaced with a tube with wall thickness of 2.5 mm; and outer diameter of 15 mm.
1058:, pairs of thick horizontal drums located in side compartments above the reactor top; each has 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) diameter, 31 m (101 ft 8 in) length, wall thickness of 10 cm (3.9 in), and weighs 240
681:, one on the top and another on the bottom, in the spaces between the inner and outer walls. The vessel surrounds the graphite core block stack, which serves as moderator. The graphite stack is kept in a helium-nitrogen mixture, providing an
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and mixed with water from them at their outlets. From the bottom of the steam separators, the feedwater is led by 12 downpipes (from each separator) to the suction headers of the main circulation pumps, and back into the reactor. There is an
1054:
to 22 group distribution headers, each feeding 38–41 pressure channels through the core, where the coolant boils. The mixture of steam and water is led by the upper steam lines, one for each pressure channel, from the reactor top to the
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for fuel and control channel assemblies. The top and bottom are covered with 4 cm thick steel plates, welded to be helium-tight, and additionally joined by structural supports. The space between the plates and pipes is filled with
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The plant can be powered by its own generators, or get power from the 750 kV grid through the generator transformer, or from the 330 kV grid via the station transformer, or from the other power plant block via two reserve
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in cases of high or low water level in the steam separators (with two selectable low-level thresholds); high steam pressure; low feedwater flow; loss of two main coolant pumps on either side. These trips can be manually disabled.
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for monitoring the reactor power. The tank, along with an annular sand layer between the outer side of the tank and inner side of the pit, and the relatively thick concrete of the reactor pit serve as lateral biological shields.
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for the fuel and control channels. The blocks are stacked, surrounded by the reactor vessel into a cylindrical core with a diameter and height of 14m × 8m. The maximum allowed temperature of the graphite is up to 730 °C.
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detector, sensitive to energies of short-lived fission products, is mounted on a special dolly and moved over the outlets of the fuel channels, issuing an alert if increased radioactivity is detected in the steam-water flow.
1113:. The normal coolant flow is 8000 m/h per pump; this is throttled down by control valves to 6,000–7,000 m/h when the reactor power is below 500 MWt. Each pump has a flow control valve and a backflow preventing
1486:
The RBMKP-2400 is rectangular instead of cylindrical, and it was a modular, theoretically infinitely longitudinally expandable design with vertical steam separators, intended to be made in sections at a factory for assembly
977:
The division of the control rods between manual and emergency protection groups was arbitrary; the rods could be reassigned from one system to another during reactor operation without technical or organizational problems.
512:
786:, thermal expansion of the blocks, and other factors to the pressure tube, while facilitating heat transfer from the graphite blocks. The pressure tubes are welded to the top and bottom plates of the reactor vessel.
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at 0.5 MPa and hermetically sealed. Retaining rings help to seat the pellets in the center of the tube and facilitate heat transfer from the pellet to the tube. The pellets are axially held in place by a
721:—the upper biological shield (UBS) lies several meters below the floor of the reactor hall. There are no channel covers on the fuel channels of the reactor; the control rod drives are below the colored covers.
805:
The fuel channels may, instead of fuel, contain fixed neutron absorbers, or be filled completely with cooling water. They may also contain silicon-filled tubes in place of a fuel assembly, for the purpose of
1683:
models of RBMK-1500 reactors were developed for use in integrated thermal-hydraulics-neutronics calculations for the analysis of specific transients in which the neutronic response of the core is important.
485:
such as those used by VVER reactors, thus increasing the number of factories capable of manufacturing RBMK reactor components. No prototypes of the RBMK were built; it was put directly into mass production.
4746:
905:
The total amount of fuel under stationary conditions is 192 tons. The RBMK core has a relatively low power density at least partly due to the 25 cm spacing between channels and thus fuel assemblies.
3875:), - Moscow, Atomizdat, 1980. (Н. А. Доллежаль, И. Я Емельянов. Канальный ядерный энергетический реактор // Глава 11. Перспективы развития канальных уран-графитовых реакторов. — Москва: Атомиздат, 1980.)
1447:) later developed a new version of the turbine, K-500-65/3000-2, in an attempt to reduce use of valuable metal. The Chernobyl plant was equipped with both types of turbines; Block 4 had the newer ones.
1672:
Addition of the БАЗ or BAZ* system, (rapid reactor emergency protection) which would insert 24 uniformly distributed rods into the reactor core via a modified drive mechanism within 1.8 to 2.5 seconds.
1029:
reactors or a single RBMK-1500; RBMK reactors were always built in pairs. The gas circuit is housed between two reactors in second generation RBMKs such as Chernobyl 3/4, Kursk 3/4 and Smolensk 1–4.
2933:
4716:
658:
3756:
Dollezhal N. A., Emelyanov I. Ya. Channel nuclear power reactor. - M .: Atomizdat, 1980. (Доллежаль Н. А., Емельянов И. Я. Канальный ядерный энергетический реактор. — М.: Атомиздат, 1980.)
4156:
897:
The refueling machine is mounted on a gantry crane and remotely controlled. The fuel assemblies can be replaced without shutting down the reactor, a factor significant for production of
879:. Each rod contains 3.5 kg of fuel pellets. The fuel rods are 3.64 m long, with 3.4 m of that being the active length. The maximum allowed temperature of a fuel rod is 600 °C.
1392:
turbogenerators for about 45–50 seconds, during which time the diesel generators should start up. The generators are started automatically within 15 seconds at loss of off-site power.
1571:, the place occupied by water would be occupied by water vapor, which has a density vastly lower than that of liquid water (the exact number depends on pressure and temperature; at
962:
carbide. A control rod channel filled with graphite absorbs fewer neutrons than when filled with water, so the difference between inserted and retracted control rod is increased.
1140:
of the reactor makes the reactor very sensitive to the feedwater temperature. Bubbles of boiling water lead to increased power, which in turn increases the formation of bubbles.
2954:
1553:. This means that not only can it slow down neutrons to velocities in equilibrium with surrounding molecules ("thermalize" them and turn them into low-energy neutrons, known as
5198:
3793:
1594:
of neutron production, causing a runaway condition in which more and more neutrons are produced, and their density grows exponentially. Such a condition is called a "positive
3076:
2829:
1148:
returning directly from the steam separator (284 °C). At low reactor power, therefore, the inlet temperature may become dangerously high. The water is kept below the
535:
314:
and the oldest commercial reactor design still in wide operation. Certain aspects of the original RBMK reactor design had several shortcomings, such as the large positive
1184:
reactor. The third group is a set of electrical pumps drawing water from the deaerators. The short-term pumps can be powered by the spindown of the main turbogenerators.
1460:
The primary difference between RBMK-1000 and RBMK-1500 reactors is that the RBMK-1500 is cooled with less water, which adopts a helical laminar flow instead of a purely
4318:
4188:
3695:
Upgrade of the Kursk NPP main control room (case study) October 2010, International Control Room Design Conference:ICOCO 2010, Paris, France. DOI 10.13140/2.1.1412.9929
5392:
1749:
the accident at Chernobyl, but further construction was stopped due to the high level of contamination at the site limiting its longer-term future. Both reactors at
948:
The numbers in the image indicate the position of the respective control rods (insertion depth in centimetres) at 01:22:30am 78 seconds before the reactor exploded.
810:
for semiconductors. These channels could be identified by their corresponding servo readers, which would be blocked and replaced with the atomic symbol for silicon.
670:
is an annular steel cylinder with hollow walls and pressurized with nitrogen gas, with an inner diameter and height of 14.52m × 9.7m, and a wall thickness of 16mm.
4738:
3363:
789:
While most of the heat energy from the fission process is generated in the fuel rods, approximately 5.5% is deposited in the graphite blocks as they moderate the
4339:
3180:
1706:
Longitudinal cutting in some of the graphite columns during lifetime extension refurbishment work can return the graphite stack to its initial design geometry.
754:
heavy plates intersecting in right angle under the center of the LBS and welded to the LBS, supports the LBS and transfers the mechanical load to the building.
298:
as water boils in the pressure tubes. It is one of two power reactor types to enter serial production in the Soviet Union during the 1970s, the other being the
5708:
3830:
Nuclear Power Plants: Collection of Articles. Issue 8, Energoatomizdat, 1985. (Атомные электрические станции: Сборник статей. Вып. 8, Энергоатомиздат, 1985.)
1687:*BAZ button is intended as a preemptive measure to bring down reactivity before AZ-5 is activated, to enable the safe and stable emergency shutdown of a RBMK.
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1557:, that are far more likely to interact with the uranium-235 nuclei than the fast neutrons produced by fission initially), but it also absorbs some of them.
