33:
1147:) as opposed to government, nonprofit, or other sources. A systematic review published in 2003 found four 1986â2002 articles comparing industry-sponsored and nonindustry-sponsored RCTs, and in all the articles there was a correlation of industry sponsorship and positive study outcome. A 2004 study of 1999â2001 RCTs published in leading medical and surgical journals determined that industry-funded RCTs "are more likely to be associated with statistically significant pro-industry findings." These results have been mirrored in trials in surgery, where although industry funding did not affect the rate of trial discontinuation it was however associated with a lower odds of publication for completed trials. One possible reason for the pro-industry results in industry-funded published RCTs is
929:), evaluate the study in the context of related studies and other evidence, and evaluate whether the study can be reasonably considered to have proven its conclusions. To underscore the need for peer review and the danger of overgeneralizing conclusions, two Boston-area medical researchers performed a randomized controlled trial in which they randomly assigned either a parachute or an empty backpack to 23 volunteers who jumped from either a biplane or a helicopter. The study was able to accurately report that parachutes fail to reduce injury compared to empty backpacks. The key context that limited the general applicability of this conclusion was that the aircraft were parked on the ground, and participants had only jumped about two feet.
9851:
7540:
615:"Allocation concealment" (defined as "the procedure for protecting the randomization process so that the treatment to be allocated is not known before the patient is entered into the study") is important in RCTs. In practice, clinical investigators in RCTs often find it difficult to maintain impartiality. Stories abound of investigators holding up sealed envelopes to lights or ransacking offices to determine group assignments in order to dictate the assignment of their next patient. Such practices introduce selection bias and
619:(both of which should be minimized by randomization), possibly distorting the results of the study. Adequate allocation concealment should defeat patients and investigators from discovering treatment allocation once a study is underway and after the study has concluded. Treatment related side-effects or adverse events may be specific enough to reveal allocation to investigators or patients thereby introducing bias or influencing any subjective parameters collected by investigators or requested from subjects.
11023:
9837:
511:. Generally, equal group sizes maximize statistical power, however, unequal groups sizes may be more powerful for some analyses (e.g., multiple comparisons of placebo versus several doses using Dunnett's procedure ), and are sometimes desired for non-analytic reasons (e.g., patients may be more motivated to enroll if there is a higher chance of getting the test treatment, or regulatory agencies may require a minimum number of patients exposed to treatment).
1140:
industry financial ties with one or more authors. The information was, however, seldom reflected in the meta-analyses. Only two (7%) reported RCT funding sources and none reported RCT author-industry ties. The authors concluded "without acknowledgment of COI due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from RCTs included in meta-analyses, readers' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta-analysis may be compromised."
11047:
9875:
11035:
9863:
485:, which refers to the stringent precautions taken to ensure that the group assignment of patients are not revealed prior to definitively allocating them to their respective groups. Non-random "systematic" methods of group assignment, such as alternating subjects between one group and the other, can cause "limitless contamination possibilities" and can cause a breach of allocation concealment.
356:(ICMJE) announced that all trials starting enrolment after July 1, 2005, must be registered prior to consideration for publication in one of the 12 member journals of the committee. However, trial registration may still occur late or not at all. Medical journals have been slow in adapting policies requiring mandatory clinical trial registration as a prerequisite for publication.
1151:. Other authors have cited the differing goals of academic and industry sponsored research as contributing to the difference. Commercial sponsors may be more focused on performing trials of drugs that have already shown promise in early stage trials, and on replicating previous positive results to fulfill regulatory requirements for drug approval.
575:, in which the entire sample is treated as one block. The major disadvantage of permuted-block randomization is that even if the block sizes are large and randomly varied, the procedure can lead to selection bias. Another disadvantage is that "proper" analysis of data from permuted-block-randomized RCTs requires stratification by blocks.
1247:
intervention, and parent training, and then measured the behavioral and academic performance of their students. Another 2009 study randomized classrooms for 678 first-grade children to receive a classroom-centered intervention, a parent-centered intervention, or no intervention, and then followed their academic outcomes through age 19.
2194:(1935) statistical technique and application. In that book he emphasized examples and how to design experiments systematically from a statistical point of view. The mathematical justification of the methods described was not stressed and, indeed, proofs were often barely sketched or omitted altogether ..., a fact which led
702:, unblinded neurologists (but not the blinded neurologists) felt that the treatments were beneficial. In pragmatic RCTs, although the participants and providers are often unblinded, it is "still desirable and often possible to blind the assessor or obtain an objective source of data for evaluation of outcomes."
398:â each participant is randomly assigned to a group that receives a particular combination of interventions or non-interventions (e.g., group 1 receives vitamin X and vitamin Y, group 2 receives vitamin X and placebo Y, group 3 receives placebo X and vitamin Y, and group 4 receives placebo X and placebo Y).
1255:
A 2018 review of the 10 most cited randomised controlled trials noted poor distribution of background traits, difficulties with blinding, and discussed other assumptions and biases inherent in randomised controlled trials. These include the "unique time period assessment bias", the "background traits
1134:
in underlying research studies used for medical meta-analyses reviewed 29 meta-analyses and found that conflicts of interests in the studies underlying the meta-analyses were rarely disclosed. The 29 meta-analyses included 11 from general medicine journals; 15 from specialty medicine journals, and 3
1025:
came to market in 1986 and 1987 respectively. The non-randomized studies concerning the drugs were characterized as "glowing", and their sales increased to a combined total of approximately 165,000 prescriptions per month in early 1989. In that year, however, a preliminary report of an RCT concluded
596:: The probability of being assigned to a group varies in order to minimize "covariate imbalance." Minimization is reported to have "supporters and detractors" because only the first subject's group assignment is truly chosen at random, the method does not necessarily eliminate bias on unknown factors.
562:
or blocked randomization: a "block size" and "allocation ratio" (number of subjects in one group versus the other group) are specified, and subjects are allocated randomly within each block. For example, a block size of 6 and an allocation ratio of 2:1 would lead to random assignment of 4 subjects to
1184:
Researchers in transport science argue that public spending on programmes such as school travel plans could not be justified unless their efficacy is demonstrated by randomized controlled trials. Graham-Rowe and colleagues reviewed 77 evaluations of transport interventions found in the literature,
677:
An RCT may be blinded, (also called "masked") by "procedures that prevent study participants, caregivers, or outcome assessors from knowing which intervention was received." Unlike allocation concealment, blinding is sometimes inappropriate or impossible to perform in an RCT; for example, if an RCT
578:
Adaptive biased-coin randomization methods (of which urn randomization is the most widely known type): In these relatively uncommon methods, the probability of being assigned to a group decreases if the group is overrepresented and increases if the group is underrepresented. The methods are thought
690:
specifies that authors and editors should not use the terms "single-blind", "double-blind", and "triple-blind"; instead, reports of blinded RCT should discuss "If done, who was blinded after assignment to interventions (for example, participants, care providers, those assessing outcomes) and how."
335:
for their participation in an RCT, studies since 1982 have documented that RCT subjects may believe that they are certain to receive treatment that is best for them personally; that is, they do not understand the difference between research and treatment. Further research is necessary to determine
1139:
Database of
Systematic Reviews. The 29 meta-analyses reviewed an aggregate of 509 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Of these, 318 RCTs reported funding sources with 219 (69%) industry funded. 132 of the 509 RCTs reported author conflict of interest disclosures, with 91 studies (69%) disclosing
1037:
claimed that women taking hormone replacement therapy with estrogen plus progestin had a higher rate of myocardial infarctions than women on a placebo, and that estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy caused no reduction in the incidence of coronary heart disease. Possible explanations for the
522:
that affect the outcome are not equally distributed between treatment groups, and the treatment effect is confounded with the effect of the covariates (i.e., an "accidental bias"). If the randomization procedure causes an imbalance in covariates related to the outcome across groups, estimates of
1188:
Dr. Steve Melia took issue with these conclusions, arguing that claims about the advantages of RCTs, in establishing causality and avoiding bias, have been exaggerated. He proposed the following eight criteria for the use of RCTs in contexts where interventions must change human behaviour to be
622:
Some standard methods of ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE); sequentially numbered containers; pharmacy controlled randomization; and central randomization. It is recommended that allocation concealment methods be included in an RCT's
514:
Minimize selection bias. This may occur if investigators can consciously or unconsciously preferentially enroll patients between treatment arms. A good randomization procedure will be unpredictable so that investigators cannot guess the next subject's group assignment based on prior treatment
1246:
RCTs have been used in evaluating a number of educational interventions. Between 1980 and 2016, over 1,000 reports of RCTs have been published. For example, a 2009 study randomized 260 elementary school teachers' classrooms to receive or not receive a program of behavioral screening, classroom
108:
to their treatment allocations. This blinding principle is ideally also extended as much as possible to other parties including researchers, technicians, data analysts, and evaluators. Effective blinding experimentally isolates the physiological effects of treatments from various psychological
1233:
A 2005 review found 83 randomized experiments in criminology published in 1982â2004, compared with only 35 published in 1957â1981. The authors classified the studies they found into five categories: "policing", "prevention", "corrections", "court", and "community". Focusing only on offending
1163:
in medical technology is developed, it may be difficult to test this ethically in an RCT if it becomes "obvious" that the control subjects have poorer outcomesâeither due to other foregoing testing, or within the initial phase of the RCT itself. Ethically it may be necessary to abort the RCT
653:
The number of treatment units (subjects or groups of subjects) assigned to control and treatment groups, affects an RCT's reliability. If the effect of the treatment is small, the number of treatment units in either group may be insufficient for rejecting the null hypothesis in the respective
1175:
Due to the recent emergence of RCTs in social science, the use of RCTs in social sciences is a contested issue. Some writers from a medical or health background have argued that existing research in a range of social science disciplines lacks rigour, and should be improved by greater use of
862:
concluded that "discrepancies beyond chance do occur and differences in estimated magnitude of treatment effect are very common" between observational studies and RCTs. According to a 2014 (updated in 2024) Cochrane review, there is little evidence for significant effect differences between
599:
Response-adaptive randomization, also known as outcome-adaptive randomization: The probability of being assigned to a group increases if the responses of the prior patients in the group were favorable. Although arguments have been made that this approach is more ethical than other types of
627:, and that the allocation concealment methods should be reported in detail in a publication of an RCT's results; however, a 2005 study determined that most RCTs have unclear allocation concealment in their protocols, in their publications, or both. On the other hand, a 2008 study of 146
36:
Flowchart of four phases (enrollment, allocation, intervention, follow-up, and data analysis) of a parallel randomized trial of two groups (in a controlled trial, one of the interventions serves as the control), modified from the CONSORT (Consolidated
Standards of Reporting Trials) 2010
1256:
remain constant assumption", the "average treatment effects limitation", the "simple treatment at the individual level limitation", the "all preconditions are fully met assumption", the "quantitative variable limitation" and the "placebo only or conventional treatment only limitation".
