793:
1171:
1163:
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to monitor the effects of radiation in patients of varying proximities to the blast itself, leading to the establishment of three recorded stages of the syndrome. Within 25–30 days of the explosion, the Red Cross surgeon noticed a sharp drop in white blood cell count and established this drop, along with symptoms of fever, as prognostic standards for Acute
Radiation Syndrome. Actress
208:
High radiation dose gives rise to deterministic effects which reliably occur above a threshold, and their severity increases with dose. Deterministic effects are not necessarily more or less serious than stochastic effects; either can ultimately lead to a temporary nuisance or a fatality. Examples of
809:
The risk for developing radiation-induced cancer at some point in life is greater when exposing a fetus than an adult, both because the cells are more vulnerable when they are growing, and because there is much longer lifespan after the dose to develop cancer. If there is too much radiation exposure
1836:
resulted in a large number of incidents of radiation poisoning, allowing for greater insight into its symptoms and dangers. Red Cross
Hospital surgeon Dr. Terufumi Sasaki led intensive research into the Syndrome in the weeks and months following the Hiroshima bombings. Sasaki and his team were able
1696:
When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or inhalation.
148:
with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly
1852:
have been monitoring the health status of the survivors and their descendants since 1946. They have found that radiation exposure increases cancer risk, but also that the average lifespan of survivors was reduced by only a few months compared to those not exposed to radiation. No health effects of
1014:
is a measure of the stochastic health risk due to an intake of radioactive material into the human body. The ICRP states "For internal exposure, committed effective doses are generally determined from an assessment of the intakes of radionuclides from bioassay measurements or other quantities. The
788:
are an average of about 20 times more dangerous, and in some experiments up to 1000 times more dangerous than an equivalent activity of beta emitting or gamma emitting radioisotopes. If the radiation type is not known, it can be determined by differential measurements in the presence of electrical
1641:
where a radioisotope is used as a drug (usually a liquid or pill). A review of this topic was published in 1999. Because the radioactive material becomes intimately mixed with the affected object it is often difficult to decontaminate the object or person in a case where internal exposure is
168:
Quantitative data on the effects of ionizing radiation on human health is relatively limited compared to other medical conditions because of the low number of cases to date, and because of the stochastic nature of some of the effects. Stochastic effects can only be measured through large
1687:
both of these produce closely spaced ionizing radiation. This concept is described as a binary system using two separate components for the therapy of cancer. Each component in itself is relatively harmless to the cells, but when combined for treatment they produce a highly cytocidal
982:
The human body cannot sense ionizing radiation except in very high doses, but the effects of ionization can be used to characterize the radiation. Parameters of interest include disintegration rate, particle flux, particle type, beam energy, kerma, dose rate, and radiation dose.
1841:, who was present during the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, was the first incident of radiation poisoning to be extensively studied. Her death on August 24, 1945, was the first death ever to be officially certified as a result of radiation poisoning (or "atomic bomb disease").
1606:
Internal exposure occurs when the radioactive material enters the organism, and the radioactive atoms become incorporated into the organism. This can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or injection. Below are a series of examples of internal exposure.
1006:
summarises the recommendations of the ICRU and ICRP on the use of dose quantities and includes a guide to the effects of ionizing radiation as measured in sieverts, and gives examples of approximate figures of dose uptake in certain situations.
1797:
over several years; his death drew public attention to dangers of radiation. By the 1930s, after a number of cases of bone necrosis and death in enthusiasts, radium-containing medical products had nearly vanished from the market.
111:
stochastic effects, i.e., cancer and heritable effects involving either cancer development in exposed individuals owing to mutation of somatic cells or heritable disease in their offspring owing to mutation of reproductive (germ)
1174:
A schematic diagram showing a rectangle being irradiated by radioactive contamination (shown in red) which is present on an external surface such as the skin; this emits radiation (shown in yellow), which can enter the animal's
1216:
A nuclear worker whose hands have been dirtied with radioactive dust. Assuming that his hands are cleaned before any radioactive material can be absorbed, inhaled or ingested, skin contamination is considered to be external
1256:
257:
The US National
Academy of Sciences Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation Committee "has concluded that there is no compelling evidence to indicate a dose threshold below which the risk of tumor induction is zero".
169:
epidemiological studies where enough data has been collected to remove confounding factors such as smoking habits and other lifestyle factors. The richest source of high-quality data comes from the study of
Japanese
1999:- a powerful electric current produces a transient, spatially focussed magnetic field that can penetrate the scalp and skull of a subject and induce electrical activity in the neurons on the surface of the brain.
1650:
matrix might never be able to truly become part of an organism, it is normal to consider such particles in the lungs and digestive tract as a form of internal contamination which results in internal exposure.
1179:
External exposure is exposure which occurs when the radioactive source (or other radiation source) is outside (and remains outside) the organism which is exposed. Examples of external exposure include:
2457:
1709:
Although radiation was discovered in late 19th century, the dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of
1692:) effect which is lethal (within a limited range of 5-9 micrometers or approximately one cell diameter). Clinical trials, with promising results, are currently carried out in Finland and Japan.
1099:(ICRP) manages the International System of Radiological Protection, which sets recommended limits for dose uptake. Dose values may represent absorbed, equivalent, effective, or committed dose.
1805:, where thousands of radium-dial painters contracted oral cancers— but no cases of acute radiation syndrome— popularized the warnings of occupational health associated with radiation hazards.
3954:
1112:
1668:
to the neutron energy spectrum suitable for BNCT treatment. The tumor is selectively bombarded with these neutrons. The neutrons quickly slow down in the body to become low energy
1263:
1071:
are used, and appropriate dose factors and coefficients are used to calculate these from the absorbed dose. Equivalent and effective dose quantities are expressed in units of the
2005:- a very powerful magnetic field is used to obtain a 3D image of the density of water molecules of the brain, revealing different anatomical structures. A related technique,
3934:
1106:
1084:
2301:
1139:
1119:
1717:
intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1895. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he misattributed them to ozone, a
810:
there could be harmful effects on the unborn child or reproductive organs. Research shows that scanning more than once in nine months can harm the unborn child.