894:
Unlike the rectangular PWR/BWR fuel assemblies or hexagonal VVER fuel assemblies, the RBMK fuel assembly is cylindrical to fit the round pressure channels.
2925:
477:(an earlier Soviet PWR reactor design) in power output and physical size, being 20 times larger by volume than contemporary western reactors. Similarly to
4126:
333:
RBMK reactors may be classified as belonging to one of three distinct generations, according to when the particular reactor was built and brought online:
5744:
4712:
4839:
1171:
The maximum allowed heat-up rate of the reactor and the coolant is 10 °C (18 °F)/h; the maximum cool-down rate is 30 °C (54 °F)/h.
1132:
The nominal coolant flow through the reactor is 46,000–48,000 m/h. The steam flow at full power is 5,440–5,600 t (6,000–6,170 short tons)/h.
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3133:
4289:
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N. A. Dollezhal, I. Ya. Emelyanov. Channel nuclear power reactor // Chapter 11. Prospects for the development of channel uranium-graphite reactors. (
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atmosphere for the graphite, protecting it from potential fires, and facilitating transfer of excess heat from the graphite to the coolant channels.
4667:
5503:
343:
Generation 3 – post Chernobyl accident in 1986, where Soviet safety standards were revised to OPB-88; only Smolensk-3 was built to these standards.
3464:
902:
The capacity of the refueling machine with the reactor at nominal power level is two fuel assemblies per day, with peak capacity of five per day.
733:
The top of the reactor is covered by the upper biological shield (UBS), also called "Schema E", or, after the explosion (of Chernobyl Reactor 4),
473:
The RBMK-1000's design was finalized in 1968. At that time it was the world's largest nuclear reactor design, surpassing western designs and the
5734:
5648:
3127:. "History of Rosatom" ('История атомной энергетики Советского Союза и России. Вып. 3. История РБМК. Под ред. Сидоренко В. А. — М.: ИздАТ, 2003.
701:
removed from the top; the water can be used for emergency reactor cooling. The tank contains thermocouples for sensing the water temperature and
4148:
1224:
the reactor middle plane, therefore do not indicate axial power distribution nor information about the power in the central part of the core.
1621:
to +0.7 β, decreasing the likelihood of further reactivity accidents, at the cost of higher enrichment requirements of the uranium fuel.
2783:
1740:. The construction of Kursk 5 was cancelled in 2012. A MKER-800, MKER-1000 and MKER-1500 were planned for the Leningrad nuclear power plant.
4049:
3958:
3716:
3648:
3539:
3270:
1322:), sever the rest of the fuel channels, destroy the control rod insertion system, and potentially also withdraw control rods from the core.
1244:
results. SKALA could not control the reactor, instead it only made recommendations to the operators, and it used 1960s computer technology.
4810:– A brochure describing nuclear reactors in general and the RBMK design in particular, focusing on the safety differences between them and
4016:
1211:
The control room of Chernobyl Unit 3, a second generation RBMK. A large circular mimic display for every channel or core map is on the left
1168:
level of water in the steam separator is mainly controlled by the feedwater supply, with the deaerator tanks serving as a water reservoir.
382:
units 2,3,4) operating in Russia. All have been retrofitted with a number of safety updates. Only two RBMK blocks were started after 1986:
1648:
design flaws were likely the final trigger of the first explosion of the Chernobyl accident, causing the lower part of the core to become
2712:
1656:
An increase in fuel enrichment from 2% to 2.4% to compensate for control rod modifications and the introduction of additional absorbers.
5739:
3817:
3740:
2807:
462:
in Lithuania were rated at 1500 MWe each, a very large size for the time and even for the early 21st century. For comparison, the
4898:
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3125:
History of the atomic energy of the Soviet Union and Russia. Issue 3. History of RBMK. Ed. Sidorenko V.A. - Moscow, IzdAT, 2003.
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539:
507:
3672:
3068:
5348:
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the core as the graphite part of the control rod passes that section. This "positive scram" effect was discovered in 1983 at the
5268:
4797:
4087:
5093:
4832:
4242:
3202:
1478:
RBMK-3600 presumably similarly to the RBMK-1500 would have added turbulators to the RBMK-2000 design to increase heat removal.
1228:
moisture and temperature of the gas circulating in the channels is monitored by the pressure tube integrity monitoring system.
859:
in 1980 was 2% (0.4% for the end pellets of the assemblies). Maximum allowable temperature of the fuel pellet is 2100 °C.
4322:
4178:
3935:
3910:
3591:
3357:
3174:
5729:
5144:
3844:
4386:
337:
Generation 1 – during the early-to-mid 1970s, before OPB-82 General Safety Provisions were introduced in the Soviet Union.
5061:
4774:
1404:. These are located in the 600 m (1,968 ft 6 in)-long machine hall, adjacent to the reactor building. The
3620:
1529:
for startup. However, it has also had unexpected negative consequences that would not reveal themselves fully until the
774:
pressure tubes 8 cm in inner diameter with 4mm thick walls, led through the channels in the center of the graphite
5343:
3347:
3050:
2926:"RBMK Reactors | reactor bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny | Positive void coefficient – World Nuclear Association"
957:(4 ft 1 in) long telescope (which creates a water-filled space between the graphite and the absorber), and a
4343:
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of about 15%, is taken from the top of the separators by two steam collectors per separator, combined, and led to two
4825:
4680:
3421:
3164:
1572:
623:
498:
of Atomic Energy, who personally took credit for the design of the reactor, with the Soviet patent office. Because a
318:, the 'positive scram effect' of the control rods and instability at low power levels—which contributed to the 1986
5678:
5653:
5518:
3887:
At the origins of the man-made world: Notes of the designer - M .: Knowledge, 1989 - Academician's Tribune - 256s.(
1736:), with improved safety and a containment building. The physical prototype of the MKER-1000 is the 5th unit of the
970:. The control rod channels are cooled by an independent water circuit and kept at 40–70 °C (104–158 °F).
147:
4556:
4544:
4455:
3428:
1598:", and the RBMK reactor series has the highest positive void coefficient of any commercial reactor ever designed.
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with a suitable binder into pellets 11.5 mm in diameter and 15 mm long. The material may contain added
439:
3891:У истоков рукотворного мира: Записки конструктора — М.: Знание, 1989 — Трибуна академика — 256с.)
1652:
when the operators tried to shut down the highly destabilized reactor by reinserting the rods. The updates are:
1416:
are the TVV-500. The turbine and the generator rotors are mounted on the same shaft. The combined weight of the
5586:
5435:
4893:
4122:
1640:
Following the accident at Chernobyl, all remaining RBMK reactors were retrofitted with a number of updates for
1401:
798:
plug. The seal plug has a simple design, to facilitate its removal and installation by the remotely controlled
605:
518:
491:
1560:
In the RBMK series of reactors, light water functions as a coolant, while moderation is mainly carried out by
1309:, which surround the fuel channels with water jackets in order to capture any radioactive particles released.
151:
5360:
5193:
4357:
3018:"RBMK Reactors | reactor bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny | Positive void coefficient – World Nuclear Association"
3005:
Man-Made Catastrophes and Risk Information Concealment: Case Studies of Major Disasters and Human Fallibility
2899:"RBMK Reactors | reactor bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny | Positive void coefficient – World Nuclear Association"
2875:"RBMK Reactors | reactor bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny | Positive void coefficient – World Nuclear Association"
2851:"RBMK Reactors | reactor bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny | Positive void coefficient – World Nuclear Association"
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1888:
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1356:
918:
Schematic plan view of core layout, Chernobyl RBMK reactor No. 4. (Quantity of each rod type in parentheses):
543:
359:
352:
3765:
Nigmatulin IN, Nigmatulin BI , Nuclear power plants. Textbook for universities. M .: Energoatomizdat, 1986.(
1247:
The operators could disable some safety systems, reset or suppress some alarm signals, and bypass automatic
5440:
5149:
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4801:
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3130:
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for an electrical power output of 1500 MW. The only reactors of this type and power output are the ones at
967:
714:
459:
387:
383:
379:
363:
34:
4297:
3982:
1347:
during normal operation due to leaks of coolant (assumed to be up to 2 t (2.2 short tons) per hour).
887:
is 20 MW·d/kg. The total length of the fuel assembly is 10.025 m, with 6.862 m of the active region.
402:
program to produce a water-cooled power reactor with dual-use potential based on their graphite-moderated
5698:
5660:
5498:
5325:
5263:
5088:
4992:
4878:
4664:
2716:
1700:
407:
1125:
so that the temperature distribution in the reactor core can be optimized. Each channel has a ball type
1049:
Circulation system of the RBMK illustrating the Steam separators (red), Pumps (yellow) and pipe network.
762:, referring to the five-kopeck coin. There is one cover (lid/block) per plug, and one plug per channel.