855:
and RCTs overall produced similar results. The authors of the 2000 findings questioned the belief that "observational studies should not be used for defining evidence-based medical care" and that RCTs' results are "evidence of the highest grade." However, a 2001 study published in
315:
of RCTs have special considerations. For one, it has been argued that equipoise itself is insufficient to justify RCTs. For another, "collective equipoise" can conflict with a lack of personal equipoise (e.g., a personal belief that an intervention is effective). Finally,
436:
Another classification of RCTs categorizes them as "superiority trials", "noninferiority trials", and "equivalence trials", which differ in methodology and reporting. Most RCTs are superiority trials, in which one intervention is hypothesized to be superior to another in a
159:
trials (and some of them could never be, as in cases where controls would be impractical or unethical to use). The term randomized controlled clinical trial is an alternative term used in clinical research; however, RCTs are also employed in other research areas, including
780:
Whether an RCT should be stopped early due to interim results. For example, RCTs may be stopped early if an intervention produces "larger than expected benefit or harm", or if "investigators find evidence of no important difference between experimental and control
905:. Regarding Type I errors, a typical RCT will use 0.05 (i.e., 1 in 20) as the probability that the RCT will falsely find two equally effective treatments significantly different. Regarding Type II errors, despite the publication of a 1978 paper noting that the
146:
The terms "RCT" and "randomized trial" are sometimes used synonymously, but the latter term omits mention of controls and can therefore describe studies that compare multiple treatment groups with each other in the absence of a control group. Similarly, the
299:(CONSORT) Statements in 1996, 2001 and 2010, and these have become widely accepted. Randomization is the process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce the bias.
6300:
662:
would imply that the treatment shows no statistically significant effect on the treated in a given test. But as the sample size increases, the same RCT may be able to demonstrate a significant effect of the treatment, even if this effect is small.
3245:"Independent and combined effects of improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and improved complementary feeding on early neurodevelopment among children born to HIV-negative mothers in rural Zimbabwe: Substudy of a cluster-randomized trial"
818:
is "an evidence-based, minimum set of recommendations for reporting RCTs." The CONSORT 2010 checklist contains 25 items (many with sub-items) focusing on "individually randomised, two group, parallel trials" which are the most common type of RCT.
4175:
Fukase K, Kato M, Kikuchi S, et al. (August 2008). "Effect of eradication of
Helicobacter pylori on incidence of metachronous gastric carcinoma after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer: an open-label, randomised controlled trial".
441:
way. Some RCTs are noninferiority trials "to determine whether a new treatment is no worse than a reference treatment." Other RCTs are equivalence trials in which the hypothesis is that two interventions are indistinguishable from each other.
788:" is used). A "pure" intention-to-treat analysis is "possible only when complete outcome data are available" for all randomized subjects; when some outcome data are missing, options include analyzing only cases with known outcomes and using
1038:
discrepancy between the observational studies and the RCTs involved differences in methodology, in the hormone regimens used, and in the populations studied. The use of hormone replacement therapy decreased after publication of the RCTs.
343:
The RCT method variations may also create cultural effects that have not been well understood. For example, patients with terminal illness may join trials in the hope of being cured, even when treatments are unlikely to be successful.
480:
to generate an unpredictable sequence of allocations; this may be a simple random assignment of patients to any of the groups at equal probabilities, may be "restricted", or may be "adaptive." A second and more practical issue is
5132:
Freiman JA, Chalmers TC, Smith H, et al. (September 1978). "The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. Survey of 71 "negative" trials".
685:
Traditionally, blinded RCTs have been classified as "single-blind", "double-blind", or "triple-blind"; however, in 2001 and 2006 two studies showed that these terms have different meanings for different people. The 2010
5464:
Cardiac
Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators (August 1989). "Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction".
5400:
Anderson JL, Pratt CM, Waldo AL, et al. (January 1997). "Impact of the Food and Drug
Administration approval of flecainide and encainide on coronary artery disease mortality: putting "Deadly Medicine" to the test".
4290:
Manns MP, McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, et al. (September 2001). "Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial".
698:". In 2008 a study concluded that the results of unblinded RCTs tended to be biased toward beneficial effects only if the RCTs' outcomes were subjective as opposed to objective; for example, in an RCT of treatments for
1234:
behavior programs, Hollin (2008) argued that RCTs may be difficult to implement (e.g., if an RCT required "passing sentences that would randomly assign offenders to programmes") and therefore that experiments with
909:
of many "negative" RCTs were too small to make definitive conclusions about the negative results, by 2005-2006 a sizeable proportion of RCTs still had inaccurate or incompletely reported sample size calculations.
6340:
Walker HM, Seeley JR, Small J, et al. (2009). "A randomized controlled trial of the First Step to
Success early intervention. Demonstration of program efficacy outcomes in a diverse, urban school district".
6546:
10833:
201:-era attitude that scientific observation can only be objectively valid when undertaken by a well-educated, informed scientist. The first study recorded to have a blinded researcher was published in 1907 by
196:
in the latter half of the 19th century. Bernard recommended that the observer of an experiment should not have knowledge of the hypothesis being tested. This suggestion contrasted starkly with the prevalent
4830:
Toews I, Anglemyer A, Nyirenda JL, et al. (2024-01-04). "Healthcare outcomes assessed with observational study designs compared with those assessed in randomized trials: a meta-epidemiological study".
1185:
categorising them into 5 "quality levels". They concluded that most of the studies were of low quality and advocated the use of randomized controlled trials wherever possible in future transport research.
5289:
Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, et al. (Methods Work Group; Third US Preventive
Services Task Force) (April 2001). "Current methods of the US Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process".
543:
against both selection and accidental biases. However, its main drawback is the possibility of imbalanced group sizes in small RCTs. It is therefore recommended only for RCTs with over 200 subjects.
5228:
863:
observational studies and randomized controlled trials. To evaluate differences it is necessary to consider things other than design, such as heterogeneity, population, intervention or comparator.
1167:
Historical control trials (HCT) exploit the data of previous RCTs to reduce the sample size; however, these approaches are controversial in the scientific community and must be handled with care.
5827:
515:
assignments. The risk of selection bias is highest when previous treatment assignments are known (as in unblinded studies) or can be guessed (perhaps if a drug has distinctive side effects).
877:
RCTs may be unnecessary for treatments that have dramatic and rapid effects relative to the expected stable or progressively worse natural course of the condition treated. One example is
3186:"Effect of a 20-week physical activity intervention on selective attention and academic performance in children living in disadvantaged neighborhoods: A cluster randomized control trial"
1095:) and uncommon adverse outcomes (e.g., a rare side effect of a drug) would require RCTs with extremely large sample sizes and may, therefore, best be assessed by observational studies.
1085:
The conduct of an RCT takes several years until being published; thus, data is restricted from the medical community for long years and may be of less relevance at time of publication.
1071:
of RCTs may be high, in that the same study projected that the 28 RCTs produced a "net benefit to society at 10-years" of 46 times the cost of the trials program, based on evaluating a
531:
However, no single randomization procedure meets those goals in every circumstance, so researchers must select a procedure for a given study based on its advantages and disadvantages.
1705:
Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, et al. (2004). "Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial".
1098:
Due to the costs of running RCTs, these usually only inspect one variable or very few variables, rarely reflecting the full picture of a complicated medical situation; whereas the
600:
randomization when the probability that a treatment is effective or ineffective increases during the course of an RCT, ethicists have not yet studied the approach in detail.
5692:
Sanson-Fisher RW, Bonevski B, Green LW, et al. (August 2007). "Limitations of the randomized controlled trial in evaluating population-based health interventions".
5730:
Johnston SC, Rootenberg JD, Katrak S, et al. (April 2006). "Effect of a US National
Institutes of Health programme of clinical trials on public health and costs".
998:
as of 2011 defined "Level 1a" evidence as a systematic review of RCTs that are consistent with each other, and "Level 1b" evidence as an "individual RCT (with narrow
3358:
631:
concluded that the results of RCTs with inadequate or unclear allocation concealment tended to be biased toward beneficial effects only if the RCTs' outcomes were
792:
data. Nevertheless, the more that analyses can include all participants in the groups to which they were randomized, the less bias that an RCT will be subject to.
4380:"Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial"
4079:"The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial"
1060:
428:
in everyday practice with relatively unselected participants and under flexible conditions; in this way, pragmatic RCTs can "inform decisions about practice."
291:
By the late 20th century, RCTs were recognized as the standard method for "rational therapeutics" in medicine. As of 2004, more than 150,000 RCTs were in the
72:
Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By
2784:
5220:
1029:
Prior to 2002, based on observational studies, it was routine for physicians to prescribe hormone replacement therapy for post-menopausal women to prevent
80:
over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these
539:
This is a commonly used and intuitive procedure, similar to "repeated fair coin-tossing." Also known as "complete" or "unrestricted" randomization, it is
965:
of all relevant randomised controlled trials" and "Level II" evidence as that "obtained from at least one properly designed randomised controlled trial."
3105:"Botulinum Toxin A Injection in Treatment of Upper Limb Spasticity in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials"
10828:
6583:
5831:
5243:
4128:"Oral versus intravenous antibiotics for community acquired lower respiratory tract infection in a general hospital: open, randomised controlled trial"
1164:
prematurely, and getting ethics approval (and patient agreement) to withhold the innovation from the control group in future RCTs may not be feasible.
10818:
4782:
Ioannidis JP, Haidich AB, Pappa M, et al. (August 2001). "Comparison of evidence of treatment effects in randomized and nonrandomized studies".
3905:"Empirical evidence of bias in treatment effect estimates in controlled trials with different interventions and outcomes: meta-epidemiological study"
2216:
1196:
Has not been applied to all members of a unique group of people (e.g. the population of a whole country, all employees of a unique organisation etc.)
472:"It permits the use of probability theory to express the likelihood that any difference in outcome between treatment groups merely indicates chance."
311:("genuine uncertainty within the expert medical community... about the preferred treatment") common to clinical trials has been applied to RCTs, the
588:
At least two types of "adaptive" randomization procedures have been used in RCTs, but much less frequently than simple or restricted randomization:
4637:"Reporting of surrogate endpoints in randomised controlled trial reports (CONSORT-Surrogate): extension checklist with explanation and elaboration"
836:"Reporting of surrogate endpoints in randomised controlled trial reports (CONSORT-Surrogate): extension checklist with explanation and elaboration"
1435:
406:
during
December 2006 found that 78% were parallel-group trials, 16% were crossover, 2% were split-body, 2% were cluster, and 2% were factorial.