3072:
2462:
776:
When alpha particle emitting isotopes are ingested, they are far more dangerous than their half-life or decay rate would suggest. This is due to the high
3939:
1096:
2669:"Image Quality and Radiation Dose of Lower Extremity CT Angiography Using 70 kVp, High Pitch Acquisition and Sinogram-Affirmed Iterative Reconstruction"
2954:
2103:
780:
of alpha radiation to cause biological damage after alpha-emitting radioisotopes enter living cells. Ingested alpha emitter radioisotopes such as
1249:
1785:
spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died of
3944:
3661:
1044:
3820:
3568:
1395:
1721:
produced in air by X-rays. Other free radicals produced within the body are now understood to be more important. His injuries healed later.
3553:
2667:
Zhang, Zhuoli; Qi, Li; Meinel, Felix G.; Zhou, Chang Sheng; Zhao, Yan E.; Schoepf, U. Joseph; Zhang, Long Jiang; Lu, Guang Ming (2014).
1793:, a famous American socialite, died of multiple cancers (but not acute radiation syndrome) in 1932 after consuming large quantities of
1769:
Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as
1833:
830:
1740:
concluded that these newly discovered rays not only photograph, but also "affect the living function". At the same time, Pierre and
1079:
which implies that biological effects have been taken into account. These are usually in accordance with the recommendations of the
108:
deterministic effects (harmful tissue reactions) due in large part to the killing or malfunction of cells following high doses; and
1209:. While in brachytherapy the source is inside the person it is still considered external exposure because it does not result in a
3522:
2848:
1861:
The interactions between organisms and electromagnetic fields (EMF) and ionizing radiation can be studied in a number of ways:
3985:
3029:
2588:
2278:
2006:
1849:
3548:
3517:
3462:
1966:
1899:
1145:
1225:
to estimate, and the irradiated organism does not become radioactive, except for a case where the radiation is an intense
1087:(ICRU). The coherent system of radiological protection quantities developed by them is shown in the accompanying diagram.
3949:
3181:
2009:, reveals the pattern of blood flow in the brain and can show which parts of the brain are involved in a particular task.
134:
3929:
3654:
3497:
1166:
A schematic diagram showing a rectangle being irradiated by an external source (in red) of radiation (shown in yellow)
4060:
2887:
2783:
1996:
777:
3563:
1559:
165:
is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second.
93:
In general, ionizing radiation is harmful and potentially lethal to living beings but can have health benefits in
53:. Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in
3970:
3111:
2118:
1845:
1293:
899:
822:
3752:
2113:
1519:
125:, meaning that their probability of occurrence increases with dose, while the severity is independent of dose.
17:
4035:
3980:
3975:
3647:
3629:
1653:
1472:
1459:
240:
225:
1751:
The genetic effects of radiation, including the effects on cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927
1132:
953:
843:
2229:
2176:
3385:
1829:
in the 1940s, heightened scientific attention was given to the study of all manner of radiation effects.
1806:
1490:
4023:
3762:
3617:
3472:
3445:
2002:
1065:
999:
234:
3709:
3502:
3355:
2082:
or charged ions. Biological samples can be irradiated using either a broad, uniform beam, or using a
1762:
More generally, the 1930s saw attempts to develop a general model for radiobiology. Notable here was
1737:
1733:
1126:
158:
4065:
4019:
4006:
4001:
3440:
3350:
3214:
2123:
1904:
1379:
968:
957:
213:
193:
150:
145:
126:
74:
62:
2981:
3797:
3380:
3174:
3045:
2302:"Radiation Exposure and Contamination - Injuries; Poisoning - Merck Manuals Professional Edition"
1954:
1366:
1039:. In the SI system of units, the unit of measure is joules per kilogram, and its special name is
933:
916:
826:
663:
2798:
4027:
3924:
3857:
3621:
3532:
3206:
522:
2259:
4055:
4031:
3840:
3625:
3360:
2040:
2032:
2020:
1766:, whose presentation also included an exhaustive review of some 400 supporting publications.
1752:
1446:
946:
684:
170:
104:
Most adverse health effects of radiation exposure may be grouped in two general categories:
3852:
3845:
3684:
3670:
3482:
3370:
3327:
3277:
3131:
2916:
2680:
2579:
2071:
1774:
1286:
781:
162:
3046:"Long-term health effects of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs not as dire as perceived"
8:
3867:
3777:
3599:
3477:
3390:
2108:
2056:
1975:
1971:
1929:
1910:
1870:
1676:
are captured by the injected boron-10, forming excited (boron-11) which breaks down into
1638:
1433:
688:
3558:
2920:
2684:
3714:
3704:
3699:
3594:
3415:
3395:
3375:
3259:
3167:
3103:
3091:
2937:
2904:
2827:
2711:
2668:
2644:
2611:
2514:
2479:
2421:
2386:
2362:
2327:
1915:
1884:
1546:
1230:
1185:
1036:
46:
1714:
3757:
3487:
3365:
3302:
3267:
3154:
The
Institute for Radiation Biology at the Helmholtz-Center for Environmental Health
3095:
3025:
2995:
2883:
2831:
2819:
2815:
2779:
2757:
2716:
2698:
2649:
2631:
2584:
2519:
2501:
2426:
2408:
2367:
2349:
2274:
2197:
1986:
1944:
1919:
1875:
1729:
1665:
834:
599:
244:
94:
66:
54:
1947:- the scientific study of the electrical properties of biological cells and tissues.
3898:
3893:
3492:
3132:
The 2007 Recommendations of the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
3107:
3087:
2987:
2932:
2924:
2811:
2749:
2706:
2688:
2639:
2623:
2509:
2491:
2416:
2398:
2357:
2339:
2266:
2189:
2138:
1818:
1485:
1350:
1015:
radiation dose is determined from the intake using recommended dose coefficients".