340:
Generation 2 – during the late 1970s and early 1980s, conforming to the OPB-82 standards issued in 1982.
5546:
5225:
3453:
1207:
284:
56:
737:. The UBS is a cylindrical disc of 3m x 17m in size and 2000 tons in weight. It is penetrated by
481:
reactors it could be produced without the specialized industry required by the large and thick-walled
5523:
5132:
4915:
2254:
1769:
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1201:
527:
367:
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834:
RBMK reactor fuel rod holder Uranium fuel pellets, fuel tubes, distancing armature, graphite bricks.
725:
5688:
5613:
5513:
5425:
1109:
The main circulating pumps have the capacity of 5,500–12,000 m/h and are powered by 6 kV
783:
2772:
37:
site, with three operational RBMK-1000 reactors. A fourth reactor was cancelled before completion.
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303:
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3264:"Accident Analysis for Nuclear Power Plants with Graphite Moderated Boiling Water RBMK Reactors"
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1662:
80 additional absorbers inhibit operation at low power, where the RBMK design is most dangerous.
1196:
5508:
1607:
1421:
1149:
807:
323:
1521:
natural uranium fuel allowed for massive power generation at only a quarter of the expense of
1440:. The design and reliability of the turbines earned them the State Prize of Ukraine for 1979.
5538:
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4955:
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4678:
Table 31. Technology and Soviet Energy Availability – November 1981 – NTIS order #PB82-133455
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311:
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46:
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4149:"Concerns Persist Over Safety of Cracking Inside Reactor in Scotland: Nuclear Safery Expert"
2697:
gross electric power, the RBMK-1500 were de-rated to 1,360 MW after the Chernobyl disaster.
826:
RBMK reactor fuel rod holder 1 – distancing armature; 2 – fuel rods shell; 3 – fuel tablets.
5488:
5473:
1413:
1372:
1306:
1276:
the deaerator room. Both rooms are in the space between the reactor and turbine buildings.
499:
399:
4739:"На Ленинградской АЭС после 45 лет успешной работы окончательно остановлен энергоблок № 2"
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3461:
Recent Research Activities about the Chernobyl NPP Accident in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia
8:
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1603:
1089:, where remains of gaseous phase and corrosion-inducing gases are removed. The resulting
666:
495:
375:
203:
167:
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reactors, which were more maintenance-intensive and required large volumes of expensive
5528:
5365:
5292:
5103:
4183:
3306:
3097:
1614:
1530:
1492:
1302:
1220:
1122:
348:
319:
99:
4214:"Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle – Russian Nuclear Fuel Cycle – World Nuclear Association"
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1420:
is almost 200 t (220 short tons) and their nominal rotational speed is 3000
870:) tubes 13.6 mm in outer diameter, 0.825 mm thick. The rods are filled with
4860:
4098:
3931:
3906:
3811:
3734:
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3233:
3170:
2801:
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522:
450:
187:
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3901:
Kingery, Thomas (2011). "Boiling Water-Cooled Graphite-Moderated Reactors (RBMK)".
3310:
2955:"Forsmark: how Sweden alerted the world about the danger of the Chernobyl disaster"
1595:
1550:
1385:
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856:
799:
689:
682:
454:
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272:
3769:, Ядерные энергетические установки. Учебник для ВУЗов. М.: Энергоатомиздат, 1986.)
3595:
3422:"Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information – Sponsored by OSTI"
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which leads to higher temperatures that boil even more water, creating a thermal
1554:
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1082:
1055:
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876:
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3166:
Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World's Greatest Nuclear Disaster
1384:. In case of total external power loss, the essential systems can be powered by
1121:
on both inlet and outlet. Each of the pressure channels in the core has its own
1045:
5561:
5556:
5551:
5301:
5208:
5177:
5159:
4382:
2728:
2720:
1641:
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1428:
1294:
1110:
1074:
1041:
Schematic view of the cooling system and turbogenerators of a RBMK power plant.
1014:
1006:
982:
negative with all the initial absorbers to positive when they are all removed.
851:
847:
563:
28:
5581:
4768:
3866:
http://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/dollezhal_kanalnyy-yadernyy-reaktor_1980/go,189
3098:"The "Dark" Accident At The Metsamor Nuclear Plant – 1982 | Art-A-Tsolum"
830:
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to accessible terminals. This practice was allowed under some circumstances.
1216:
1118:
1070:
958:
790:
657:
506:
The RBMK was mainly designed at the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy and
327:
5312:
4213:
1461:
1437:
1314:
1153:
1099:
898:
743:
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and display were added to RBMK control rooms after the Chernobyl disaster.
554:
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2708:
1526:
1522:
1327:
1252:
1114:
953:
747:
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139:
4014:
History of the International Atomic Energy Agency: The First Forty Years
3303:
Institute for Integrated Radiation and Nuclear Science, Kyoto University
3131:
http://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/istoriya-atomnoy-energetiki_v3_2003/go,0/
822:
326:, leading to a steam and hydrogen explosion, large fire, and subsequent
5076:
4677:
3069:"Russia shuts down Soviet-built nuclear reactor – The Washington Times"
1272:
1144:
1126:
946:
pressure tubes with fuel rods (1661-1691)(1-2-nd generation cores(RBMK)
914:
608: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3234:"Energoatom Concern OJSC" Smolensk NPP " About the Plant " Generation"
302:
reactor. The name refers to its design where instead of a large steel
5081:
5071:
1760:
Russia is the only country to still operate reactors of this design:
1754:
1680:
1444:
1290:
1102:
system included in the loop to remove impurities from the feedwater.
1090:
1086:
1063:
718:
403:
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1675:
Precautions against unauthorized access to emergency safety systems.
583:
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5445:
5385:
5054:
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1491:. It was designed to have a power output of 2400 MWe, and a higher
1433:
998:
863:
843:
771:
419:
192:
4361:
3903:
Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, and Applications
5591:
5571:
4970:
4945:
3454:"The Chernobyl Reactor: Design Features and Reasons for Accident"
3296:"The Chernobyl Reactor: Design Features and Reasons for Accident"
1488:
1417:
1409:
1408:, the venerable five-cylinder K-500-65/3000, are supplied by the
1405:
1271:
trend recorders. Some RBMK control rooms have been upgraded with
1022:
1010:
867:
423:
132:
3463:, Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University, pp. 11–27,
1367:
The power plant is connected to the 330 kV and 750 kV
855:
pellet and facilitates removal of gaseous fission products. The
5380:
5375:
5355:
5335:
5320:
5203:
4940:
4920:
4888:
4088:"Development of Ignalina NPP RBMK-1500 reactor RELAP5-3D model"
4032:
The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 1993, page 40.
2732:
2704:
1381:
994:
884:
871:
649:
490:
A top-secret invention patent for the RBMK design was filed by
3537:
https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub913e_web.pdf
1613:
All RBMK reactors underwent significant changes following the
1143:
If the coolant temperature is too close to its boiling point,
5417:
5273:
5066:
4930:
4811:
3203:"Life extension for Russia's second generation RBMK reactors"
2920:
2918:
1666:
1568:
1436:. The hydrogen for the generators is manufactured on-site by
1286:
1248:
1160:
1059:
478:
446:
371:
347:
Nine RBMK blocks under construction were cancelled after the
114:
1624:
1400:
The electrical energy is generated by a pair of 500 MW
536:
Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
453:, it was possible to use fuel with a lower enrichment (1.8%
5167:
4977:
4935:
3944:
1721:
1715:
1617:. The positive void coefficient was reduced from +4.5
1081:, reheated to 165 °C (329 °F), and pumped by the
474:
470:) and is among the most powerful reactor types ever built.
299:
3043:"Safety of RBMK reactors: Setting the technical framework"
2915:
1037:
778:
blocks. The top and bottom parts of the tubes are made of
636:
5251:
5115:
4340:"Bellona – Statistics from Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant"
1258:
The reactor is equipped with a fuel rod leak detector. A
653:
Schematic side view of the layout of an RBMK reactor core
466:
has a net electric nameplate capacity of 1600 MW (4500 MW
458:
powerful reactors. For example, the RBMK reactors at the
414:, Russian for "peaceful atom," analogous to the American
661:
The reactor hall and piping systems of the RBMK reactor.
4814:
reactors. Published by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
3983:"The Ukrainian Weekly, page 2, Sunday January 26, 2003"
358:
As of April 2024, there are still seven RBMK reactors (
3767:Нигматулин И. Н., Нигматулин Б. И.
1191:
422:
of electricity from 30 MW thermal power, and supplied
1690:
426:
from 1954 until 1959. Subsequent prototypes were the
351:, and the last of three remaining RBMK blocks at the
4847:
4243:"NIKET – Department of Pressure-Tube Power Reactors"
985:
The normal reactivity margin is 43–48 control rods.