8972:
2124:
953:. Some examples of scientific organizations' considering RCTs or systematic reviews of RCTs to be the highest-quality evidence available are:
9477:
7114:
6343:
100:; these are then termed the 'experimental' and 'control' treatments, respectively. When no such generally accepted treatment is available, a
5502:"Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial"
973:
958:
488:
However empirical evidence that adequate randomization changes outcomes relative to inadequate randomization has been difficult to detect.
120:
and allocation bias, balancing both known and unknown prognostic factors, in the assignment of treatments. Blinding reduces other forms of
2190:, published in 1925, went through many editions and motivated and influenced the practical use of statistics in many fields of study. His
925:. Reviewers examine the study results for potential problems with design that could lead to unreliable results (for example by creating a
9627:
6301:"The trials of evidence-based practice in education: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials in education research 1980â2016"
4336:"Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial"
858:
424:
in a research setting with highly selected participants and under highly controlled conditions. In contrast, pragmatic RCTs (pRCTs) test
6486:
878:
10868:
9251:
7892:
5852:
Bekelman JE, Li Y, Gross CP (2003). "Scope and impact of financial conflicts of interest in biomedical research: a systematic review".
823:
814:
687:
296:
380:â each participant is randomly assigned to a group, and all the participants in the group receive (or do not receive) an intervention.
7439:
5669:
3463:
995:
980:
as indicators of its quality. It has recognized "evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized controlled trial" with good
281:
17:
5892:"Association between industry funding and statistically significant pro-industry findings in medical and surgical randomized trials"
9025:
6875:
6871:
4233:
2186:
945:
that influences healthcare policy and practice because RCTs reduce spurious causality and bias. Results of RCTs may be combined in
6168:
Graham-Rowe E, Skippon S, Gardner B, et al. (2011). "Can we reduce car use and, if so, how? A review of available evidence".
1413:
392:â pre-existing groups of participants (e.g., villages, schools) are randomly selected to receive (or not receive) an intervention.
11078:
10901:
10873:
9913:
9464:
6921:
6879:
6867:
769:
4034:
Haahr MT, HrĂłbjartsson A (2006). "Who is blinded in randomized clinical trials? A study of 200 trials and a survey of authors".
32:
10878:
10194:
6576:
1609:"Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. I. Introduction and design"
1378:
Chalmers TC, Smith H, Blackburn B, et al. (May 1981). "A method for assessing the quality of a randomized control trial".
1658:"Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. II. analysis and examples"
10936:
10843:
6499:
5256:
3969:
2168:
Neyman, Jerzy. 1923 . "On the
Application of Probability Theory to AgriculturalExperiments. Essay on Principles. Section 9."
5982:"Reported outcomes in major cardiovascular clinical trials funded by for-profit and not-for-profit organizations: 2000-2005"
5828:"How Well Do Meta-Analyses Disclose Conflicts of Interests in Underlying Research Studies | The Cochrane Collaboration"
10926:
7887:
7587:
7042:
6958:
5541:
Grodstein F, Clarkson TB, Manson JE (February 2003). "Understanding the divergent data on postmenopausal hormone therapy".
571:, to "ensure good balance of participant characteristics in each group." A special case of permuted-block randomization is
185:
143:. A randomized controlled trial can provide compelling evidence that the study treatment causes an effect on human health.
2957:
Bhaumik S, Biswas T (March 2013). "Editorial policies of MEDLINE indexed Indian journals on clinical trial registration".
2877:"Despite law, fewer than one in eight completed studies of drugs and biologics are reported on time on ClinicalTrials.gov"
295:. To improve the reporting of RCTs in the medical literature, an international group of scientists and editors published
10883:
10447:
10035:
8491:
7639:
7463:
6823:
6227:
847:
389:
6793:
6225:
Farrington DP, Welsh BC (2005). "Randomized experiments in criminology: What have we learned in the last two decades?".
2563:"The ethics of randomised controlled trials from the perspectives of patients, the public, and healthcare professionals"
9951:
1564:
Ranjith G (2005). "Interferon-alpha-induced depression: when a randomized trial is not a randomized controlled trial".
4596:"Methods and processes of the CONSORT Group: example of an extension for trials assessing nonpharmacologic treatments"
784:
The extent to which the groups can be analyzed exactly as they existed upon randomization (i.e., whether a so-called "
11083:
10941:
10467:
10050:
9274:
9166:
7514:
7352:
7261:
7107:
6569:
6517:
6380:"Longitudinal Impact of Two Universal Preventive Interventions in First Grade on Educational Outcomes in High School"
3404:
Schulz KF, Grimes DA (February 2002). "Generation of allocation sequences in randomised trials: chance, not choice".
3054:"Abdominal drainage versus no drainage after distal pancreatectomy: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial"
1525:"Randomized clinical trials and observational studies: guidelines for assessing respective strengths and limitations"
988:
2184:
Ronald A. Fisher was "interested in application and in the popularization of statistical methods and his early book
151:
is sometimes expanded as "randomized clinical trial" or "randomized comparative trial", leading to ambiguity in the
9879:
9452:
9326:
7080:
6264:
3726:
Lachin JM, Matts JP, Wei LJ (December 1988). "Randomization in clinical trials: conclusions and recommendations".
469:"It facilitates blinding (masking) of the identity of treatments from investigators, participants, and assessors."
10584:
10212:
10189:
9510:
9171:
8916:
8287:
7877:
7527:
7235:
7221:
5441:"In medicine, evidence can be confusing - deluged with studies, doctors try to sort out what works, what doesn't"
4555:"Extending the CONSORT statement to randomized trials of nonpharmacologic treatment: explanation and elaboration"
3851:"Comparison of descriptions of allocation concealment in trial protocols and the published reports: cohort study"
2817:
2694:
Appelbaum PS, Roth LH, Lidz C (1982). "The therapeutic misconception: informed consent in psychiatric research".
6887:
866:
Two other lines of reasoning question RCTs' contribution to scientific knowledge beyond other types of studies:
11088:
11039:
10858:
10808:
10620:
10517:
10278:
10179:
10092:
9561:
8773:
8580:
8469:
8427:
7532:
6925:
6647:
5440:
4477:
3806:
Forder PM, Gebski VJ, Keech AC (January 2005). "Allocation concealment and blinding: when ignorance is bliss".
3005:"The quality of reports of randomised trials in 2000 and 2006: comparative study of articles indexed in PubMed"
1290:
761:
655:
593:
8501:
1088:
It is costly to maintain RCTs for the years or decades that would be ideal for evaluating some interventions.
11051:
10691:
10462:
9804:
8763:
7666:
7073:
6758:
4234:"The impact of blinding on the results of a randomized, placebo-controlled multiple sclerosis clinical trial"
2010:"Deception, efficiency, and random groups. Psychology and the gradual origination of the random group design"
1476:"CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials"
270:
3995:"Physician interpretations and textbook definitions of blinding terminology in randomized controlled trials"
97:
10556:
10283:
9355:
9304:
9289:
9279:
9148:
9020:
8987:
8813:
8768:
8598:
7433:
7398:
7330:
7186:
7100:
7052:
5778:"Case report on trial: Do you, Doctor, swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth?"
5262:
1092:
1034:
1011:
228:
991:
concluded in 2008 that "randomised trials without important limitations constitute high quality evidence."
871:
776:
Regardless of the statistical methods used, important considerations in the analysis of RCT data include:
373:. From most to least common in the healthcare literature, the major categories of RCT study designs are:
10703:
10596:
10320:
10308:
10217:
9906:
9867:
9699:
9500:
9424:
8725:
8479:
7612:
7554:
7415:
7016:
6988:
6917:
6538:"REFLECT (Reporting guidElines For randomized controLled trials for livEstoCk and food safeTy) Statement"
2427:
969:
785:
476:
There are two processes involved in randomizing patients to different interventions. First is choosing a
694:
RCTs without blinding are referred to as "unblinded", "open", or (if the intervention is a medication) "
11073:
10773:
10698:
10603:
10139:
9584:
9556:
9551:
9299:
9058:
8964:
8944:
8852:
8563:
8381:
7864:
7736:
7311:
7066:
6742:
2333:"Comparison of effects in randomized controlled trials with observational studies in digestive surgery"
1218:
Do not involve significant feedback mechanisms between the intervention group and external environments
1072:
757:
121:
3771:
Rosenberger WF, Lachin JM (December 1993). "The use of response-adaptive designs in clinical trials".
3359:"Reporting of noninferiority and equivalence randomized trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement"
2836:"Clinical trial registration: a statement from the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors"
2125:"From deception trials to control reagents: The introduction of the control group about a century ago"
11103:
11093:
10895:
10890:
10758:
10457:
10164:
10122:
10086:
9993:
9316:
9084:
8805:
8730:
8659:
8588:
8508:
8496:
8366:
8354:
8347:
8055:
7776:
6861:
5621:"Changes in postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy use among women with high cardiovascular risk"
3680:
Buyse ME (December 1989). "Analysis of clinical trial outcomes: some comments on subgroup analyses".
1973:(November 1992). "A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research".
1235:
1056:
902:
710:
The types of statistical methods used in RCTs depend on the characteristics of the data and include:
648:
337:
4796:
1202:
Can be isolated from other activitiesâand the purpose of the study is to assess this isolated effect
527:
if not adjusted for the covariates (which may be unmeasured and therefore impossible to adjust for).
10733:
10432:
10144:
10040:
9799:
9566:
9429:
9114:
9079:
9043:
8828:
8270:
8179:
8138:
8050:
7741:
7580:
7489:
7484:
7449:
7333:
7251:
7206:
7201:
6799:
6747:
6627:
5933:"Discontinuation and non-publication of surgical randomised controlled trials: observational study"
5576:
Vandenbroucke JP (April 2009). "The HRT controversy: observational studies and RCTs fall in line".
636:
564:
552:
438:
415:
2454:"A brief history of the randomized controlled trial. From oranges and lemons to the gold standard"
386:â over time, each participant receives (or does not receive) an intervention in a random sequence.
11004:
10931:
10763:
9708:
9321:
9261:
9198:
8836:
8820:
8558:
8420:
8410:
8260:
8174:
7457:
6845:
6715:
6693:
6662:
6637:
6620:
6262:
Hollin CR (2008). "Evaluating offending behaviour programmes: does only randomization glister?".