42:
2051:
Radiobiology experiments typically make use of a radiation source which could be:
813:
Possible deterministic effects include of radiation exposure in pregnancy include
3792:
3767:
3604:
3589:
3405:
3317:
3307:
3159:
2877:
2693:
1822:
1786:
1770:
1661:
1647:
1643:
1055:
229:
174:
78:
70:
2261:
Health Risks from
Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2
180:
The added lifetime risk of developing cancer by a single abdominal CT of 8
3883:
3830:
3747:
3694:
3452:
3410:
3400:
3322:
3312:
3282:
1981:
1962:
1953:- the magnetic properties of living systems (see, for example, the research of
1938:
1934:
1826:
1725:
1698:
1684:
1533:
1514:
1210:
1011:
991:
655:
560:
219:
202:
98:
58:
3073:"Experimental Simulation of A-bomb Gamma-ray Spectra for Radiobiology Studies"
2478:
Ronckers, Cécile M; Erdmann, Christine A; Land, Charles E (23 November 2004).
2193:
1736:
called X-rays. After irradiating frogs and insects with X-rays in early 1896,
1148:(ECRR) the stage of radiation depends on the stage the body parts are affected
829:. The deterministic effects have been studied at for example survivors of the
4049:
3737:
3527:
3287:
3272:
2799:"Radiation and the single cell: the physicist's contribution to radiobiology"
2736:
2702:
2635:
2505:
2412:
2353:
2026:
2012:
1991:
1420:
1310:
1206:
1024:
971:
848:
271:
198:
138:
130:
2627:
986:
The monitoring and calculation of doses to safeguard human health is called
792:
3862:
3782:
3467:
3332:
3099:
2761:
2720:
2653:
2554:
2523:
2430:
2371:
2201:
1950:
1879:
1802:
1718:
1623:
1612:
889:
818:
82:
69:
of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic
3155:
1660:
tagged chemical that preferentially binds to tumor cells. Neutrons from a
1622:
The exposure to the ingestion of a soluble radioactive substance, such as
3903:
3835:
3772:
3249:
2873:
2845:
2823:
2385:
Ratnapalan, Savithiri; Bentur, Yedidia; Koren, Gideon (2 December 2008).
2326:
Ratnapalan, Savithiri; Bentur, Yedidia; Koren, Gideon (2 December 2008).
2133:
2060:
1838:
1782:
1763:
1756:
1741:
1587:
1202:
1040:
871:
857:
814:
659:
629:
308:
302:
296:
290:
284:
275:
2403:
2344:
2029:- the study of energy exchange on the molecular level of living systems.
1755:
published research showing genetic effects, and in 1946 was awarded the
3787:
3639:
3297:
3244:
1889:
1790:
1326:
1192:
1076:
1048:
635:
621:
617:
609:
595:
122:
2753:
1978:- the study of the effect of electromagnetic fields on living systems.
1170:
1113:
United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1002:
uptake and the use of bio-assay for ingested dose. The article on the
796:
External dose quantities used in radiation protection. See article on
3825:
3742:
3689:
3584:
3457:
3292:
3239:
3229:
3190:
2999:
2928:
2128:
2083:
2079:
2064:
2036:
2023:- a discipline that has given rise to many scientific field theories.
1893:
1865:
1689:
1677:
995:
987:
785:
651:
625:
974:
seems to be particularly high for radiation doses during pregnancy.
3888:
3234:
3219:
3151:
G.Gordon Steel, "Basic
Clinical Radiobiology". 2002. Hodder Arnold.
2991:
2496:
2270:
2016:
1853:
any sort have thus far been detected in children of the survivors.
1744:
discovered the radioactive polonium and radium later used to treat
1681:
1657:
676:
672:
647:
643:
603:
552:
540:
434:
390:
324:
250:
2458:"Guidelines for Diagnostic Imaging During Pregnancy and Lactation"
2046:
3919:
3802:
3512:
2610:
Brisbane, Wayne; Bailey, Michael R.; Sorensen, Mathew D. (2016).
2090:
2075:
1226:
1162:
1072:
1003:
961:
797:
613:
586:
181:
154:
1781:
treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics.
3070:
2530:
1965:- the study of effect of magnets upon living systems. See also
1923:
1814:
1794:
1745:
1573:
1198:
1032:
789:
fields, magnetic fields, or with varying amounts of shielding.
668:
548:
544:
320:
1813:, developed the first standard for permissible body burden of
1728:'s 1896 demonstration of the therapeutic treatment of a hairy
3337:
3224:
2209:
2150:
1958:
1778:
1724:
As a field of medical sciences, radiobiology originated from
1710:
680:
639:
478:
1107:
International
Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
1085:
International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
2480:"Radiation and breast cancer: a review of current evidence"
1631:
1080:
945:
The intellectual deficit has been estimated to be about 25
228:, a potential side effect from radiation treatment against
3071:
Pattison JE, Hugtenburg RP, Beddoe AH, Charles MW (2001).
2542:
1018:
141:
are all stochastic effects induced by ionizing radiation.
2256:
2173:
1810:
1627:
1120:
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
1102:
Other important organizations studying the topic include
952:
These effects are sometimes relevant when deciding about
949:
per 1,000 mGy at 10 to 17 weeks of gestational age.
2174:
Christensen DM, Iddins CJ, Sugarman SL (February 2014).
2882:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1974:- the electromagnetic properties of living systems and
1642:
occurring. While some very insoluble materials such as
1637:
A person who is being treated for cancer by means of a
173:. In vitro and animal experiments are informative, but
121:
Some effects of ionizing radiation on human health are
2955:"A Glow in the Dark, and a Lesson in Scientific Peril"
2609:
1801:
In the United States, the experience of the so-called
3024:. New York: Harkavy Publishing Service. p. 376.
2384:
2325:
2463:
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
2477:
2471:
1097:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
3189:
2953:
2797:
2735:
2575:Unless otherwise specified in boxes, reference is:
2258:
2228:
2175:
1697:The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a
1140:Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire
1051:is sometimes also used, predominantly in the USA.
2666:
2387:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?""
2328:""Doctor, will that x-ray harm my unborn child?""