3349:
Chernobyl: a technical appraisal ... – Google Books
283:, "high-power channel-type reactor") is a class of
546:, began in 1970. Leningrad unit 1 opened in 1973.
406:production military reactors. The first of these,
4179:"Russia completes upgrade of third Smolensk RBMK"
3205:. Nuclear Engineering International. 12 July 2024
2727:) use graphite as moderators their use of gases (
1659:Manual control rod count increased from 30 to 45.
1536:
1511:
573:
5721:
2981:"25 years after Chernobyl, how Sweden found out"
2822:"Russia shuts down Soviet-built nuclear reactor"
2739:fluids causes them to have no void coefficient.
794:forced gas circulation through the gas circuit.
3930:. General Store Publishing House. p. 274.
3236:(in Russian). Snpp.rosenergoatom.ru. 2008-04-30
1799:reactor (including reactors currently offline)
1200:The control room of a first generation RBMK at
1156:and the associated drop in heat transfer rate.
386:(located in Lithuania, now decommissioned) and
322:, in which an RBMK experienced an uncontrolled
4076:. Vienna, Austria: IAEA. June 1995. p. 9.
3129:. Электронная библиотека «История Росатома» —
1730:Многопетлевой Канальный Энергетический Реактор
5504:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
4833:
4791:
4770:Nuclear 101: How Nuclear Bombs Work" Part 2/2
4766:
1297:. This required large cranes above the core.
1005:by volume). The gas circuit is composed of a
4715:. World Nuclear Association. 15 April 2016.
4171:
4115:
3342:
3340:
3293:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3195:
3162:
1355:For the nuclear systems described here, the
4665:Directorate for Construction of Kostoma NPP
4141:
3752:
3750:
3338:
3336:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3320:
2713:Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center
746:, a rock containing significant amounts of
5745:Nuclear power stations using RBMK reactors
5684:
4840:
4826:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4701:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4358:"Early Soviet reactors & EU accession"
3416:
3414:
3412:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3380:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3250:
2767:
2765:
1720:A post-Soviet redesign of the RBMK is the
1472:
1032:
936:short control rods from below reactor (32)
90:
3673:"Light Cover from Chernobyl Control Room"
3488:":: RBMK-1000 AND RBMK-1500 NUCLEAR FUEL"
3217:
2978:
1669:) sequence reduced from 18 to 12 seconds.
1625:Improvements since the Chernobyl accident
624:Learn how and when to remove this message
5416:
3777:
3775:
3747:
3317:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3146:
1779:
1567:In the case of vaporisation of water to
1206:
1195:
1044:
1036:
913:
829:
821:
724:
708:
656:
648:
640:
503:acceptable alternative for containment.
4692:
4208:
4206:
4125:. World Nuclear News. 2 December 2013.
3900:
3409:
3377:
3247:
3163:Higginbotham, Adam (February 4, 2020).
2762:
1629:In his posthumously published memoirs,
637:Reactor vessel, moderator and shielding
553:The RBMK was considered by some in the
445:By using a minimalist design that used
5735:Nuclear technology in the Soviet Union
5722:
5431:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
3995:from the original on February 18, 2012
3816:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3739:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3183:from the original on September 1, 2021
2806:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2687:
1734:Multi-loop pressure tube power reactor
1709:
277:реа́ктор большо́й мо́щности кана́льный
70:(Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy)
5436:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
4821:
4129:from the original on 16 December 2019
3925:
3772:
3451:
3447:
3445:
3143:
3063:
3061:
2719:and pebble bed reactors (Such as the
1362:
729:RBMK reactor with fuel channel covers
4203:
4159:from the original on 16 October 2014
3040:
1665:AZ-5 (emergency reactor shutdown or
1635:Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy
1289:reactor, both for refueling and for
770:The fuel channels consist of welded
665:The reactor pit or vault is made of
606:adding citations to reliable sources
577:
398:The RBMK was the culmination of the
281:reaktor bolshoy moshchnosti kanalnyy
16:Type of Soviet nuclear power reactor
5441:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
4798:Technical data on RBMK-1500 reactor
3928:Nuclear Power: In Canada and Beyond
1633:, the First Deputy Director of the
1192:Reactor control/supervision systems
125:Main parameters of the reactor core
13:
5250:
4808:Chernobyl – A Canadian Perspective
4719:from the original on 4 August 2019
3905:. John Wiley & Sons. ch 20.6.
3442:
3058:
3051:International Atomic Energy Agency
2688:
1691:Deformed graphite moderator blocks
1450:
1395:
1093:is led to the steam separators by
370:units 3 & 4), and three small
117:graphite moderated BWR operational
14:
5756:
5740:Nuclear power in the Soviet Union
4321:. 11 October 2006. Archived from
4191:from the original on 6 April 2020
3557:"WHO – World Health Organization"
1326:(12 psi) and are vented via
1013:and iodine filters, adsorber for
713:Reactor hall of the RBMK-1500 at
688:The moderator blocks are made of
168:Neutron energy spectrum
5704:
5703:
5694:
5693:
5683:
5674:
5673:
5524:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
4804:– a decommissioned RBMK reactor.
3952:"INSAG-7 The Chernobyl Incident"
3841:"5.5.Проект реактора рбмкп-2400"
3642:"INSAG-7 The Chernobyl Incident"
3592:"Brief Description of the Plant"
2657:
2627:
2597:
2567:
2534:
2504:
2474:
2444:
2411:
2381:
2351:
2321:
2291:
2261:
2243:construction cancelled in 1980s
2228:
2213:construction cancelled in 1980s
2198:
2168:
2138:
2108:
2078:
2045:
2015:
1985:
1955:
1925:
1895:
1695:From May 2012 to December 2013,
1350:
765:
582:
526:government to easily meet their
179:Primary control method
27:
4777:from the original on 2019-05-20
4760:
4749:from the original on 2020-11-10
4731:
4400:
4389:from the original on 2011-01-07
4375:
4350:
4332:
4311:
4282:
4253:
4235:
4224:from the original on 2013-02-13
4080:
4066:
4055:from the original on 2019-12-14
4035:
4026:
4007:
3975:
3964:from the original on 2019-12-14
3919:
3894:
3878:
3858:
3847:from the original on 2019-01-13
3833:
3824:
3799:from the original on 2018-04-27
3759:
3722:from the original on 2018-10-20
3698:
3689:
3665:
3654:from the original on 2019-12-14
3634:
3623:from the original on 2020-02-17
3609:
3584:
3549:
3530:
3505:
3480:
3470:from the original on 2019-11-08
3431:from the original on 2021-09-01
3366:from the original on 2021-09-01
3287:
3276:from the original on 2020-04-06
3119:
3108:from the original on 2021-09-01
3090:
3079:from the original on 2019-05-28
3041:Luis, Lederman (January 1996).
3034:
3010:
2979:Ascarelli, Brett (2019-05-31).
2936:from the original on 2018-11-05
2832:from the original on 2020-04-06
2789:from the original on 2018-05-25
2715:. While the gas cooled Magnox,
2672:construction cancelled in 1993
2426:construction cancelled in 1993
2396:construction cancelled in 2012
2153:construction cancelled in 1988
2060:construction cancelled in 1988
2030:construction cancelled in 1988
1443:The Kharkiv turbine plant (now
1402:hydrogen-cooled turbogenerators
1001:atmosphere (70–90% He, 10–30% N
909:
677:loads, it is equipped with two
593:needs additional citations for
440:Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station
5514:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
3515:. Insc.anl.gov. Archived from
3394:. Insc.anl.gov. Archived from
2997:
2972:
2947:
2891:
2867:
2843:
2814:
2549:operational until August 2026
1537:High positive void coefficient
1512:Design flaws and safety issues
1279:
1219:in the reactor is measured by
988:
574:Reactor design and performance
258:RBMKP-2400: 2,400 MW
237:RBMKP-2400: 6,500 MW
1:
3459:, in Imanaka, Tetsuji (ed.),
2755:
2751:, head of RBMK design bureau.