1144:
950:
789:
742:
624:
559:
261:
The first published Randomized Controlled Trial in medicine appeared in the 1948 paper entitled "
212:
6519:
The impact of randomized clinical trials on health policy and medical practice: background paper
4429:"What is meant by intention to treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials"
2060:"The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions (I)"
1047:
Many papers discuss the disadvantages of RCTs. Among the most frequently cited drawbacks are:
11027:
10999:
10778:
10502:
9988:
9899:
9746:
9676:
9469:
9406:
9161:
9048:
8045:
7942:
7849:
7728:
7627:
7444:
7420:
7364:
7306:
6996:
6833:
6754:
4791:
4612:
4595:
1881:
1136:
1079:
1006:
Notable RCTs with unexpected results that contributed to changes in clinical practice include:
765:
749:
734:
610:
216:
140:
10984:
10768:
10303:
10204:
10097:
9946:
9771:
9713:
9656:
9482:
9375:
9284:
9010:
8894:
8753:
8745:
8635:
8627:
8442:
8338:
8316:
8275:
8240:
8207:
8153:
8128:
8083:
8022:
7982:
7784:
7607:
7549:
7393:
7293:
7267:
7246:
7226:
7163:
7146:
7123:
6837:
6724:
6632:
6596:
6525:. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. OTA-BP-H-22. Archived from
6505:
4735:"Randomized, controlled trials, observational studies, and the hierarchy of research designs"
1305:
1160:
1131:
1030:
1015:
942:
723:
451:
208:
152:
54:
6561:
4571:
4554:
2526:
Gifford F (April 1995). "Community-equipoise and the ethics of randomized clinical trials".
11098:
10959:
10743:
10608:
10574:
10522:
10347:
10342:
10288:
10244:
10134:
10072:
9961:
9956:
9694:
9269:
9218:
9194:
9156:
9074:
9053:
9005:
8884:
8862:
8831:
8740:
8617:
8568:
8486:
8459:
8415:
8371:
8133:
7909:
7789:
7409:
7347:
7341:
6803:
6177:
3197:
2251:
2017:
Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences
1948:
1331:"CONSORT 2010 statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials"
1111:
1068:
800:
524:
395:
325:
274:
198:
128:
66:
8:
10969:
10964:
10738:
10537:
10527:
10362:
9971:
9841:
9766:
9689:
9370:
9134:
9127:
9089:
8997:
8977:
8949:
8682:
8548:
8543:
8533:
8525:
8343:
8304:
8194:
8184:
8093:
7872:
7828:
7746:
7671:
7573:
7509:
7474:
7383:
6710:
6642:
5463:
5245:
A guide to the development, implementation and evaluation of clinical practice guidelines
3573:
Lachin JM (December 1988). "Statistical properties of randomization in clinical trials".
2918:"Comparison of registered and published primary outcomes in randomized controlled trials"
2244:
Analysis and design of experiments: Analysis of variance and analysis of variance designs
1295:
999:
852:
719:
232:
224:
136:
6181:
6078:. Randomized Controlled Trials and Evidence-based Policy: A Multidisciplinary Dialogue.
4663:
4636:
4269:
3609:
3201:
10591:
10174:
10023:
9855:
9666:
9520:
9416:
9365:
9241:
9138:
9122:
9099:
8876:
8610:
8593:
8553:
8464:
8359:
8321:
8292:
8252:
8212:
8158:
8075:
7761:
7756:
7544:
7151:
6963:
6913:
6728:
6657:
6615:
6473:
6404:
6379:
6360:
6281:
6244:
6145:
6120:
6096:
6071:
6047:
6022:
5957:
5932:
5804:
5777:
5755:
5645:
5620:
5601:
5351:
5326:
5196:
5169:
5014:
4989:
4962:
4937:
4906:
4879:
4759:
4734:
4409:
4316:
4261:
4229:
4211:
4152:
4127:
4103:
4078:
4059:
3975:
3929:
3904:
3831:
3819:
3547:
3520:
3494:
3429:
3327:
3302:
3271:
3244:
3220:
3185:
3131:
3104:
3080:
3053:
3029:
3004:
2982:
2809:
2760:
2733:
2671:
2646:
2587:
2562:
2539:
2408:
2357:
2348:
2332:
2291:
2266:
2040:
1990:
1970:
1952:
1936:
1902:
1889:
1858:
1833:
1814:
1774:
1749:
1730:
1682:
1657:
1633:
1608:
1589:
1500:
1475:
1355:
1330:
1300:
1270:
699:
672:
308:
105:
81:
5908:
5743:
5589:
5414:
5303:
5068:
5041:
4304:
4189:
4094:
3875:
3850:
3657:
3633:"Can unequal be more fair? Ethics, subject allocation, and randomised clinical trials"
3632:
3482:
3417:
2469:
2059:
1718:
678:
involves a treatment in which active participation of the patient is necessary (e.g.,
496:
The treatment allocation is the desired proportion of patients in each treatment arm.
258:. Fisher's experimental research and his writings popularized randomized experiments.
10753:
10748:
10676:
10625:
10399:
10379:
10367:
10327:
10298:
10266:
10184:
10077:
10045:
9941:
9850:
9761:
9731:
9723:
9543:
9534:
9459:
9390:
9246:
9231:
9206:
9094:
9035:
8901:
8889:
8515:
8432:
8376:
8299:
8143:
8065:
7844:
7718:
7539:
7301:
7288:
7278:
7191:
7168:
7160:
7156:
7131:
7037:
7001:
6968:
6893:
6815:
6592:
6495:
6450:
6409:
6364:
6322:
6285:
6248:
6205:"Do Randomised Control Trials Offer a Solution to 'low Quality' Transport Research?'"
6150:
6101:
6052:
6003:
5962:
5913:
5869:
5809:
5747:
5709:
5650:
5593:
5558:
5523:
5482:
5418:
5356:
5307:
5252:
5201:
5150:
5114:
5073:
5019:
4967:
4911:
4860:
4848:
4809:
4764:
4712:
4668:
4617:
4576:
4535:
4458:
4453:
4428:
4401:
4357:
4308:
4253:
4203:
4157:
4108:
4051:
4016:
3965:
3934:
3880:
3823:
3788:
3784:
3753:
3739:
3697:
3693:
3662:
3590:
3586:
3552:
3486:
3421:
3381:
3332:
3276:
3225:
3136:
3085:
3034:
2974:
2939:
2898:
2857:
2813:
2765:
2711:
2707:
2676:
2627:
2592:
2543:
2508:
2473:
2400:
2362:
2296:
2228:
2155:
2147:
2105:
2032:
1994:
1863:
1818:
1779:
1722:
1687:
1638:
1593:
1581:
1546:
1505:
1395:
1391:
1360:
1285:
1275:
1199:
Is applied in a context or setting similar to that which applies to the control group
981:
977:
962:
946:
938:
922:
889:
874:
would be at the top of the list, followed by observational studies, followed by RCTs.
796:
753:
568:
540:
508:
504:
317:
240:
93:
73:
6087:
5759:
5605:
4413:
4320:
4215:
4063:
3502:
3498:
3303:"Improving the reporting of pragmatic trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement"
2986:
2198:
to fill the gaps with a rigorous mathematical treatment in his well known treatise,
2044:
1956:
1734:
1215:
Are either known to the researchers, or else all possible alternatives can be tested
57:
used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are
10918:
10671:
10630:
10442:
10417:
10229:
10159:
10003:
9786:
9741:
9505:
9492:
9385:
9360:
9294:
9226:
9104:
8712:
8605:
8538:
8451:
8398:
8217:
8088:
7882:
7766:
7681:
7648:
7479:
7173:
6811:
6732:
6686:
6681:
6440:
6399:
6391:
6352:
6312:
6273:
6236:
6185:
6140:
6132:
6091:
6083:
6042:
6034:
5993:
5952:
5944:
5903:
5861:
5799:
5789:
5739:
5701:
5640:
5632:
5585:
5550:
5513:
5474:
5410:
5346:
5338:
5299:
5191:
5181:
5142:
5104:
5063:
5053:
5037:
5009:
5001:
4957:
4949:
4901:
4891:
4856:
4844:
4840:
4801:
4754:
4746:
4702:
4658:
4648:
4607:
4566:
4525:
4515:
4448:
4440:
4391:
4347:
4300:
4265:
4245:
4193:
4185:
4147:
4139:
4098:
4090:
4043:
4006:
3957:
3924:
3916:
3870:
3862:
3815:
3780:
3743:
3735:
3689:
3652:
3644:
3582:
3542:
3532:
3478:
3413:
3373:
3322:
3314:
3266:
3256:
3215:
3205:
3126:
3116:
3075:
3065:
3024:
3016:
2966:
2929:
2888:
2847:
2801:
2755:
2745:
2703:
2666:
2658:
2619:
2582:
2574:
2535:
2500:
2465:
2412:
2392:
2352:
2344:
2286:
2278:
2220:
2139:
2097:
2024:
2009:
1982:
1928:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1806:
1769:
1761:
1714:
1677:
1669:
1628:
1620:
1573:
1536:
1495:
1487:
1387:
1350:
1342:
1265:
1224:
Would act in the same way if the control group and intervention group were reversed
1148:
695:
679:
616:
425:
332:
292:
255:
236:
189:
6445:
6428:
6317:
3835:
3433:
250:
In the early 20th century, randomized experiments appeared in agriculture, due to
10979:
10681:
10484:
10477:
10412:
10352:
10234:
10224:
10154:
10127:
10112:
10067:
10057:
10008:
9703:
9447:
9309:
9236:
8911:
8785:
8758:
8735:
8704:
8331:
8326:
8280:
8010:
7661:
7495:
7425:
7378:
7006:
6829:
6784:
5705:
4896:
3261:
3210:
2750:
2316:
2247:
1944:
1107:
926:
659:
431:
383:
202:
9193:
5478:
5342:
5146:
5005:
4938:"Why we need observational studies to evaluate the effectiveness of health care"
4750:
4707:
4690:
3920:
3866:
2623:
2504:
2208:
1917:(September 1988). "Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design".
10666:
10452:
10389:
10374:
10357:
10315:
10117:
9998:
9652:
9647:
8110:
8040:
7686:
7181:
7032:
6953:
6905:
6698:
6610:
6121:"Randomised controlled trial of site specific advice on school travel patterns"
5046:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2792:
2396:
2383:
Stolberg HO, Norman G, Trop I (December 2004). "Randomized controlled trials".
2143:
1919:
1885:
1541:
1524:
563:
one group and 2 to the other. This type of randomization can be combined with "
555:
is recommended. The major types of restricted randomization used in RCTs are:
459:
377:
328:
and selected therapies, but is likely unethical "for most therapeutic trials."
220:
193:
173:
117:
62:
58:
6240:
6189:
5891:
5170:"Reporting of sample size calculation in randomised controlled trials: review"
4953:
4143:
3121:
3070:
2970:
2893:
2876:
2805:
2578:
1416:. National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health. 22 March 2023
892:, which increased the cure rate from 5% to 60% in a 1977 non-randomized study.