2169:
2167:
2165:
967:Also, the risk for the mother of later acquiring
4047:
2612:"An overview of kidney stone imaging techniques"
2104:Biological effects of radiation on the epigenome
2086:, focused down to cellular or subcellular sizes.
2047:Radiation sources for experimental radiobiology
1339:CT of the chest, lung cancer screening protocol
1081:International Committee on Radiation Protection
2945:
2162:
201:effects are those that reliably occur above a
27:Study of effects of radiation on living things
3655:
3175:
1821:as a field of study. With the development of
1257:
1236:
222:, from radiation to a particular body surface
2603:
3821:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring
3134:. ICRP Publication 103. Ann. ICRP 37 (2-4).
2733:
2660:
2265:. National Academy of Science. p. 10.
2177:"Ionizing radiation injuries and illnesses"
1408:CT of abdomen and pelvis, low dose protocol
3662:
3648:
3182:
3168:
3022:Medicine: A Treasury of Art and Literature
3019:
2983:Radium in Humans: A Review of U.S. Studies
1264:
1250:
205:, and their severity increases with dose.
45:that involves the study of the effects of
2936:
2710:
2692:
2643:
2563:, pp. 61–62, paragraphs 104 and 105.
2513:
2495:
2420:
2402:
2361:
2343:
1834:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1419:CT of abdomen and pelvis, with + without
1031:representing the mean energy imparted to
831:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
184:is estimated to be 0.05%, or 1 in 2,000.
144:Its most common impact is the stochastic
3669:
2902:
2734:Wynn, Volkert; Hoffman, Timothy (1999).
1169:
1161:
990:and is undertaken within the science of
791:
762:
2979:
2905:"Actions of Radiations on Living Cells"
2571:
2569:
2206:Note: first page available free at URL.
1191:A space traveller who is irradiated by
1019:Absorbed, equivalent and effective dose
994:. Key measurement tools are the use of
771:
14:
4048:
3523:Wireless electronic devices and health
2580:"Radiation Dose in X-Ray and CT Exams"
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2440:
1245:Effective dose by medical imaging type
3986:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
3643:
3163:
2951:
2879:Actions of Radiations on Living Cells
2589:Radiological Society of North America
2007:functional magnetic resonance imaging
1850:Radiation Effects Research Foundation
1817:, a key step in the establishment of
837:has been necessary during pregnancy:
800:on how these are calculated and used.
3549:List of civilian radiation accidents
3518:Wireless device radiation and health
3513:Biological dose units and quantities
3463:Electromagnetic radiation and health
2795:
2566:
2560:
2548:
2536:
2247:Note: First paragraph provided free.
2215:
2156:
1967:Electromagnetic radiation and health
1900:electromagnetic radiation and health
1856:
1152:
1146:European Committee on Radiation Risk
534:Cognitive impairment > 24 h
2903:Mitchell, J. S. (2 November 1946).
2872:
2490:(1). BMC (Springer Nature): 21–32.
2437:
1732:using the newly discovered form of
385:— (patients die in < 48 h)
41:) is a field of clinical and basic
24:
3498:Radioactivity in the life sciences
3138:
3092:10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a006532
2737:"Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals"
2306:Merck Manuals Professional Edition
2257:National Research Council (2006).
25:
4077:
1997:Transcranial magnetic stimulation
1054:To represent stochastic risk the
778:relative biological effectiveness
531:Cognitive impairment 6–20 h
88:
3146:Radiobiology for the Radiologist
2952:Grady, Denise (6 October 1998).
2748:(9). ACS Publications: 2269–92.
2622:(11). Springer Nature: 654–662.
2237:. Harvard University. March 2013
1221:External exposure is relatively
1090:
964:exposes the fetus to radiation.
692:
384:
187:
97:for the treatment of cancer and
77:. Controlled doses are used for
73:, and/or rapid fatality through
61:. Its most common impact is the
57:for the treatment of cancer and
49:on living things, in particular
3086:(2). Oxford Academic: 125–136.
3064:
3038:
3013:
2986:. Argonne National Laboratory.
2973:
2896:
2866:
2844:
2838:
2804:Physics in Medicine and Biology
2789:
2768:
2727:
2119:NASA Space Radiation Laboratory
1846:Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission
1789:caused by radiation poisoning.
804:
216:, by acute whole-body radiation
177:varies greatly across species.
3753:Computed tomography dose index
3080:Radiation Protection Dosimetry
2853:British Institute of Radiology
2378:
2319:
2294:
2250:
2221:
2114:Health threat from cosmic rays
1135:(NAS through the BEIR studies)
977:
13:
1:
2144:
1654:Boron neutron capture therapy
1473:Lower gastrointestinal series
1460:Upper gastrointestinal series
1184:A person who places a sealed
693:— (patients die in < 48h)
241:Radiation-induced lung injury
226:Radiation-induced thyroiditis
116:
2694:10.1371/journal.pone.0099112
2539:, p. 73, paragraph 144.
1656:(BNCT) involves injecting a
1197:A person who is treated for
1133:National Academy of Sciences
1027:is a physical dose quantity
954:medical imaging in pregnancy
398:None to mild (< 10%)
7:
3386:Cosmic background radiation
3020:Carmichael, Ann G. (1991).
2849:"Radiobiology in the 1940s"
2230:"Do CT scans cause cancer?"
2218:, p. 55, Paragraph 83.
2159:, p. 49, paragraph 55.
2097:
1601:
1157:
486:Moderate increase (10–100%)
237:, from long-term radiation.