1481:
1357:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
1077:in the turbine hall, then to
838:The fuel pellets are made of
544:Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant
449:for cooling and graphite for
353:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant
253:RBMK-1500: 1,500 MW
248:RBMK-1000: 1,000 MW
232:RBMK-1500: 4,800 MW
227:RBMK-1000: 3,200 MW
5314:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
4802:Ignalina nuclear power plant
4767:Belfer Center (2013-09-10),
4123:"Restored RBMK back on line"
3490:. Elemash.ru. Archived from
3452:Malko, Mikhail (July 2002),
2959:Topics | European Parliament
2519:operational until June 2025
1506:Kostroma Nuclear Power Plant
1467:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant
1455:
968:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant
715:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant
645:Schematic diagram of an RBMK
460:Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant
35:Smolensk Nuclear Power Plant
7:
5730:Nuclear power reactor types
5661:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2742:
2677:
2674:
2647:
2644:
2617:
2614:
2587:
2584:
2554:
2551:
2524:
2521:
2494:
2491:
2464:
2461:
2431:
2428:
2401:
2398:
2371:
2368:
2341:
2338:
2311:
2308:
2281:
2278:
2248:
2245:
2218:
2215:
2188:
2185:
2158:
2155:
2128:
2125:
2098:
2095:
2065:
2062:
2035:
2032:
2005:
2002:
1975:
1972:
1945:
1942:
1915:
1912:
1743:
1701:advanced gas-cooled reactor
941:automatic control rods (12)
570:non-replaceable elements).
540:Soviet Council of Ministers
534:their concerns reached the
10:
5761:
5499:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
4792:Sources and external links
4319:"03_Cherkashov_NIKIET.doc"
2731:for Magnox and AGR, while
1713:
993:The reactor operates in a
393:
290:designed and built by the
59:light water-cooled reactor
5669:
5636:
5624:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
5537:
5519:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
5484:
5467:
5407:
5334:
5326:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
5300:
5291:
5243:
5223:
5176:
5158:
5114:
5019:
5001:
4869:
4856:
4713:"Nuclear Power in Russia"
4023:, page 194, David Fischer
3889:Доллежаль Н. А.
3191:– via Google Books.
1738:Kursk Nuclear Power Plant
1202:Kursk Nuclear Power Plant
673:In order to absorb axial
528:central economic planning
276:
244:
223:
219:Generation of electricity
215:
210:
198:
186:
178:
166:
158:
129:
124:
86:
74:
63:
52:
42:
26:
21:
5689:List of nuclear reactors
5529:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
5145:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
4043:"The Chernobyl Incident"
3594:. Lei.lt. Archived from
3352:. Thomas Telford. 1987.
3003:Chernov D., Sornette D.
1359:is used as the example.
784:neutron-induced swelling
483:reactor pressure vessels
294:. It is somewhat like a
82:RBMKP-2400 (never built)
5679:Nuclear fusion reactors
5644:Organic nuclear reactor
4850:nuclear fission reactor
3007:. Springer. 2015. P. 71
2642:operational until 2034
2612:operational until 2030
2582:operational until 2028
2366:operational until 2030
2336:operational until 2029
2183:plan cancelled in 1988
1541:Light water (ordinary H
1473:RBMK-2000 and RBMK-3600
1174:
1033:Primary coolant circuit
817:
355:was shut down in 2000.
4674:(For Kostroma 1 and 2)
3169:. Simon and Schuster.
1832:Abandoned or cancelled
1341:fire sprinkler systems
1212:
1204:
1150:saturation temperature
1050:
1042:
949:
835:
827:
730:
722:
662:
654:
646:
324:nuclear chain reaction
100:1 involved in accident
4074:RBMK SHUTDOWN SYSTEMS
3926:Steed, Roger (2006).
3617:"Schema principu AES"
3022:www.world-nuclear.org
2930:www.world-nuclear.org
2903:www.world-nuclear.org
2879:www.world-nuclear.org
2855:www.world-nuclear.org
2703:A graphite-moderated
1834:reactor construction
1821:destroyed in accident
1780:List of RBMK reactors
1757:were also shut down.
1606:and was considered a
1518:Generation II reactor
1414:electrical generators
1373:electrical generators
1260:scintillation counter
1210:
1199:
1048:
1040:
917:
833:
825:
728:
712:
660:
652:
644:
447:regular (light) water
312:Generation II reactor
310:The RBMK is an early
296:boiling water reactor
288:nuclear power reactor
120:(as of December 2021)
47:Generation II reactor
5509:Traveling-wave (TWR)
4993:Supercritical (SCWR)
4249:on October 10, 2006.
3957:. pp. 124–125.
3073:The Washington Times
2826:The Washington Times
1371:. The block has two
1307:containment building
1215:The distribution of
952:Most of the reactor
679:bellows compensators
602:improve this article
500:containment building
400:Soviet nuclear power
376:light-water reactors
4879:Aqueous homogeneous
4328:on 11 October 2006.
2693:Built with 1,500 MW
1802:
1710:Further development
1604:Kurchatov Institute
1573:standard conditions
1412:turbine plant. The
1221:ionization chambers
1117:on the outlet, and
667:reinforced concrete
519:Anatoly Aleksandrov
496:Kurchatov Institute
492:Anatoly Aleksandrov
418:) generated 5
374:graphite moderated
104:1 partially damaged
5699:Nuclear technology
4683:2015-09-24 at the
4670:2007-09-27 at the
4658:2011-06-04 at the
4646:2011-06-04 at the
4634:2011-06-04 at the
4622:2011-06-04 at the
4610:2011-06-04 at the
4598:2011-06-04 at the
4586:2011-06-04 at the
4574:2011-06-04 at the
4562:2011-06-04 at the
4550:2011-06-04 at the
4538:2011-06-04 at the
4526:2011-06-04 at the
4514:2011-06-04 at the
4502:2011-06-04 at the
4485:2011-06-04 at the
4473:2011-06-04 at the
4461:2011-06-04 at the
4449:2011-06-04 at the
4437:2011-06-04 at the
4425:2011-06-04 at the
4413:2011-06-04 at the
4184:World Nuclear News
4155:. 7 October 2014.
4019:2019-08-04 at the
3871:2021-08-27 at the
3542:2019-12-14 at the
3294:Mikhail V. Malko.
3136:2021-01-21 at the
2707:reactor exists in
2489:shut down in 2020
2459:shut down in 2018
2306:shut down in 2024
2276:shut down in 2021
2123:shut down in 2009
2093:shut down in 2004
2000:destroyed in 1986
1970:shut down in 2000
1940:shut down in 1991
1910:shut down in 1996
1768:(3 RBMK-1000) and
1615:Chernobyl disaster
1531:Chernobyl disaster
1497:steam superheating
1493:thermal efficiency
1363:Electrical systems
1337:surface condensers
1303:Chernobyl accident
1213:
1205:
1123:flow control valve
1051:
1043:
950:
931:control rods (167)
862:The fuel rods are
836:
828:
731:
723:
663:
655:
647:
349:Chernobyl disaster
320:Chernobyl disaster
285:graphite-moderated
57:Graphite-moderated
22:RBMK reactor class
5717:
5716:
5709:Nuclear accidents
5632:
5631:
5463:
5462:
5459:
5458:
5403:
5402:
5287:
5286:
5219:
5218:
4218:world-nuclear.org
4187:. 28 March 2019.
3937:978-1-897113-51-6
3912:978-1-118-04348-6
3564:whqlibdoc.who.int
3359:978-0-7277-0394-1
3176:978-1-5011-3463-0
2749:Nikolay Dollezhal
2701:
2700:
2682:
2681:
1840:
1839:
1575:, steam is about
1547:neutron moderator
1386:diesel generators
675:thermal expansion
634:
633:
626:
523:Nikolai Dollezhal
362:units 3 & 4;
265:
264:
188:Primary moderator
110:10 decommissioned
5752:
5707:
5706:
5697:
5696:
5687:
5686:
5677:
5676:
5619:Helium gas (GFR)
5482:
5481:
5477:
5414:
5413:
5298:
5297:
5248:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5235:
5017:
5016:
5013:
5012:
4842:
4835:
4828:
4819:
4818:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4764:
4758:
4757:
4755:
4754:
4735:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4709:
4690:
4687:(For Ignalina 4)
4404:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4394:
4383:"PRIS Home Page"
4379:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4360:. Archived from
4354:
4348:
4347:
4346:on July 4, 2009.