803:
may produce false positive findings that cannot be confirmed by other studies.
420:
RCTs can be classified as "explanatory" or "pragmatic." Explanatory RCTs test
11067:
10974:
10853:
10661:
10635:
10512:
10472:
10437:
10427:
10407:
10149:
10107:
10082:
10030:
10018:
10013:
9922:
9809:
9776:
9639:
9600:
9411:
9380:
8844:
8798:
8403:
8105:
7932:
7696:
7691:
7319:
7196:
7011:
6978:
6973:
6356:
6326:
6277:
6038:
5998:
5981:
5636:
5518:
5501:
5109:
5092:
4880:"Observational research, randomised trials, and two views of medical science"
4852:
4444:
4352:
4335:
4047:
4011:
3994:
3537:
3377:
2662:
2264:
2232:
2209:"R. A. Fisher and the development of statisticsâa view in his centenary year"
2151:
2109:
984:(i.e., a rating of "I-good") as the highest quality evidence available to it.
628:
5794:
5241:
4653:
3464:"Allocation concealment in randomised trials: defending against deciphering"
1205:
Has a short timescale between its implementation and maturity of its effects
1143:
Some RCTs are fully or partly funded by the health care industry (e.g., the
421:
132:
10994:
10422:
10271:
10261:
10239:
10169:
10062:
9976:
9751:
9684:
9661:
9576:
8906:
8202:
8100:
8035:
7977:
7962:
7899:
7854:
7469:
6853:
6737:
6454:
6413:
6154:
6105:
6056:
6007:
5966:
5917:
5873:
5865:
5813:
5751:
5713:
5654:
5597:
5562:
5527:
5360:
5325:
Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, et al. (GRADE Working Group) (May 2008).
5311:
5205:
5118:
5077:
5058:
5023:
4915:
4864:
4813:
4805:
4768:
4716:
4672:
4621:
4580:
4539:
4462:
4405:
4396:
4379:
4361:
4312:
4207:
4112:
4055:
4020:
3979:
3938:
3884:
3827:
3556:
3490:
3425:
3385:
3336:
3280:
3229:
3140:
3089:
3038:
2978:
2943:
2934:
2917:
2902:
2861:
2769:
2547:
2477:
2404:
2366:
2300:
2282:
1867:
1726:
1585:
1550:
1509:
1364:
1119:
1026:
that the two drugs increased mortality. Sales of the drugs then decreased.
903:
type I ("false positive") and type II ("false negative") statistical errors
738:
632:
370:
285:
266:
262:
251:
244:
5486:
5422:
4971:
4257:
4161:
3792:
3757:
3701:
3666:
3594:
2734:"Clinical trials and medical care: defining the therapeutic misconception"
2715:
2680:
2596:
2512:
2036:
1810:
1783:
1399:
10989:
10686:
10384:
10293:
10256:
9794:
9756:
9439:
9340:
9202:
9015:
8982:
8474:
8391:
8386:
8030:
7987:
7967:
7947:
7937:
7706:
7325:
7256:
7241:
7211:
7047:
6901:
6774:
6764:
5554:
5373:
5154:
4691:"A comparison of observational studies and randomized, controlled trials"
4587:
4546:
3748:
3648:
2631:
2491:
Freedman B (July 1987). "Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research".
1914:
1691:
1642:
1624:
1329:
Schulz KF, Altman DG, Moher D, et al. (CONSORT Group) (March 2010).
1280:
1099:
918:
906:
870:
If study designs are ranked by their potential for new discoveries, then
727:
715:
463:
7092:
5375:
4249:
3961:
2852:
2835:
2314:
Brown D (1998-11-02). "Landmark study made research resistant to bias".
1765:
579:
to be less affected by selection bias than permuted-block randomization.
139:
and may additionally provide information about adverse effects, such as
10615:
10337:
8640:
8120:
7820:
7751:
7701:
7676:
7596:
7141:
6849:
6841:
6807:
6769:
6676:
6526:
6136:
2239:
2195:
2085:
1673:
1076:
1018:
886:
177:
148:
116:
The randomness in the assignment of participants to treatments reduces
5948:
5327:"What is "quality of evidence" and why is it important to clinicians?"
5186:
4520:
4503:
4198:
3318:
1940:
1577:
409:
10713:
10532:
10102:
9983:
8793:
8645:
8265:
8060:
7972:
7957:
7952:
7917:
7273:
6909:
6897:
6395:
5670:"Obstacles to and limitations of social experiments: 15 false alarms"
4530:
3171:
Linear and Nonlinear Models for the Analysis of Repeated Measurements
3020:
2224:
1491:
1346:
1115:
1022:
882:
519:
5691:
4481:
2834:
De Angelis C, Drazen JM, Frizelle FA, et al. (September 2004).
2453:
2101:
1091:
Interventions to prevent events that occur only infrequently (e.g.,
961:
of Australia designated "Level I" evidence as that "obtained from a
499:
An ideal randomization procedure would achieve the following goals:
10579:
10332:
9966:
9936:
8309:
7927:
7804:
7799:
7794:
6943:
4990:"When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise"
4502:
Campbell MK, Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, et al. (September 2012).
3301:
Zwarenstein M, Treweek S, Gagnier JJ, et al. (November 2008).
3243:
Gladstone MJ, Chandna J, Kandawasvika G, et al. (March 2019).
3242:
2732:
Henderson GE, Churchill LR, Davis AM, et al. (November 2007).
2610:
Zelen M (May 1979). "A new design for randomized clinical trials".
2028:
1986:
1932:
1103:
6204:
4228:
1704:
722:(e.g., to predict sustained virological response after receipt of
192:. An early essay advocating the blinding of researchers came from
10251:
9814:
9515:
6948:
6072:"Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials"
833:
Consort 2010 Statement: Non-Pharmacologic Treatment Interventions
101:
9891:
6537:
6167:
5890:
Bhandari M, Busse JW, Jackowski D, et al. (February 2004).
4988:
Glasziou P, Chalmers I, Rawlins M, et al. (February 2007).
4987:
4504:"Consort 2010 statement: extension to cluster randomised trials"
4334:
Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, et al. (April 2001).
2213:
Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland
2172:
5 (4): 465â472. Trans. Dorota M. Dabrowska and Terence P. Speed.
840:
518:
Minimize allocation bias (or confounding). This may occur when
324:
they provide informed consent, which may be ethical for RCTs of
131:
for clinical trials. Blinded RCTs are commonly used to test the
96:
typically compares a proposed new treatment against an existing
10546:
9736:
8717:
8691:
8671:
7922:
7713:
6378:
Bradshaw CP, Zmuda JH, Kellam SG, et al. (November 2009).
5931:
Chapman SJ, Shelton B, Mahmood H, et al. (December 2014).
5930:
5167:
4378:
Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, et al. (July 2002).
4077:
Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, et al. (March 2007).
4076:
3300:
2331:
Shikata S, Nakayama T, Noguchi Y, et al. (November 2006).
1750:"James Lind (1716-94) of Edinburgh and the treatment of scurvy"
1377:
1221:
Have a stable and predictable relationship to exogenous factors
994:
For issues involving "Therapy/Prevention, Aetiology/Harm", the
403:
312:
181:
6119:
Rowland D, DiGuiseppi C, Gross M, et al. (January 2003).
5168:
Charles P, Giraudeau B, Dechartres A, et al. (May 2009).
4377:
3103:
Farag SM, Mohammed MO, El-Sobky TA, et al. (March 2020).
2265:
Streptomycin in Tuberculosis Trials Committee (October 1948).
830:
Consort 2010 Statement: Extension to Cluster Randomised Trials
432:
By hypothesis (superiority vs. noninferiority vs. equivalence)
10708:
7565:
6591:
6429:"Why all randomised controlled trials produce biased results"
6118:
6023:"Calculating sample size in trials using historical controls"
5889:
5729:
5500:
Anderson GL, Limacher M, Assaf AR, et al. (April 2004).
5499:
5221:"Researchers Show Parachutes Don't Work, But There's A Catch"
4781:
4501:
4495:
4125:
3848:
3521:"In search of justification for the unpredictability paradox"
3357:
Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, Altman DG, et al. (March 2006).
3102:
2916:
Mathieu S, Boutron I, Moher D, et al. (September 2009).
2785:"The mortality effect: counting the dead in the cancer trial"
2731:
1797:
Daston L (2005). "Scientific Error and the Ethos of Belief".
5399:
4829:
4594:
Boutron I, Moher D, Altman DG, et al. (February 2008).
4553:
Boutron I, Moher D, Altman DG, et al. (February 2008).
4289:
3993:
Devereaux PJ, Manns BJ, Ghali WA, et al. (April 2001).
2833:
1754:
Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition
799:
should be performed. These are "often discouraged" because
10834:
Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
10640:
7656:
5242:
National Health and Medical Research Council (1998-11-16).
5131:
5093:"Sample size calculations for randomized controlled trials"
4333:
3849:
Pildal J, Chan AW, HrĂłbjartsson A, et al. (May 2005).
3356:
3184:
Gall S, Adams L, Joubert N, et al. (8 November 2018).
1064:
458:"It eliminates bias in treatment assignment," specifically
110:
6488:
Testing treatments: better research for better health care
6377:
4635:
Manyara AM, Davies P, Stewart D, et al. (July 2024).
3169:
Vonesh EF, Chinchilli VG (1997). "Crossover Experiments".
3051:
2330:
1834:"The action of caffeine on the capacity for muscular work"
1607:
Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, et al. (December 1976).
1474:
Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, et al. (March 2010).
1473:
1063:
prior to 2000 with a total cost of US$ 335 million, for a
737:(e.g., for changes in blood lipid levels after receipt of
104:
may be used in the control group so that participants are
84:
to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied.
6547:"Power and bias in adaptively randomized clinical trials"
6339:
6161:
2915:
1656:
Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, et al. (January 1977).
320:, which has been used for some RCTs, randomizes subjects
205:
and H. N. Webber to investigate the effects of caffeine.
5374:
Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine (2011-09-16).
4634:
4593:
4552:
4232:, Ebers GC, Vandervoort MK, et al. (January 1994).
1102:, for example, can detail many aspects of the patient's
896:
353:
61:
that compare the effects of drugs, surgical techniques,
5775:
5540:
4126:
Chan R, Hemeryck L, O'Regan M, et al. (May 1995).
3992:
3052:
Kaiser J, Niesen W, Probst P, et al. (June 2019).
3003:
Hopewell S, Dutton S, Yu LM, et al. (March 2010).
1655:
1606:
1061:
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
901:
Like all statistical methods, RCTs are subject to both
682:), participants cannot be blinded to the intervention.
592:
Covariate-adaptive randomization, of which one type is
280:
Trial design was further influenced by the large-scale
76:
participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables
6298:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5288:
4174:
3183:
277:, who is credited as having conceived the modern RCT.