209:deterministic effects are:
51:health effects of radiation
10:
4082:
4017:
3615:
3473:Lasers and aviation safety
3124:
2816:10.1088/0031-9155/21/3/001
2003:Magnetic resonance imaging
1704:
1237:By type of medical imaging
856:Estimated threshold dose (
755:2 days – 2 weeks
314:
235:Chronic radiation syndrome
191:
4015:
3994:
3963:
3912:
3876:
3811:
3728:
3710:Radioactive contamination
3677:
3613:
3577:
3541:
3503:Radioactive contamination
3428:
3356:Electromagnetic radiation
3346:
3258:
3205:
3198:
2235:Harvard Health Publishing
2194:10.1016/j.emc.2013.10.002
1905:Specific absorption rates
1738:Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov
1734:electromagnetic radiation
1586:
1572:
1558:
1545:
1513:
1484:
1391:
1362:
1322:
1292:
1243:
1127:UK Health Security Agency
884:
881:
697:
489:Moderate to severe (100%)
269:
266:
263:
161:is correct, then natural
4061:Radiation health effects
4018:See also the categories
4007:Radiation-induced cancer
4002:Acute radiation syndrome
3616:See also the categories
3554:1996 Costa Rica accident
3215:Acoustic radiation force
2796:Hall, E J (1 May 1976).
2124:Radioactivity in biology
1396:CT of abdomen and pelvis
1380:Coronary CT calcium scan
1282:Effective dose in adults
958:projectional radiography
874:or none (all or nothing)
214:Acute radiation syndrome
194:Acute radiation syndrome
151:effective radiation dose
127:Radiation-induced cancer
75:acute radiation syndrome
3528:Radiation heat-transfer
3381:Gravitational radiation
2628:10.1038/nrurol.2016.154
2551:, p. 24, glossary.
2188:(1). Elsevier: 245–65.
2182:Emerg Med Clin North Am
2074:generating high energy
1941:- their general nature.
1777:. Examples were radium
1611:The exposure caused by
1367:Coronary CT angiography
934:intellectual disability
917:intellectual disability
827:intellectual disability
685:Electrolyte disturbance
664:Electrolyte disturbance
3858:Semiconductor detector
3814:measurement techniques
3569:1990 Zaragoza accident
3564:1984 Moroccan accident
3533:Linear energy transfer
3207:Non-ionizing radiation
2980:Rowland, R.E. (1994).
2616:Nature Reviews Urology
2484:Breast Cancer Research
1713:when German physicist
1176:
1167:
801:
442:Mild to moderate (50%)
153:at a rate of 5.5% per
3877:Protection techniques
3841:Scintillation counter
3559:1987 Goiânia accident
3361:Synchrotron radiation
3351:Earth's energy budget
3333:Radioactive materials
3328:Particle accelerators
2041:Psychoneuroimmunology
2033:Biological psychiatry
2021:Developmental biology
1753:Hermann Joseph Muller
1447:Intravenous pyelogram
1173:
1165:
998:to give the external
795:
537:Rapid incapacitation
404:Heavy (> 95%)
401:Heavy (> 10%)
192:Further information:
171:atomic bomb survivors
4036:Radiation protection
3853:Radiation monitoring
3846:Proportional counter
3731:quantities and units
3685:Background radiation
3671:Radiation protection
3630:Radiation protection
3483:Radiation protection
3371:Black-body radiation
3278:Background radiation
3193:(physics and health)
2776:Radiation Biophysics
2072:particle accelerator
1775:radioactive quackery
1287:background radiation
772:By type of radiation
163:background radiation
37:, and uncommonly as
3868:Whole-body counting
3778:Mean glandular dose
3715:Radioactive sources
3600:Radiation hardening
3542:Radiation incidents
3478:Medical radiography
3437:Radiation syndrome
3391:Cherenkov radiation
2921:1946Natur.158..601M
2810:(3). IOP: 347–359.
2685:2014PLoSO...999112Q
2486:(Review article.).
2404:10.1503/cmaj.080247
2345:10.1503/cmaj.080247
2109:Cell survival curve
1976:Bioelectromagnetics
1972:Bioelectromagnetism
1930:Bioelectromagnetics
1911:Radiation poisoning
1898:High and low-level
1871:Radiation chemistry
1639:radiopharmaceutical
1541:5 weeks - 6 months
1285:Equivalent time of
608:Moderate to severe
243:, from for example
146:induction of cancer
63:induction of cancer
3705:Internal dosimetry
3700:Ionizing radiation
3595:Radioactive source
3416:Radiation exposure
3396:Askaryan radiation
3376:Particle radiation
3260:Ionizing radiation
3148:. 2006. Lippincott
2960:The New York Times
2774:Y. B. Kudriashov.
2744:(Review article).
2618:(Review article).
1916:Radiation oncology
1885:Molecular genetics
1759:for his findings.
1520:X-ray of extremity
1229:beam which causes
1186:radioactive source
1177:
1168:
1037:ionizing radiation
900:Growth restriction
823:growth restriction
802:
47:ionizing radiation
4043:
4042:
4024:Radiation effects
3995:Radiation effects
3758:Counts per minute
3637:
3636:
3618:Radiation effects
3488:Radiation therapy
3424:
3423:
3366:Thermal radiation
3303:Neutron radiation
3268:Radioactive decay
3031:978-0-88363-991-7
2915:(4018): 601–602.
2754:10.1021/cr9804386
2585:RadiologyInfo.org
2397:(12): 1293–1296.
2338:(12): 1293–1296.
2280:978-0-309-09156-5
1987:Radiation therapy
1945:Electrophysiology
1920:radiation therapy
1866:Radiation physics
1857:Areas of interest
1666:neutron moderator
1615:present within a
1599:
1598:
1153:Exposure pathways
1043:(Gy). The non-SI
1035:per unit mass by
969:radiation-induced
943:
942:
835:radiation therapy
769:
768:
594:Mild to moderate
245:radiation therapy
135:cognitive decline
95:radiation therapy
55:radiation therapy
35:radiation biology
16:(Redirected from
4073:
3899:Radon mitigation
3894:Potassium iodide
3812:Instruments and
3664:
3657:
3650:
3641:
3640:
3578:Related articles
3493:Radiation damage
3318:Nuclear reactors
3203:
3202:
3184:
3177:
3170:
3161:
3160:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3110:. Archived from
3077:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3052:. 11 August 2016
3042:
3036:
3035:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3006:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2966:
2957:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2929:10.1038/158601a0
2900:
2894:
2893:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2859:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2801:
2793:
2787:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2742:Chemical Reviews
2739:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2714:
2696:
2664:
2658:
2657:
2647:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2573:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2540:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2517:
2499:
2475:
2469:
2467:
2454:
2435:
2434:
2424:
2406:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2365:
2347:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2264:
2254:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2232:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2207:
2205:
2179:
2171:
2160:
2154:
2139:Radiosensitivity
1823:nuclear reactors
1819:nuclear medicine
1674:thermal neutrons
1670:thermal neutrons
1664:are shaped by a
1644:fission products
1532:Lower extremity
1266:
1259:
1252:
1241:
1240:
840:
839:
833:and cases where
574:< 7 days
360:< 10 min
261:
260:
253:and infertility.