4342:. Archived from
4336:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4315:
4309:
4308:
4306:
4305:
4296:. Archived from
4286:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4276:
4267:. Archived from
4257:
4251:
4250:
4245:. Archived from
4239:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4229:
4210:
4201:
4200:
4198:
4196:
4175:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4164:
4145:
4139:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4103:
4097:. Archived from
4092:
4084:
4078:
4077:
4070:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4060:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4033:
4030:
4024:
4011:
4005:
4004:
4002:
4000:
3994:
3987:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3963:
3956:
3948:
3942:
3941:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3898:
3892:
3882:
3876:
3862:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3837:
3831:
3828:
3822:
3821:
3815:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3798:
3787:
3779:
3770:
3763:
3757:
3754:
3745:
3744:
3738:
3730:
3728:
3727:
3721:
3713:www-pub.iaea.org
3710:
3702:
3696:
3693:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3683:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3660:
3659:
3653:
3646:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3603:
3588:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3572:
3566:. Archived from
3561:
3553:
3547:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3525:
3524:
3519:on April 6, 2018
3509:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3469:
3458:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3436:
3426:
3418:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3398:on April 6, 2018
3388:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3344:
3315:
3314:
3300:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3275:
3268:
3260:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3230:
3215:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3160:
3141:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3065:
3056:
3055:
3047:
3038:
3032:
3031:
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2780:www-pub.iaea.org
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2112:
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2083:
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2050:
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2020:
2019:
2018:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1930:
1929:
1928:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1844:
1843:
1829:
1818:
1807:
1794:
1789:
1788:
1596:void coefficient
1584:
1583:
1579:
1555:thermal neutrons
1551:neutron absorber
1138:void coefficient
1083:condensate pumps
1056:steam separators
945:
940:
935:
930:
924:neutron detector
922:
857:enrichment level
800:online refueling
690:nuclear graphite
629:
622:
618:
615:
609:
586:
578:
516:
455:enriched uranium
437:
436:
431:
430:
410:("Атом Мирный",
316:void coefficient
278:
245:Power (electric)
136:
133:fissile material
31:
19:
18:
5760:
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4911:Natural fission
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4540:Wayback Machine
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4504:Wayback Machine
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3885:Dollezhal N.A.
3883:
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3873:Wayback Machine
3863:
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3839:
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3834:
3829:
3825:
3809:
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3802:
3800:
3796:
3785:
3783:"Archived copy"
3781:
3780:
3773:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3748:
3732:
3731:
3725:
3723:
3719:
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3706:"Archived copy"
3704:
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3544:Wayback Machine
3535:
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3522:
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3513:"Fuel Assembly"
3511:
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3138:Wayback Machine
3124:
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2835:
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2820:
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2799:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2775:
2773:"Archived copy"
2771:
2770:
2763:
2758:
2745:
2735:for Dragon) as
2696:
2658:
2656:
2628:
2626:
2598:
2596:
2568:
2566:
2535:
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2505:
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2199:
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2169:
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2139:
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2079:
2077:
2046:
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2016:
2014:
1986:
1984:
1956:
1954:
1926:
1924:
1896:
1894:
1882:
1878:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1865:
1851:
1827:
1816:
1805:
1792:
1782:
1764:(2 RBMK-1000),
1746:
1718:
1712:
1693:
1650:prompt critical
1627:
1581:
1577:
1576:
1544:
1539:
1514:
1484:
1475:
1458:
1453:
1451:Design variants
1398:
1396:Turbogenerators
1369:electrical grid
1365:
1353:
1295:nuclear weapons
1293:production for
1282:
1251:, by attaching
1194:
1177:
1159:The reactor is
1111:electric motors
1095:feedwater pumps
1075:turbogenerators
1035:
1019:carbon monoxide
1004:
991:
947:
943:
942:
938:
937:
933:
932:
928:
927:
920:
919:
912:
840:uranium dioxide
820:
780:stainless steel
768:
639:
630:
619:
613:
610:
599:
587:
576:
510:
469:
435:AMB-200 reactor
434:
433:
429:AMB-100 reactor
428:
427:
416:Atoms for Peace
396:
304:pressure vessel
261:
257:
256:
252:
251:
240:
236:
235:
231:
230:
224:Power (thermal)
199:Primary coolant
130:
81:
79:
53:Reactor concept
38:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5758:
5748:
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5506:
5501:
5496:
5494:Integral (IFR)
5491:
5485:
5479:
5468:
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4079:
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3697:
3688:
3664:
3633:
3608:
3583:
3548:
3529:
3504:
3479:
3441:
3408:
3392:"Fuel Channel"
3376:
3358:
3316:
3286:
3246:
3216:
3194:
3175:
3142:
3118:
3104:. April 2020.
3089:
3057:
3033:
3009:
2996:
2985:Sveriges Radio
2971:
2946:
2914:
2890:
2866:
2842:
2813:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2744:
2741:
2729:carbon dioxide
2721:Dragon reactor
2699:
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2250:
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2161:
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2100:
2097:
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2067:
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2058:
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2042:
2038:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2012:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
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1892:
1885:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1825:
1823:
1814:
1812:
1810:decommissioned
1803:
1800:
1781:
1778:
1745:
1742:
1732:, which means
1714:Main article:
1711:
1708:
1692:
1689:
1677:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1631:Valery Legasov
1626:
1623:
1542:
1538:
1535:
1513:
1510:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1429:turbogenerator
1397:
1394:
1364:
1361:
1352:
1349:
1281:
1278:
1193:
1190:
1176:
1173:
1119:shutoff valves
1034:
1031:
1015:carbon dioxide
1002:
990:
987:
911:
908:
852:nuclear poison
850:as a burnable
848:europium oxide
819:
816:
767:
764:
638:
635:
632:
631:
590:
588:
581:
575:
572:
564:chart recorder
467:
395:
392:
345:
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338:
263:
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54:
50:
49:
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40:
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32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5757:
5746:
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5725:
5710:
5702:
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5690:
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5680:
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5668:
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5608:
5605:
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5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
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5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5549:
5548:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5540:
5539:Generation IV
5536:
5530:
5527:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5489:Breeder (FBR)
5487:
5486:
5483:
5480:
5475:
5466:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5437:
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4409:
4403:
4388:
4384:
4378:
4364:on 2005-10-24
4363:
4359:
4353:
4345:
4341:
4335:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4300:on 2011-10-05
4299:
4295:
4291:
4285:
4271:on 2009-04-02
4270:
4266:
4262:
4256:
4248:
4244:
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4190:
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4158:
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4128:
4124:
4118:
4104:on 2012-09-24
4100:
4096:
4089:
4083:
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4069:
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4018:
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3999:September 28,
3991:
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3692:
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3674:
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3650:
3643:
3637:
3622:
3619:. Pavrda.cz.
3618:
3612:
3598:on 2019-06-26
3597:
3593:
3587:
3573:on 2013-12-27
3569:
3565:
3558:
3552:
3545:
3541:
3538:
3533:
3518:
3514:
3508:
3494:on 2006-10-07
3493:
3489:
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3297:
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3259:
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3122:
3107:
3103:
3102:allinnet.info
3099:
3093:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3064:
3062:
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3037:
3023:
3019:
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3000:
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2809:
2803:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2768:
2766:
2761:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2740:
2738:
2737:heat transfer
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2691:
2690:
2686:
2685:
2671:
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2641:
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2635:
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2289:
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2269:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2166:
2163:
2162:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2092:
2089:
2086:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2013:
2010:
2009:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1969:
1966:
1963:
1953:
1950:
1949:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1874:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1855:Reactor type
1854:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1836:
1833:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1785:
1777:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1717:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1679:In addition,
1674:
1671:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1645:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1620:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1597:
1591:
1589:
1588:feedback loop
1574:
1570:
1565:
1563:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:O) is both a
1534:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1500:the 1750 MWe
1498:
1494:
1490:
1479:
1470:
1468:
1463:
1448:
1446:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1358:
1351:Other systems
1348:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1323:
1321:
1320:ELENA reactor
1316:
1315:rupture discs
1310:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1277:
1274:
1268:
1264:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1217:power density
1209:
1203:
1198:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1139:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1071:steam quality
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1047:
1039:
1030:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1000:
996:
986:
983:
979:
975:
971:
969:
963:
960:
959:boron carbide
955:
925:
916:
907:
903:
900:
895:
892:
888:
886:
880:
878:
873:
869:
865:
860:
858:
853:
849:
845:
841:
832:
824:
815:
811:
809:
803:
801:
795:
792:
791:fast neutrons
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
766:Fuel channels
763:
761:
755:
751:
749:
745:
740:
736:
727:
720:
716:
711:
707:
704:
698:
694:
691:
686:
684:
680:
676:
671:
668:
659:
651:
643:
628:
625:
617:
614:February 2020
607:
603:
597:
596:
591:This section
589:
585:
580:
579:
571:
567:
565:
559:
556:
551:
547:
545:
541:
537:
531:
529:
524:
520:
514:
509:
504:
501:
497:
493:
487:
484:
480:
476:
471:
465:
461:
456:
452:
448:
443:
441:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
366:units 1,2,3;
365:
361:
356:
354:
350:
342:
339:
336:
335:
334:
331:
329:
328:core meltdown
325:
321:
317:
313:
308:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
286:
282:
274:
270:
247:
243:
226:
222:
218:
214:
211:Reactor usage
209:
205:
201:
197:
194:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
174:
171:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
138:
134:
128:
123:
116:
112:
109:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:7 operational
95:
94:
92:
89:
85:
77:
75:Reactor types
73:
69:
66:
62:
58:
55:
51:
48:
45:
41:
36:
30:
25:
20:
5547:Sodium (SFR)
5474:fast-neutron
5313:
5278:
4859:
4779:, retrieved
4769:
4762:
4751:. Retrieved
4742:
4733:
4721:. Retrieved
4402:
4391:. Retrieved
4377:
4366:. Retrieved
4362:the original
4352:
4344:the original
4334:
4323:the original
4313:
4302:. Retrieved
4298:the original
4293:
4290:"mkr1000raz"
4284:
4273:. Retrieved
4269:the original
4264:
4261:"mkr1000raz"
4255:
4247:the original
4237:
4226:. Retrieved
4217:
4193:. Retrieved
4182:
4173:
4161:. Retrieved
4152:
4143:
4131:. Retrieved
4117:
4106:. Retrieved
4099:the original
4094:
4082:
4073:
4068:
4057:. Retrieved
4037:
4028:
4009:
3997:. Retrieved
3977:
3966:. Retrieved
3946:
3927:
3921:
3902:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3860:
3849:. Retrieved
3835:
3826:
3801:. Retrieved
3790:www.iaea.org
3789:
3766:
3761:
3724:. Retrieved
3712:
3700:
3691:
3680:. Retrieved
3677:www.orau.org
3676:
3667:
3656:. Retrieved
3636:
3625:. Retrieved
3611:
3600:. Retrieved
3596:the original
3586:
3575:. Retrieved
3568:the original
3563:
3551:
3532:
3521:. Retrieved
3517:the original
3507:
3496:. Retrieved
3492:the original
3482:
3472:, retrieved
3460:
3433:. Retrieved
3427:. Osti.gov.