6484:
6112:
5661:
3903:
Wood L, Egger M, Gluud LL, et al. (March 2008).
2560:
1033:. In 2002 and 2004, however, published RCTs from the
551:
To balance group sizes in smaller RCTs, some form of
9478:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
5619:
Hsu A, Card A, Lin SX, et al. (December 2009).
3902:
3002:
2057:
1903:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm
1436:"What Are the Different Types of Clinical Research?"
949:
which are increasingly being used in the conduct of
937:
RCTs are considered to be the most reliable form of
273:
investigation. One of the authors of that paper was
6220:
6218:
6170:
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice
5680:
5324:
5251:. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. p. 56.
3399:
3397:
3395:
3296:
3294:
3292:
3290:
1067:cost of US$ 12 million per RCT. Nevertheless, the
410:
By outcome of interest (efficacy vs. effectiveness)
8940:
6474:"Directory of randomisation software and services"
5569:
4871:
4732:
2561:Edwards SJ, Lilford RJ, Hewison J (October 1998).
2382:
2267:"STREPTOMYCIN treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis"
1572:(6): 387, author reply 387-387, author reply 388.
354:International Committee of Medical Journal Editors
184:. The first blind experiment was conducted by the
5885:
5883:
5725:
5723:
4628:
4033:
3954:Running randomized evaluations: a practical guide
3951:
3805:
3770:
2874:
2727:
2725:
2693:
2217:Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland
1438:. US Food and Drug Administration. 4 January 2018
1328:
11065:
6554:M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, University of Texas
6215:
6069:
5395:
5393:
5391:
4983:
4981:
3945:
3764:
3392:
3287:
3168:
2998:
2996:
2378:
2376:
9026:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
6299:Connolly P, Keenan C, Urbanska K (2018-07-09).
6224:
5851:
4728:
4726:
4373:
4371:
4222:
3952:Glennerster R, Kudzai T (2013). ""Chapter 6"".
3721:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3568:
3566:
3352:
3350:
3348:
3346:
2875:Law MR, Kawasumi Y, Morgan SG (December 2011).
2644:
1125:
5880:
5845:
5776:Yitschaky O, Yitschaky M, Zadik Y (May 2011).
5771:
5769:
5720:
5618:
5534:
5284:
5282:
4775:
4684:
4682:
4426:
3986:
3725:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3443:
2722:
2687:
2638:
1923:. A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment.
9907:
7581:
7108:
6577:
6344:Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
6211:. Bristol: University of the West of England.
5924:
5575:
5493:
5434:
5432:
5388:
4978:
4931:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4877:
4327:
3173:. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 111â202.
2993:
2956:
2484:
2373:
2206:
2086:"General Practice Effect of Special Exercise"
1880:
1324:
1322:
1320:
976:has considered both a study's design and its
841:Relative importance and observational studies
288:treatments that were conducted in the 1980s.
5979:
5161:
5125:
5030:
4723:
4368:
3898:
3896:
3894:
3708:
3563:
3518:
3461:
3403:
3343:
3158:(Second ed.). London: Chapman and Hall.
3153:
2909:
2868:
2827:
2554:
2519:
2458:Hematology/Oncology Clinics of North America
2445:
2324:
2083:
1831:
1825:
1698:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1371:
974:United States Preventive Services Task Force
959:National Health and Medical Research Council
336:the prevalence of and ways to address this "
6196:
6020:
5766:
5318:
5279:
5084:
4833:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
4733:Concato J, Shah N, Horwitz RI (June 2000).
4688:
4679:
4420:
4168:
4070:
3842:
3799:
3512:
3440:
2696:International Journal of Law and Psychiatry
1894:Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences
1557:
859:Journal of the American Medical Association
748:For time-to-event outcome data that may be
745:) tests the effects of predictor variables.
186:French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
10869:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
9914:
9900:
7626:
7588:
7574:
7115:
7101:
6584:
6570:
6544:
5429:
4922:
4613:10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008-w1
4478:"Welcome to the CONSORT statement Website"
4283:
4027:
3673:
3624:
2603:
2307:
1317:
1055:RCTs can be expensive; one study found 28
826:" have been published, some examples are:
297:Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials
87:
10829:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
10819:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
8239:
7122:
6444:
6403:
6316:
6144:
6095:
6046:
5997:
5956:
5907:
5803:
5793:
5644:
5612:
5517:
5457:
5350:
5195:
5185:
5108:
5067:
5057:
5013:
4961:
4905:
4895:
4795:
4758:
4706:
4662:
4652:
4611:
4570:
4529:
4519:
4475:
4452:
4395:
4351:
4197:
4151:
4119:
4102:
4010:
3956:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
3928:
3891:
3874:
3747:
3656:
3546:
3536:
3326:
3270:
3260:
3219:
3209:
3130:
3120:
3079:
3069:
3028:
2933:
2892:
2851:
2776:
2759:
2749:
2670:
2586:
2356:
2290:
1857:
1773:
1681:
1632:
1540:
1499:
1450:
1354:
996:Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine
604:
6876:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
6872:Attributable fraction for the population
6485:Evans I, Thornton H, Chalmers I (2010).
5667:
3156:Design and Analysis of Cross-Over Trials
2645:Torgerson DJ, Roland M (February 1998).
2490:
2258:
2187:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
2175:
1649:
1600:
1428:
770:hormone replacement therapy in menopause
331:Although subjects almost always provide
31:
10874:Health departments in the United States
6880:Preventable fraction for the population
6868:Attributable fraction among the exposed
6515:
5694:American Journal of Preventive Medicine
5292:American Journal of Preventive Medicine
5036:
4572:10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008
4469:
4427:Hollis S, Campbell F (September 1999).
3607:
2525:
2451:
1969:
1913:
1563:
1414:"What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?"
1130:A 2011 study done to disclose possible
921:of results is an important part of the
807:
402:An analysis of the 616 RCTs indexed in
14:
11066:
10879:Council on Education for Public Health
9552:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
6426:
6261:
6070:Deaton A, Cartwright N (August 2018).
5218:
5090:
3572:
3462:Schulz KF, Grimes DA (February 2002).
2385:AJR. American Journal of Roentgenology
2215:. Vol. XXVI, no. 3. Dublin:
1796:
1522:
161:
10937:Professional degrees of public health
10844:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
9895:
9625:
9192:
8939:
8238:
8008:
7625:
7569:
7096:
6565:
6471:
6202:
6021:Zhang S, Cao J, Ahn C (August 2010).
5438:
5042:"Curing metastatic testicular cancer"
4935:
4825:
4823:
3679:
3630:
2609:
2425:
2313:
2122:
2007:
1516:
897:Interpretation of statistical results
347:
227:. The earliest experiments comparing
188:in 1784 to investigate the claims of
127:A well-blinded RCT is considered the
69:, diets or other medical treatments.
11034:
10927:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
9862:
9562:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
7043:Correlation does not imply causation
6959:Animal testing on non-human primates
3519:Howick J, Mebius A (December 2014).
2782:
2238:
2199:
1832:Rivers WH, Webber HN (August 1907).
1747:
1179:
1170:
180:in 1747 to identify a treatment for
11046:
10195:Workers' right to access the toilet
10036:Human right to water and sanitation
9874:
9157:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
8009:
7464:Generalized randomized block design
6545:Wathen JK, Cook JD (12 July 2006).
6228:Journal of Experimental Criminology
5674:Abt Thought Leadership Paper Series
5543:The New England Journal of Medicine
5467:The New England Journal of Medicine
5135:The New England Journal of Medicine
4739:The New England Journal of Medicine
4695:The New England Journal of Medicine
2840:The New England Journal of Medicine
2612:The New England Journal of Medicine
2493:The New England Journal of Medicine
1890:"On Small Differences in Sensation"
848:The New England Journal of Medicine
705:
24:
9252:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
7878:Pearson product-moment correlation
6464:
5403:The American Journal of Cardiology
5231:from the original on Jan 17, 2024.
4820:
3820:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2005.tb06584.x
3610:"STAT 503 - Design of Experiments"
2540:10.1111/j.1467-8519.1995.tb00306.x
2349:10.1097/01.sla.0000225356.04304.bc
2090:The American Journal of Psychology
2058:Woodworth RS, ThorndikeEL (1901).
1529:JACC. Cardiovascular Interventions
1406:
364:
359:
25:
11115:
10468:Commercial determinants of health
9921:
7515:Sequential probability ratio test
6384:Journal of Educational Psychology
5625:American Journal of Public Health
1050:
11045:
11033:
11022:
11021:
10051:National public health institute
9873:
9861:
9849:
9836:
9835:
9626:
7538:
7440:Polynomial and rational modeling
6420:
6371:
6333:
6292:
6265:Criminology and Criminal Justice
6255:
6125:Archives of Disease in Childhood
6063:
6014:
5980:Ridker PM, Torres J (May 2006).
5973:
5820:
4689:Benson K, Hartz AJ (June 2000).
3808:The Medical Journal of Australia
2246:. New York: Dover Publications.
1566:Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics
1075:as equal to the prevailing mean
1042:
730:) and other methods can be used.
445:
215:, where they were introduced by
10448:Open-source healthcare software
10190:Sociology of health and illness
9511:Least-squares spectral analysis
6494:. London: Pinter & Martin.
6088:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.12.005
5782:Journal of Medical Case Reports
5367:
5235:
5212:
4878:Vandenbroucke JP (March 2008).
3612:. Pennsylvania State University
3601:
3236:
3177:
3162:
3147:
3096:
3045:
2950:
2419:
2162:
2116:
2077:
2051:
2001:
1963:
1907:
1874:
1790:
1741:
968:Since at least 2001, in making
762:Cox proportional hazards models
369:One way to classify RCTs is by
122:experimenter and subject biases
11079:Epidemiological study projects
10809:Caribbean Public Health Agency
10621:Sexually transmitted infection
10518:Statistical hypothesis testing
10279:Occupational safety and health
10180:Sexual and reproductive health
10093:Occupational safety and health
8492:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
7595:
7207:Replication versus subsampling
6926:Pre- and post-test probability
6648:Patient and public involvement
6209:Transportation Research Part A
5830:. Cochrane.org. Archived from
4845:10.1002/14651858.MR000034.pub3
1850:10.1113/jphysiol.1907.sp001215
1291:Patient and public involvement
1228:
913:
822:For other RCT study designs, "
642:
567:", for example by center in a
155:. Not all RCTs are randomized
13:
1:
10463:Social determinants of health
9805:Geographic information system
9021:Simultaneous equations models
6446:10.1080/07853890.2018.1453233
6318:10.1080/00131881.2018.1493353
6076:Social Science & Medicine
5744:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68578-4
5590:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60708-X
5415:10.1016/S0002-9149(96)00673-X
5304:10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00261-6
4305:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06102-5
4190:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61159-9
4095:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60461-9
3483:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07750-4
3418:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07683-3
2470:10.1016/S0889-8588(05)70309-9
2181:According to Denis Conniffe:
1975:American Journal of Education
1719:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16626-9
1311:
932:
733:For continuous outcome data,
546:
491:
29:Form of scientific experiment
10523:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
10284:Human factors and ergonomics
8988:Coefficient of determination
8599:Uniformly most powerful test
7434:Response surface methodology
7342:Analysis of variance (Anova)
7053:Sex as a biological variable
5706:10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.007
4897:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050067
3785:10.1016/0197-2456(93)90028-C
3740:10.1016/0197-2456(88)90049-9
3694:10.1016/0197-2456(89)90057-3
3587:10.1016/0197-2456(88)90045-1
3262:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002766
3211:10.1371/journal.pone.0206908
3154:Jones B, Kenward MG (2003).