43:medical sciences
21:
4081:
4080:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4066:Medical physics
4046:
4045:
4044:
4039:
4038:
4020:Medical physics
4011:
3990:
3959:
3908:
3872:
3813:
3807:
3768:Equivalent dose
3730:
3724:
3673:
3668:
3638:
3633:
3632:
3609:
3605:Havana syndrome
3590:Nuclear physics
3573:
3537:
3430:
3420:
3406:Unruh radiation
3342:
3323:Nuclear weapons
3308:Nuclear fission
3254:
3194:
3188:
3141:
3139:Further reading
3127:
3122:
3117:on 16 Jul 2020.
3114:
3075:
3069:
3065:
3055:
3053:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3018:
3014:
3004:
3002:
2978:
2974:
2964:
2962:
2950:
2946:
2911:(Book review).
2901:
2897:
2890:
2871:
2867:
2857:
2855:
2846:Lea, Douglas E.
2843:
2839:
2794:
2790:
2773:
2769:
2732:
2728:
2665:
2661:
2608:
2604:
2594:
2592:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2535:
2531:
2476:
2472:
2456:
2455:
2438:
2383:
2379:
2324:
2320:
2310:
2308:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2255:
2251:
2240:
2238:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2214:
2210:
2172:
2163:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2100:
2057:isotopic source
2049:
1859:
1827:nuclear weapons
1807:Robley D. Evans
1787:aplastic anemia
1771:patent medicine
1715:Wilhelm Röntgen
1707:
1662:nuclear reactor
1648:uranium dioxide
1604:
1503:CT of the spine
1434:CT Colonography
1327:CT of the chest
1309:With + without
1271:
1270:
1239:
1160:
1155:
1093:
1063:
1056:equivalent dose
1021:
980:
844:Gestational age
807:
774:
687:
683:
679:
677:Severe diarrhea
675:
671:
662:
658:
650:
646:
642:
638:
624:
620:
616:
612:
602:
598:
568:28–31 days
448:Severe (80–90%)
230:hyperthyroidism
220:Radiation burns
196:
190:
175:radioresistance
119:
91:
79:medical imaging
71:radiation burns
33:(also known as
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4079:
4069:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4041:
4040:
4016:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3967:
3965:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3916:
3914:
3910:
3909:
3907:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3884:Lead shielding
3880:
3878:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3831:Geiger counter
3828:
3823:
3817:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3763:Effective dose
3760:
3755:
3750:
3748:Committed dose
3745:
3740:
3734:
3732:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3695:Health physics
3692:
3687:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3674:
3667:
3666:
3659:
3652:
3644:
3635:
3634:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3607:
3602:
3597:
3592:
3587:
3581:
3579:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3453:Health physics
3450:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3434:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3411:Dark radiation
3408:
3403:
3401:Bremsstrahlung
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3313:Nuclear fusion
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3283:Alpha particle
3280:
3275:
3270:
3264:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3211:
3209:
3200:
3196:
3195:
3187:
3186:
3179:
3172:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3152:
3149:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3063:
3037:
3030:
3012:
2992:10.2172/751062
2972:
2944:
2895:
2888:
2865:
2837:
2788:
2767:
2726:
2659:
2602:
2565:
2553:
2541:
2529:
2497:10.1186/bcr970
2470:
2468:February 2016
2436:
2377:
2318:
2293:
2279:
2271:10.17226/11340
2249:
2220:
2208:
2161:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2087:
2068:
2048:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2030:
2024:
2010:
2000:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1982:Electrotherapy
1979:
1969:
1963:Magnetobiology
1948:
1942:
1939:Magnetic field
1935:Electric field
1932:
1927:
1913:
1908:
1902:
1896:
1887:
1882:
1873:
1868:
1858:
1855:
1726:Leopold Freund
1706:
1703:
1699:committed dose
1694:
1693:
1685:alpha particle
1651:
1635:
1620:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1570:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1562:(bone density)
1556:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1536:
1534:CT angiography
1529:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1469:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1416:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1306:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1294:CT of the head
1290:
1289:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1246:
1244:
1238:
1235:
1219:
1218:
1214:
1211:committed dose
1195:
1189:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1136:
1129:
1123:
1116:
1110:
1092:
1089:
1066:effective dose
1061:
1020:
1017:
1012:committed dose
1000:effective dose
992:health physics
979:
976:
941:
940:
937:
930:
929:16 to 25 weeks
927:
926:18 to 27 weeks
923:
922:
919:
913:
910:
909:10 to 17 weeks
906:
905:
902:
896:
895:
892:
886:
883:
879:
878:
875:
869:
866:
862:
861:
854:
851:
846:
806:
803:
773:
770:
767:
766:
760:
759:
758:1–2 days
756:
753:
752:2–4 weeks
750:
749:4–6 weeks
747:
746:6–8 weeks
744:
740:
739:
736:
733:
730:
727:
724:
720:
719:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
701:
695:
694:
691:
666:
656:disorientation
632:
606:
592:
590:
582:
581:
578:
575:
572:
571:7–28 days
569:
566:
564:
556:
555:
538:
535:
532:
529:
528:No impairment
526:
519:
518:
517:< 1 h
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
497:
496:
495:Severe (100%)
493:
490:
487:
484:
481:
475:
474:
473:< 1 h
471:
468:
465:
462:
459:
453:
452:
451:Severe (100%)
449:
446:
445:Moderate (80%)
443:
440:
437:
431:
430:
429:< 1 h
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
409:
408:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
387:
386:
383:
382:< 48 h
380:
379:< 48 h
377:
374:
373:< 24 h
371:
365:
364:
361:
358:
357:10–60 min
355:
352:
349:
343:
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
318:
312:
311:
305:
299:
293:
287:
280:
279:
268:
265:
255:
254:
248:
238:
232:
223:
217:
203:threshold dose
189:
186:
118:
115:
114:
113:
109:
99:thyrotoxicosis
90:
89:Health effects
87:
59:thyrotoxicosis
26:
18:Radiobiologist
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4078:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4028:Radioactivity
4025:
4021:
4014:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3917:
3915:
3913:Organisations
3911:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3881:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3850:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3738:Absorbed dose
3736:
3735:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3678:Main articles
3676:
3672:
3665:
3660:
3658:
3653:
3651:
3646:
3645:
3642:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3622:Radioactivity
3619:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3596:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3540:
3534:
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3526:
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3521:
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3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
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3489:
3486:
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3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
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3461:
3459:
3456:
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3438:
3436:
3435:
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3427:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3345:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3288:Beta particle
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3273:Cluster decay
3271:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3201:
3199:Main articles
3197:
3192:
3185:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3171:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3143:
3142:
3133:
3129:
3128:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3074:
3067:
3051:
3050:Science Daily
3047:
3041:
3033:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2976:
2961:
2956:
2948:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2899:
2891:
2889:9781001281377
2885:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2869:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2792:
2785:
2784:9781600212802
2781:
2777:
2771:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2738:
2730:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2679:(6): e99112.