3400:. Retrieved
3396:the original
3368:. Retrieved
3348:
3302:
3289:
3278:. Retrieved
3238:. Retrieved
3207:. Retrieved
3197:
3185:. Retrieved
3165:
3126:
3121:
3110:. Retrieved
3101:
3092:
3081:. Retrieved
3072:
3049:
3036:
3025:. Retrieved
3021:
3012:
3004:
2999:
2988:. Retrieved
2984:
2974:
2963:. Retrieved
2961:. 2014-05-15
2958:
2949:
2938:. Retrieved
2929:
2906:. Retrieved
2902:
2893:
2882:. Retrieved
2878:
2869:
2858:. Retrieved
2854:
2845:
2834:. Retrieved
2825:
2816:
2791:. Retrieved
2779:
2702:
2689:
2530:Leningrad-4
2500:Leningrad-3
2470:Leningrad-2
2041:Chernobyl-6
2011:Chernobyl-5
1981:Chernobyl-4
1951:Chernobyl-3
1921:Chernobyl-2
1831:
1820:
1809:
1796:
1783:
1759:
1747:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1719:
1705:
1694:
1686:
1678:
1646:
1639:
1628:
1612:
1608:state secret
1600:
1592:
1566:
1559:
1540:
1516:As an early
1515:
1485:
1476:
1462:laminar flow
1459:
1442:
1438:electrolysis
1426:
1399:
1390:
1378:
1366:
1354:
1345:
1333:
1328:check valves
1324:
1311:
1299:
1283:
1269:
1265:
1257:
1253:patch cables
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1214:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1154:film boiling
1142:
1134:
1131:
1108:
1104:
1100:ion exchange
1069:Steam, with
1068:
1052:
1027:
992:
984:
980:
976:
972:
964:
954:control rods
951:
910:Control rods
904:
899:weapon-grade
896:
893:
889:
881:
861:
837:
812:
804:
796:
788:
769:
759:
756:
752:
744:serpentinite
734:
732:
703:ion chambers
699:
695:
687:
672:
664:
620:
611:
600:Please help
595:verification
592:
568:
560:
555:Soviet Union
552:
548:
532:
517:, headed by
505:
488:
472:
444:
411:
408:Obninsk AM-1
397:
357:
346:
332:
309:
292:Soviet Union
280:
268:
266:
182:Control rods
67:
64:Reactor line
33:View of the
5582:Superphénix
5409:Molten-salt
5361:VHTR (HTGR)
5138:HW BLWR 250
5104:R4 Marviken
5033:Pressurized
5003:Heavy water
4987:many others
4916:Pressurized
4871:Light water
4605:Leningrad 4
4593:Leningrad 3
4581:Leningrad 2
4569:Leningrad 1
4456:Chernobyl 5
4444:Chernobyl 4
4432:Chernobyl 3
4420:Chernobyl 2
4408:Chernobyl 1
4294:www.lnpp.ru
4265:www.lnpp.ru
4153:RIA Novosti
4095:www.inl.gov
2709:North Korea
2653:Smolensk-4
2623:Smolensk-3
2593:Smolensk-2
2237:RBMKP-2400
2224:Kostroma-2
2207:RBMKP-2400
2194:Kostroma-1
2164:Ignalina-4
2134:Ignalina-3
2104:Ignalina-2
1797:Operational
1784:Color key:
1527:heavy water
1523:heavy water
1280:Containment
1273:video walls
1152:to prevent
1115:check valve
989:Gas circuit
748:bound water
511: [
216:Primary use
204:light water
107:9 cancelled
5724:Categories
5366:PBR (PBMR)
4781:2019-06-01
4753:2020-11-10
4743:rosatom.ru
4653:Smolensk 4
4641:Smolensk 3
4629:Smolensk 2
4617:Smolensk 1
4492:Ignalina 3
4480:Ignalina 2
4468:Ignalina 1
4393:2007-08-16
4368:2005-10-31
4304:2008-09-27
4275:2008-09-27
4228:2008-09-27
4163:10 October
4133:3 December
4108:2012-06-25
4059:2019-12-13
3968:2022-01-03
3851:2021-02-21
3803:2018-11-18
3726:2010-04-17
3682:2021-10-12
3658:2019-12-13
3627:2010-03-22
3602:2010-03-22
3577:2010-04-17
3523:2010-03-22
3498:2010-03-22
3474:2020-01-10
3435:2010-03-22
3402:2010-03-22
3370:2010-03-22
3280:2010-03-22
3240:2010-03-22
3112:2021-02-14
3083:2019-05-28
3027:2024-04-24
2990:2024-04-24
2965:2024-04-24
2940:2019-06-18
2908:2024-04-24
2884:2024-04-24
2860:2024-04-24
2836:2019-05-28
2793:2018-06-01
2756:References
2666:RBMK-1000
2636:RBMK-1000
2606:RBMK-1000
2576:RBMK-1000
2543:RBMK-1000
2513:RBMK-1000
2483:RBMK-1000
2453:RBMK-1000
2420:RBMK-1000
2390:RBMK-1000
2360:RBMK-1000
2330:RBMK-1000
2300:RBMK-1000
2270:RBMK-1000
2177:RBMK-1500
2174:Lithuania
2147:RBMK-1500
2144:Lithuania
2117:RBMK-1500
2114:Lithuania
2087:RBMK-1500
2084:Lithuania
2054:RBMK-1000
2024:RBMK-1000
1994:RBMK-1000
1964:RBMK-1000
1934:RBMK-1000
1904:RBMK-1000
1819:– Reactor
1808:– Reactor
1774:Smolensk-3
1724:(Russian:
1482:RBMKP-2400
1145:cavitation
1127:flow meter
1087:deaerators
1079:condensers
1064:short tons
1007:compressor
739:standpipes
451:moderation
412:Atom Mirny
388:Smolensk-3
384:Ignalina-2
307:graphite.
159:Fuel state
43:Generation
5418:Fluorides
5082:IPHWR-700
5077:IPHWR-540
5072:IPHWR-220
4861:Moderator
4848:Types of
2438:Leningrad
1889:Chernobyl
1847:Location
1762:Leningrad
1755:Lithuania
1697:Leningrad
1681:RELAP5-3D
1533:in 1986.
1456:RBMK-1500
1445:Turboatom
1291:plutonium
1091:feedwater
802:machine.
776:moderator
760:pyatachok
719:Lithuania
530:targets.