2751:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040324
2708:10.1016/0160-2527(82)90026-7
2084:Coover JE, Angell F (1907).
1392:10.1016/0197-2456(81)90056-8
1250:
1241:
1126:Conflict of interest dangers
1093:sudden infant death syndrome
1012:Food and Drug Administration
658:. The failure to reject the
560:Permuted-block randomization
229:treatment and control groups
7:
10704:Good manufacturing practice
10508:Randomized controlled trial
9557:Proportional hazards models
9501:Spectral density estimation
9483:Vector autoregression (VAR)
8917:Maximum posterior estimator
8149:Randomized controlled trial
7504:Randomized controlled trial
7017:Intention-to-treat analysis
6989:Analysis of clinical trials
6918:Specificity and sensitivity
6672:Randomized controlled trial
5479:10.1056/NEJM198908103210629
5343:10.1136/bmj.39490.551019.BE
5147:10.1056/NEJM197809282991304
5006:10.1136/bmj.39070.527986.68
4751:10.1056/NEJM200006223422507
4708:10.1056/NEJM200006223422506
4600:Annals of Internal Medicine
4559:Annals of Internal Medicine
3921:10.1136/bmj.39465.451748.AD
3867:10.1136/bmj.38414.422650.8F
2624:10.1056/NEJM197905313002203
2505:10.1056/NEJM198707163170304
2426:Ferry G (2 November 2020).
1259:
1209:And the causal mechanisms:
1176:randomized control trials.
1154:
970:clinical practice guideline
786:intention-to-treat analysis
666:
583:
162:many of the social sciences
43:randomized controlled trial
10:
11120:
10774:Theory of planned behavior
10699:Good agricultural practice
10604:Public health surveillance
10496:epidemiological statistics
10140:Public health intervention
9317:Multivariate distributions
7737:Average absolute deviation
3773:Controlled Clinical Trials
3728:Controlled Clinical Trials
3682:Controlled Clinical Trials
3631:Avins AL (December 1998).
3575:Controlled Clinical Trials
2452:Meldrum ML (August 2000).
2397:10.2214/ajr.183.6.01831539
2144:10.1037/0003-066X.55.2.264
1542:10.1016/j.jcin.2008.01.008
1380:Controlled Clinical Trials
1073:quality-adjusted life year
670:
646:
608:
553:"restricted" randomization
413:
307:Although the principle of
167:
11017:
10952:
10911:
10896:World Toilet Organization
10891:World Health Organization
10798:
10787:
10724:
10649:
10565:
10493:
10458:Public health informatics
10398:
10203:
10165:Right to rest and leisure
9994:Globalization and disease
9929:
9831:
9785:
9722:
9675:
9638:
9634:
9621:
9593:
9575:
9542:
9533:
9491:
9438:
9399:
9348:
9339:
9305:Structural equation model
9260:
9217:
9213:
9188:
9147:
9113:
9067:
9034:
8996:
8963:
8959:
8935:
8875:
8784:
8703:
8667:
8658:
8641:Score/Lagrange multiplier
8626:
8579:
8524:
8450:
8441:
8251:
8247:
8234:
8193:
8167:
8119:
8074:
8056:Sample size determination
8021:
8017:
8004:
7908:
7863:
7837:
7819:
7775:
7727:
7647:
7638:
7634:
7621:
7603:
7523:
7392:
7287:
7220:
7130:
7061:
7026:Interpretation of results
7025:
6987:
6936:
6886:
6860:
6822:
6792:
6783:
6759:Nested caseâcontrol study
6709:
6656:
6603:
6472:Bland M (19 March 2008).
6241:10.1007/s11292-004-6460-0
6190:10.1016/j.tra.2011.02.001
5668:Bell SH, Peck LR (2012).
4954:10.1136/bmj.312.7040.1215
4144:10.1136/bmj.310.6991.1360
3637:Journal of Medical Ethics
3122:10.2106/JBJS.RVW.19.00119
3071:10.1186/s13063-019-3442-0
2971:10.1007/s13312-013-0092-2
2894:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0172
2806:10.1215/08992363-2009-017
2647:"What is Zelen's design?"
2579:10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1209
2008:Dehue T (December 1997).
1838:The Journal of Physiology
1662:British Journal of Cancer
1613:British Journal of Cancer
1236:quasi-experimental design
1035:Women's Health Initiative
845:Two studies published in
649:Sample size determination
534:
450:The advantages of proper
439:statistically significant
338:therapeutic misconception
302:
18:Randomized clinical trial
11084:Evidence-based practices
10942:Schools of public health
10734:Diffusion of innovations
10433:Health impact assessment
10145:Public health laboratory
10041:Management of depression
9800:Environmental statistics
9322:Elliptical distributions
9115:Generalized linear model
9044:Simple linear regression
8814:HodgesâLehmann estimator
8271:Probability distribution
8180:Stochastic approximation
7742:Coefficient of variation
7490:Repeated measures design
7202:Restricted randomization
6628:Academic clinical trials
6357:10.1177/1063426609341645
6278:10.1177/1748895807085871
6039:10.1177/1740774510373629
5999:10.1001/jama.295.19.2270
5637:10.2105/AJPH.2009.159889
5519:10.1001/jama.291.14.1701
5219:Harris R (22 Dec 2018).
4445:10.1136/bmj.319.7211.670
4353:10.1001/jama.285.13.1711
4048:10.1177/1740774506069153
4012:10.1001/jama.285.15.2000
3538:10.1186/1745-6215-15-480
3378:10.1001/jama.295.10.1152
2663:10.1136/bmj.316.7131.606
2428:"Peter Sleight Obituary"
2207:Conniffe D (1990â1991).
1748:Dunn PM (January 1997).
879:combination chemotherapy
565:stratified randomization
416:Pragmatic clinical trial
271:Medical Research Council
47:randomized control trial
11005:Social hygiene movement
10932:Doctor of Public Health
10764:Social cognitive theory
10566:Infectious and epidemic
10348:Fecalâoral transmission
9460:Cross-correlation (XCF)
9068:Non-standard predictors
8502:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
8175:Adaptive clinical trial
6846:Relative risk reduction
6694:Adaptive clinical trial
6638:Evidence-based medicine
6621:Adaptive clinical trial
5795:10.1186/1752-1947-5-179
4654:10.1136/bmj-2023-078524
2271:British Medical Journal
1523:Hannan EL (June 2008).
1214:
1145:pharmaceutical industry
951:evidence-based practice
758:KaplanâMeier estimators
743:acute coronary syndrome
718:(binary) outcome data,
478:randomization procedure
265:treatment of pulmonary
88:Definition and examples
11000:Germ theory of disease
10779:Transtheoretical model
9856:Mathematics portal
9677:Engineering statistics
9585:NelsonâAalen estimator
9162:Analysis of covariance
9049:Ordinary least squares
8973:Pearson product-moment
8377:Statistical functional
8288:Empirical distribution
8121:Controlled experiments
7850:Frequency distribution
7628:Descriptive statistics
7545:Mathematics portal
7307:Ordinary least squares
6834:Number needed to treat
6427:Krauss A (June 2018).
5866:10.1001/jama.289.4.454
5439:Rubin R (2006-10-16).
5110:10.1093/epirev/24.1.39
5059:10.1073/pnas.072067999
4806:10.1001/jama.286.7.821
4397:10.1001/jama.288.3.321
3688:(4 Suppl): 187Sâ194S.
3508:on September 11, 2012.
2935:10.1001/jama.2009.1242
2283:10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769
2204:
1132:conflicts of interests
1080:gross domestic product
815:CONSORT 2010 Statement
766:coronary heart disease
735:analysis of covariance
611:Allocation concealment
605:Allocation concealment
483:allocation concealment
217:Charles Sanders Peirce
209:Randomized experiments
38:
11089:Design of experiments
10884:Public Health Service
10769:Social norms approach
10759:PRECEDEâPROCEED model
10205:Preventive healthcare
10098:Pharmaceutical policy
9947:Chief Medical Officer
9772:Population statistics
9714:System identification
9448:Autocorrelation (ACF)
9376:Exponential smoothing
9290:Discriminant analysis
9285:Canonical correlation
9149:Partition of variance
9011:Regression validation
8855:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
8754:Likelihood-ratio test
8443:Frequentist inference
8355:Locationâscale family
8276:Sampling distribution
8241:Statistical inference
8208:Cross-sectional study
8195:Observational studies
8154:Randomized experiment
7983:Stem-and-leaf display
7785:Central limit theorem
7142:Scientific experiment
7124:Design of experiments
6838:Number needed to harm
6725:Cross-sectional study
6677:Scientific experiment
6633:Clinical study design
5097:Epidemiologic Reviews
2192:Design of Experiments
2182:
2132:American Psychologist
1811:10.1353/sor.2005.0016
1306:Statistical inference
1238:are still necessary.
1161:disruptive innovation
1122:aspects, follow up).
1031:myocardial infarction
1016:antiarrhythmic agents
943:hierarchy of evidence
853:observational studies
724:peginterferon alfa-2a
269:", which described a
223:in the 1880s, and in
153:scientific literature
67:diagnostic procedures
55:scientific experiment
35:
10960:Sara Josephine Baker
10859:Public Health Agency
10744:Health communication
10609:Disease surveillance
10575:Asymptomatic carrier
10557:Statistical software
10245:Preventive nutrition
10073:Medical anthropology
9962:Environmental health
9695:Probabilistic design
9280:Principal components
9123:Exponential families
9075:Nonlinear regression
9054:General linear model
9016:Mixed effects models
9006:Errors and residuals
8983:Confounding variable
8885:Bayesian probability
8863:Van der Waerden test
8853:Ordered alternative
8618:Multiple comparisons
8497:RaoâBlackwellization
8460:Estimating equations
8416:Statistical distance
8134:Factorial experiment
7667:Arithmetic-Geometric
7416:Fractional factorial
6804:Cumulative incidence
6305:Educational Research
5555:10.1056/NEJMsb022365
5376:"Levels of evidence"
4936:Black N (May 1996).