2678:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2655:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
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2606:
2591:
2590:
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2307:
2303:
2297:
2282:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2262:
2253:
2236:
2231:
2224:
2217:
2212:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2092:
2088:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2052:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2027:Bioenergetics
2025:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:Embryogenesis
2011:
2008:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1992:Radiogenomics
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1961:imaging) and
1960:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1914:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1840:
1835:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1765:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1691:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1649:
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1636:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1538:0.3 - 1.6 mSv
1537:
1535:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1421:radiocontrast
1418:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1311:radiocontrast
1308:
1307:
1303:
1300:
1298:Single series
1297:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1276:Target organs
1275:
1274:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1242:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1207:brachytherapy
1204:
1200:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1188:in his pocket
1187:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1172:
1164:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1091:Organizations
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1060:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1025:absorbed dose
1016:
1013:
1008:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
984:
975:
973:
972:breast cancer
970:
965:
963:
959:
955:
950:
948:
938:
935:
931:
928:
925:
924:
920:
918:
914:
912:8 to 15 weeks
911:
908:
907:
903:
901:
898:
897:
893:
891:
890:birth defects
887:
882:4 to 10 weeks
880:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
863:
859:
855:
852:
850:
849:Embryonic age
847:
845:
842:
841:
838:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
819:birth defects
817:, structural
816:
811:
799:
794:
790:
787:
783:
779:
765:
761:
757:
754:
751:
748:
745:
742:
741:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
722:
721:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
700:
696:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
667:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
631:
628:after 3
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
591:
589:
588:
584:
583:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
565:
563:
562:
561:Latent period
558:
557:
554:
550:
546:
542:
539:
536:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
520:
516:
514:< 1 h
513:
511:< 1 h
510:
507:
504:
502:
501:Time of onset
499:
498:
494:
492:Severe (100%)
491:
488:
485:
482:
480:
477:
476:
472:
469:
466:
463:
460:
458:
457:Time of onset
455:
454:
450:
447:
444:
441:
438:
436:
433:
432:
428:
426:< 1 h
425:
422:
419:
416:
414:
413:Time of onset
411:
410:
407:Heavy (100%)
406:
403:
400:
397:
394:
392:
389:
388:
381:
378:
375:
372:
370:
367:
366:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
348:
347:Time of onset
345:
344:
340:
337:
334:
331:
328:
326:
322:
319:
317:
313:
310:
307:> 30
306:
304:
300:
298:
294:
292:
288:
286:
282:
281:
277:
273:
272:absorbed dose
262:
259:
252:
249:
246:
242:
239:
236:
233:
231:
227:
224:
221:
218:
215:
212:
211:
210:
206:
204:
200:
199:Deterministic
195:
188:Deterministic
185:
183:
178:
176:
172:
166:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
142:
140:
139:heart disease
136:
132:
131:teratogenesis
128:
124:
110:
107:
106:
105:
102:
100:
96:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
67:latent period
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
39:actinobiology
36:
32:
19:
4056:Radiobiology
4032:Radiobiology
3863:Survey meter
3783:Monitor unit
3729:Measurement
3720:Radiobiology
3719:
3626:Radiobiology
3508:Radiobiology
3507:
3468:Laser safety
3145:
3130:ICRP, 2007.
3112:the original
3083:
3079:
3066:
3054:. Retrieved
3049:
3040:
3021:
3015:
3003:. Retrieved
2982:
2975:
2963:. Retrieved
2959:
2947:
2912:
2908:
2898:
2878:
2874:Lea, Douglas
2868:
2856:. Retrieved
2852:
2840:
2807:
2803:
2791:
2775:
2770:
2745:
2741:
2729:
2676:
2672:
2662:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2593:. Retrieved
2583:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2487:
2483:
2473:
2461:
2394:
2390:
2380:
2335:
2331:
2321:
2309:. Retrieved
2305:
2296:
2284:. Retrieved
2260:
2252:
2239:. Retrieved
2234:
2223:
2211:
2185:
2181:
2152:
2059:, typically
2050:
1951:Biomagnetism
1907:of organisms
1880:cell biology
1860:
1843:
1831:
1803:Radium Girls
1800:
1768:
1761:
1750:
1723:
1719:free radical
1708:
1695:
1673:
1669:
1616:
1613:potassium-40
1605:
1547:Dental X-ray
1222:
1220:
1178:
1101:
1094:
1068:
1058:
1053:
1028:
1022:
1009:
985:
981:
966:
951:
944:
936:(lower risk)
885:2 to 8 weeks
868:0 to 2 weeks
865:2 to 4 weeks
812:
808:
805:In pregnancy
782:transuranics
775:
764:Table source
763:
703:Without care
698:
585:
559:
500:
456:
412:
376:24–48 h
368:
346:
315:
256:
247:to the lungs
207:
197:
179:
167:
159:linear model
143:
120:
103:
92:
83:radiotherapy
50:
38:
34:
31:Radiobiology
30:
29:
3904:Respirators
3836:Ion chamber
3250:Ultraviolet
3245:Radio waves
3144:Eric Hall,
2806:(Lecture).