494:from the
404:plutonium
360:Leningrad
91:26 blocks
80:RBMK-1500
78:RBMK-1000
5451:TMSR-LF1
5446:TMSR-500
5426:Fuji MSR
5386:THTR-300
5226:Graphite
5089:PHWR KWU
5055:ACR-1000
4983:IPWR-900
4966:ACPR1000
4961:HPR-1000
4951:CPR-1000
4926:APR-1400
4775:archived
4747:Archived
4723:26 April
4717:Archived
4681:Archived
4668:Archived
4656:Archived
4644:Archived
4632:Archived
4620:Archived
4608:Archived
4596:Archived
4584:Archived
4572:Archived
4560:Archived
4548:Archived
4536:Archived
4524:Archived
4512:Archived
4500:Archived
4483:Archived
4471:Archived
4459:Archived
4447:Archived
4435:Archived
4423:Archived
4411:Archived
4387:Archived
4222:Archived
4189:Archived
4157:Archived
4127:Archived
4050:Archived
4017:Archived
3990:Archived
3959:Archived
3869:Archived
3845:Archived
3812:cite web
3794:Archived
3735:cite web
3717:Archived
3649:Archived
3621:Archived
3546:page 119
3540:Archived
3465:archived
3429:Archived
3364:Archived
3271:Archived
3181:Archived
3134:Archived
3106:Archived
3077:Archived
2934:Archived
2830:Archived
2802:cite web
2784:Archived
2743:See also
2725:Winfrith
2561:Smolensk
2407:Kursk-6
2377:Kursk-5
2347:Kursk-4
2317:Kursk-3
2287:Kursk-2
2072:Ignalina
2051:Ukraine
2021:Ukraine
1991:Ukraine
1961:Ukraine
1931:Ukraine
1901:Ukraine
1877:Capacity
1866:Capacity
1852:Country
1766:Smolensk
1751:Ignalina
1744:Closures
1562:graphite
1434:hydrogen
1406:turbines
999:nitrogen
864:zircaloy
844:sintered
842:powder,
772:zircaloy
538:and the
438:both at
380:Bilibino
364:Smolensk
279:, РБМК;
202:Liquid (
193:Graphite
113:3 small
5592:FBR-600
5572:CFR-600
5567:BN-1200
5233:coolant
5160:Organic
5045:CANDU 9
5042:CANDU 6
5010:coolant
4971:ACP1000
4946:CAP1400
4884:Boiling
4557:Kursk 6
4545:Kursk 5
4533:Kursk 4
4521:Kursk 3
4509:Kursk 2
4497:Kursk 1
4195:17 July
3311:1490526
3209:16 July
2711:at the
2663:Russia
2633:Russia
2603:Russia
2573:Russia
2540:Russia
2510:Russia
2480:Russia
2450:Russia
2417:Russia
2387:Russia
2357:Russia
2327:Russia
2297:Russia
2267:Russia
2234:Russia
2204:Russia
1861:Status
1858:Online
1850:Current
1580:⁄
1495:due to
1489:in situ
1410:Kharkiv
1382:busbars
1161:tripped
1023:ammonia
1011:aerosol
868:niobium
468:thermal
424:Obninsk
394:History
273:Russian
173:Thermal
5637:Others
5577:Phénix
5562:BN-800
5557:BN-600
5552:BN-350
5381:HTR-PM
5376:HTR-10
5356:UHTREX
5321:Magnox
5316:(UNGG)
5209:Lucens
5204:KS 150
4941:ATMEA1
4921:AP1000
4904:Kerena
3934:
3909:
3356:
3309:
3187:May 4,
3173:
2733:helium
2705:Magnox
2678:1,000
2648:1,000
2618:1,000
2588:1,000
2555:1,000
2525:1,000
2495:1,000
2465:1,000
2432:1,000
2402:1,000
2372:1,000
2342:1,000
2312:1,000
2282:1,000
2246:2,260
2216:2,260
2189:1,500
2186:1,380
2159:1,500
2156:1,380
2129:1,300
2126:1,185
2099:1,300
2096:1,185
2066:1,000
2036:1,000
2006:1,000
1976:1,000
1946:1,000
1828:
1817:
1806:
1793:
1642:safety
1549:and a
1418:rotors
1339:. The
1021:, and
995:helium
944:
939:
934:
929:
921:
885:burnup
877:spring
872:helium
808:doping
508:NIKIET
131:Fuel (
87:Status
5654:Piqua
5649:Arbus
5607:PRISM
5349:MHR-T
5344:GTMHR
5274:EGP-6
5269:AMB-X
5244:Water
5189:HWGCR
5128:HWLWR
5067:IPHWR
5038:CANDU
4899:ESBWR
4812:CANDU
4326:(DOC)
4102:(PDF)
4091:(PDF)
4053:(PDF)
4046:(PDF)
3993:(PDF)
3986:(PDF)
3962:(PDF)
3955:(PDF)
3797:(PDF)
3786:(PDF)
3720:(PDF)
3709:(PDF)
3652:(PDF)
3645:(PDF)
3571:(PDF)
3560:(PDF)
3468:(PDF)
3457:(PDF)
3425:(PDF)
3307:S2CID
3299:(PDF)
3274:(PDF)
3267:(PDF)
3046:(PDF)
2787:(PDF)
2776:(PDF)
2639:1990
2609:1985
2579:1983
2546:1981
2516:1979
2486:1976
2456:1974
2363:1985
2333:1984
2303:1979
2273:1977
2255:Kursk
2249:2400
2219:2400
2120:1987
2090:1983
1997:1983
1967:1981
1937:1978
1907:1977
1875:Gross
1770:Kursk
1667:SCRAM
1569:steam
1287:CANDU
1249:scram
1062:(260
735:Elena
683:inert
515:]
479:CANDU
372:EGP-6
368:Kursk
162:Solid
115:EGP-6
5614:Lead
5597:CEFR
5587:PFBR
5469:None
5279:RBMK
5264:AM-1
5194:EL-4
5168:WR-1
5150:AHWR
5094:MZFR
5062:CVTR
5051:AFCR
4978:VVER
4936:APWR
4931:APR+
4894:ABWR
4725:2016
4197:2019
4165:2014
4135:2013
4001:2009
3932:ISBN
3907:ISBN
3818:link
3741:link
3354:ISBN
3211:2024
3189:2021
3171:ISBN
2808:link
2675:925
2669:N/A
2645:925
2615:925
2585:925
2552:925
2522:925
2492:925
2462:925
2429:925
2423:N/A
2399:925
2393:N/A
2369:925
2339:925
2309:925
2279:925
2240:N/A
2210:N/A
2180:N/A
2150:N/A
2063:950
2057:N/A
2033:950
2027:N/A
2003:925
1973:925
1943:925
1916:800
1913:740
1726:МКЭР
1722:MKER
1716:MKER
1582:1350
1427:The
1175:ECCS
926:(12)
866:(1%
818:Fuel
521:and
475:VVER
432:and
300:VVER
269:RBMK
267:The
68:RBMK
5602:PFR
5393:PMR
5371:AVR
5293:Gas
5231:by
5199:KKN
5133:ATR
5048:EC6
5008:by
4956:EPR
4889:BWR
4800:at
2723:at
2717:AGR
2563:-1
2440:-1
2257:-1
2074:-1
1891:-1
1879:(MW
1868:(MW
1864:Net
1753:in
1502:EPR
1422:rpm
1085:to
1066:).
604:by
464:EPR
152:LEU
148:SEU
5726::
5336:He
5302:CO
5178:CO
5099:R3
4773:,
4745:.
4741:.
4694:^
4385:.
4292:.
4263:.
4220:.
4216:.
4205:^
4181:.
4151:.
4093:.
4048:.
3988:.
3843:.
3814:}}
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3792:.
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3749:^
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3733:{{
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3711:.
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3562:.
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3301:.
3269:.
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3075:.
3071:.
3060:^
3048:.
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2983:.
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2932:.
2928:.
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2901:.
2877:.
2853:.
2828:.
2824:.
2804:}}
2800:{{
2782:.
2778:.
2764:^
1883:)
1872:)
1830:–
1795:–
1776:.
1728:,
1703:.
1590:.
1508:.
1469:.
1424:.
1129:.
1017:,
1009:,
717:,
513:ru
442:.
420:MW
390:.
275::
239:th
234:th
229:th
144:NU
93::
5476:)
5472:(
5304:2
5256:O
5254:2
5252:H
5180:2
5120:O
5118:2
5116:H
5025:O
5023:2
5021:D
4841:e
4834:t
4827:v
4756:.
4727:.
4406:*
4396:.
4371:.
4307:.
4278:.
4231:.
4199:.
4167:.
4137:.
4111:.
4062:.
4003:.
3971:.
3940:.
3915:.
3854:.
3820:)
3806:.
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3729:.
3685:.
3661:.
3630:.
3605:.
3580:.
3526:.
3501:.
3438:.
3405:.
3373:.
3313:.
3283:.
3243:.
3213:.
3140:)
3115:.
3086:.
3054:.
3030:.
2993:.
2968:.
2943:.
2911:.
2887:.
2863:.
2839:.
2810:)
2796:.
2695:e
1881:e
1870:e
1619:β
1578:1
1543:2
1060:t
1003:2
997:–
627:)
621:(
616:)
612:(
598:.
378:(
271:(
260:e
255:e
250:e
206:)
154:)
150:/
146:/
142:(
140:U
135:)
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