2786:. Page xxi.
2134:Radiophobia
1955:David Cohen
1839:Midori Naka
1783:Marie Curie
1764:Douglas Lea
1757:Nobel prize
1742:Marie Curie
1588:Mammography
1576:combination
1515:Extremities
1491:Spine X-ray
1351:Chest X-ray
1203:teletherapy
1193:cosmic rays
1083:(ICRP) and
978:Measurement
962:CT scanning
888:Structural
872:Miscarriage
815:miscarriage
660:Hypotension
464:4–24 h
270:Whole-body
4050:Categories
3964:Regulation
3431:and health
3429:Radiation
3298:Cosmic ray
2145:References
1890:Cell death
1791:Eben Byers
1318:16 months
1231:activation
1201:by either
996:dosimeters
939:250 - 280
904:200 - 250
681:High fever
640:High fever
636:leukopenia
622:Infections
618:Hemorrhage
610:Leukopenia
596:Leukopenia
508:1–3 h
470:1–2 h
467:3–4 h
423:1–3 h
420:3–8 h
354:1–2 h
351:2–6 h
301:8–30
157:. If this
123:stochastic
117:Stochastic
3976:NRC (USA)
3925:HPS (USA)
3826:Dosimeter
3743:Becquerel
3690:Dosimetry
3585:Half-life
3458:Dosimetry
3293:Gamma ray
3240:Microwave
3230:Starlight
3191:Radiation
2832:250827449
2703:1932-6203
2636:1759-4812
2561:ICRP 2007
2549:ICRP 2007
2537:ICRP 2007
2506:1465-542X
2413:0820-3946
2354:0820-3946
2216:ICRP 2007
2157:ICRP 2007
2129:Radiology
2084:microbeam
2080:electrons
2037:Neurology
1894:apoptosis
1876:Molecular
1690:cytotoxic
1678:lithium-7
1646:within a
1565:0.001 mSv
1551:0.005 mSv
1524:0.001 mSv
1498:6 months
1392:Abdominal
1345:6 months
1304:8 months
1279:Exam type
1217:exposure.
1115:(UNSCEAR)
988:dosimetry
947:IQ points
921:60 - 310
877:50 - 100
786:actinides
723:With care
699:Mortality
652:Dizziness
525:function
316:Immediate
295:6–8
289:2–6
283:1–2
251:Cataracts
3981:ONR (UK)
3971:IRR (UK)
3950:SRP (UK)
3889:Glovebox
3793:Roentgen
3235:Sunlight
3220:Infrared
3100:11572640
2876:(1955).
2762:11749482
2721:24915439
2673:PLOS ONE
2654:27578040
2524:15642178
2431:19047611
2372:19047611
2202:24275177
2098:See also
2017:Ontogeny
1848:and the
1682:helium-4
1672:. These
1658:boron-10
1602:Internal
1595:7 weeks
1582:8 years
1568:3 hours
1527:3 hours
1509:2 years
1480:3 years
1467:2 years
1441:2 years
1428:7 years
1403:3 years
1374:4 years
1358:10 days
1334:2 years
1158:External
956:, since
673:Vomiting
648:Vomiting
644:Diarrhea
626:Alopecia
604:Weakness
553:lethargy
541:Seizures
435:Headache
391:Diarrhea
369:Duration
363:Minutes
325:vomiting
267:Symptom
3955:UNSCEAR
3920:Euratom
3803:Sievert
3446:chronic
3125:Sources
3108:8711325
2938:1932419
2917:Bibcode
2712:4051648
2681:Bibcode
2645:5443345
2515:1064116
2422:2585137
2363:2585137
2091:UV lamp
2076:protons
1705:History
1619:person.
1592:0.4 mSv
1495:1.5 mSv
1454:1 year
1414:1 year
1387:1 year
1355:0.1 mSv
1342:1.5 mSv
1227:neutron
1138:French
1073:sievert
1004:sievert
932:Severe
915:Severe
853:Effects
798:sievert
735:99–100%
732:50–100%
712:95–100%
634:Severe
614:Purpura
600:Fatigue
587:Illness
338:90–100%
335:75–100%
332:50–100%
155:sievert
65:with a
4034:, and
3628:, and
3106:
3098:
3056:16 Oct
3028:
3005:24 May
3000:751062
2998:
2965:25 Nov
2935:
2909:Nature
2886:
2858:15 Jul
2830:
2824:819945
2822:
2782:
2760:
2719:
2709:
2701:
2652:
2642:
2634:
2595:23 Oct
2522:
2512:
2504:
2429:
2419:
2411:
2370:
2360:
2352:
2286:11 Nov
2277:
2241:15 Jul
2200:
1957:using
1924:cancer
1815:radium
1795:radium
1746:cancer
1711:X-rays
1680:and a
1617:normal
1579:25 mSv
1574:PET-CT
1554:1 day
1425:20 mSv
1400:10 mSv
1371:12 mSv
1199:cancer
1142:(IRSN)
1122:(NCRP)
1109:(ICRU)
1033:matter
669:Nausea
549:ataxia
545:tremor
439:Slight
321:Nausea
264:Phase
137:, and
112:cells.
3441:acute
3338:X-ray
3225:Light
3115:(PDF)
3104:S2CID
3076:(PDF)
2828:S2CID
2311:6 Sep
1959:SQUID
1809:, at
1779:enema
1506:6 mSv
1486:Spine
1477:8 mSv
1464:6 mSv
1451:3 mSv
1438:6 mSv
1411:3 mSv
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