3649:10.1136/jme.24.6.401
2067:Psychological Review
1625:10.1038/bjc.1976.220
1112:physical examination
1069:return on investment
972:recommendations the
808:Reporting of results
801:multiple comparisons
275:Austin Bradford Hill
10970:Carl Rogers Darnall
10965:Samuel Jay Crumbine
10739:Health belief model
10592:Notifiable diseases
10528:Regression analysis
10363:Waterborne diseases
9952:Cultural competence
9767:Official statistics
9690:Methods engineering
9371:Seasonal adjustment
9139:Poisson regressions
9059:Bayesian regression
8998:Regression analysis
8978:Partial correlation
8950:Regression analysis
8549:Prediction interval
8544:Likelihood interval
8534:Confidence interval
8526:Interval estimation
8487:Unbiased estimators
8305:Model specification
8185:Up-and-down designs
7873:Partial correlation
7829:Index of dispersion
7747:Interquartile range
7550:Statistical outline
7510:Sequential analysis
7475:Graeco-Latin square
7384:Multiple comparison
7331:Hierarchical model:
6711:Observational study
6643:Real world evidence
6597:experimental design
6182:2011TRPA...45..401G
5738:(9519): 1319â1327.
5584:(9671): 1233â1235.
4948:(7040): 1215â1218.
4250:10.1212/wnl.44.1.16
4138:(6991): 1360â1362.
4089:(9566): 1016â1026.
3962:10.2307/j.ctt4cgd52
3202:2018PLoSO..1306908G
2853:10.1056/NEJMe048225
2573:(7167): 1209â1212.
2170:Statistical Science
1766:10.1136/fn.76.1.f64
1296:Observational study
1059:RCTs funded by the
1000:Confidence Interval
989:GRADE Working Group
939:scientific evidence
851:in 2000 found that
720:logistic regression
172:The first reported
82:confounding factors
78:statistical control
74:randomly allocating
10568:disease prevention
10503:Caseâcontrol study
10175:Security of person
10024:Health care reform
9787:Spatial statistics
9667:Medical statistics
9567:First hitting time
9521:Whittle likelihood
9172:Degrees of freedom
9167:Multivariate ANOVA
9100:Heteroscedasticity
8912:Bayesian estimator
8877:Bayesian inference
8726:KolmogorovâSmirnov
8611:Randomization test
8581:Testing hypotheses
8554:Tolerance interval
8465:Maximum likelihood
8360:Exponential family
8293:Density estimation
8253:Statistical theory
8213:Natural experiment
8159:Scientific control
8076:Survey methodology
7762:Standard deviation
7555:Statistical topics
7147:Statistical design
6997:Riskâbenefit ratio
6964:First-in-man study
6914:Case fatality rate
6755:Caseâcontrol study
6729:Longitudinal study
6516:Gelband H (1983).
6478:University of York
6433:Annals of Medicine
6137:10.1136/adc.88.1.8
5298:(3 Suppl): 21â35.
2464:(4): 745â60, vii.
1674:10.1038/bjc.1977.1
1301:Blinded experiment
1271:Hypothesis testing
1192:The intervention:
947:systematic reviews
872:anecdotal evidence
824:CONSORT extensions
700:multiple sclerosis
673:Blinded experiment
348:Trial registration
309:clinical equipoise
231:were published by
211:first appeared in
39:
11074:Clinical research
11061:
11060:
11013:
11012:
10923:Higher education
10754:Positive deviance
10749:Health psychology
10725:Health behavioral
10652:safety management
10626:Social distancing
10400:Population health
10380:Smoking cessation
10328:Pharmacovigilance
10299:Injury prevention
10267:Infection control
10185:Social psychology
10135:Prisoners' rights
10078:Medical sociology
10046:Public health law
9942:Biological hazard
9889:
9888:
9827:
9826:
9823:
9822:
9762:National accounts
9732:Actuarial science
9724:Social statistics
9617:
9616:
9613:
9612:
9609:
9608:
9544:Survival function
9529:
9528:
9391:Granger causality
9232:Contingency table
9207:Survival analysis
9184:
9183:
9180:
9179:
9036:Linear regression
8931:
8930:
8927:
8926:
8902:Credible interval
8871:
8870:
8654:
8653:
8470:Method of moments
8339:Parametric family
8300:Statistical model
8230:
8229:
8226:
8225:
8144:Random assignment
8066:Statistical power
8000:
7999:
7996:
7995:
7845:Contingency table
7815:
7814:
7682:Generalized/power
7563:
7562:
7450:Central composite
7348:Cochran's theorem
7302:Linear regression
7279:Nuisance variable
7192:Random assignment
7169:Experimental unit
7090:
7089:
7038:Survivorship bias
7002:Systematic review
6969:Multicenter trial
6932:
6931:
6922:Likelihood-ratios
6894:Clinical endpoint
6862:Population impact
6816:Period prevalence
6593:Clinical research
6501:978-1-905177-35-6
5992:(19): 2270â2274.
5949:10.1136/bmj.g6870
5631:(12): 2184â2187.
5512:(14): 1701â1712.
5337:(7651): 995â998.
5258:978-1-86496-048-8
5187:10.1136/bmj.b1732
5091:Wittes J (2002).
5000:(7589): 349â351.
4745:(25): 1887â1892.
4701:(25): 1878â1886.
4521:10.1136/bmj.e5661
4439:(7211): 670â674.
4346:(13): 1711â1718.
4299:(9286): 958â965.
4184:(9636): 392â397.
4005:(15): 2000â2003.
3971:978-0-691-15924-9
3915:(7644): 601â605.
3477:(9306): 614â618.
3412:(9305): 515â519.
3372:(10): 1152â1160.
3319:10.1136/bmj.a2390
2959:Indian Pediatrics
2887:(12): 2338â2345.
2846:(12): 1250â1251.
2618:(22): 1242â1245.
2337:Annals of Surgery
2277:(4582): 769â782.
1713:(9429): 141â148.
1578:10.1159/000087787
1286:Pipeline planning
1276:Impact evaluation
1180:Transport science
1171:In social science
982:internal validity
978:internal validity
963:systematic review
923:scientific method
890:testicular cancer
797:subgroup analysis
772:) is appropriate.
768:after receipt of
754:survival analysis
688:CONSORT Statement
573:random allocation
569:multicenter trial
509:subgroup analyses
505:statistical power
454:in RCTs include:
176:was conducted by
94:clinical research
16:(Redirected from
11111:
11104:Research methods
11094:Causal inference
11049:
11048:
11037:
11036:
11025:
11024:
10919:Health education
10796:
10795:
10650:Food hygiene and
10631:Tropical disease
10443:Infant mortality
10418:Community health
10294:Controlled Drugs
10230:Health promotion
10160:Right to housing
10004:Health economics
9916:
9909:
9902:
9893:
9892:
9877:
9876:
9865:
9864:
9854:
9853:
9839:
9838:
9742:Crime statistics
9636:
9635:
9623:
9622:
9540:
9539:
9506:Fourier analysis
9493:Frequency domain
9473:
9420:
9386:Structural break
9346:
9345:
9295:Cluster analysis
9242:Log-linear model
9215:
9214:
9190:
9189:
9131:
9105:Homoscedasticity
8961:
8960:
8937:
8936:
8856:
8848:
8840:
8839:(KruskalâWallis)
8824:
8809:
8764:Cross validation
8749:
8731:AndersonâDarling
8678:
8665:
8664:
8636:Likelihood-ratio
8628:Parametric tests
8606:Permutation test
8589:1- & 2-tails
8480:Minimum distance
8452:Point estimation
8448:
8447:
8399:Optimal decision
8350:
8249:
8248:
8236:
8235:
8218:Quasi-experiment
8168:Adaptive designs
8019:
8018:
8006:
8005:
7883:Rank correlation
7645:
7644:
7636:
7635:
7623:
7622:
7590:
7583:
7576:
7567:
7566:
7543:
7542:
7480:Orthogonal array
7117:
7110:
7103:
7094:
7093:
6937:Trial/test types
6812:Point prevalence
6790:
6789:
6733:Ecological study
6716:EBM II-2 to II-3
6687:Open-label trial
6682:Blind experiment
6658:Controlled study
6586:
6579:
6572:
6563:
6562:
6557:
6551:
6541:
6533:
6531:
6524:
6512:
6510:
6504:. Archived from
6493:
6481:
6459:
6458:
6448:
6424:
6418:
6417:
6407:
6396:10.1037/a0016586
6375:
6369:
6368:
6337:
6331:
6330:
6320:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6259:
6253:
6252:
6222:
6213:
6212:
6203:Melia S (2011).
6200:
6194:
6193:
6165:
6159:
6158:
6148:
6116:
6110:
6109:
6099:
6067:
6061:
6060:
6050:
6018:
6012:
6011:
6001:
5977:
5971:
5970:
5960:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5911:
5887:
5878:
5877:
5849:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5839:
5824:
5818:
5817:
5807:
5797:
5773:
5764:
5763:
5727:
5718:
5717:
5689:
5678:
5677:
5665:
5659:
5658:
5648:
5616:
5610:
5609:
5573:
5567:
5566:
5538:
5532:
5531:
5521:
5497:
5491:
5490:
5461:
5455:
5454:
5452:
5451:
5436:
5427:
5426:
5397:
5386:
5385:
5383:
5382:
5371:
5365:
5364:
5354:
5322:
5316:
5315:
5286:
5277:
5276:
5274:
5273:
5267:
5261:. Archived from
5250:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5216:
5210:
5209:
5199:
5189:
5165:
5159:
5158:
5129:
5123:
5122:
5112:
5088:
5082:
5081:
5071:
5061:
5052:(7): 4592â4595.
5034:
5028:
5027:
5017:
4985:
4976:
4975:
4965:
4933:
4920:
4919:
4909:
4899:
4875:
4869:
4868:
4859: 10765475.
4827:
4818:
4817:
4799:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4762:
4730:
4721:
4720:
4710:
4686:
4677:
4676:
4666:
4656:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4615:
4591:
4585:
4584:
4574:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4533:
4523:
4499:
4493:
4492:
4490:
4489:
4480:. Archived from
4473:
4467:
4466:
4456:
4424:
4418:
4417:
4399:
4375:
4366:
4365:
4355:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4277:
4268:. Archived from
4226:
4220:
4219:
4201:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4155:
4123:
4117:
4116:
4106:
4074:
4068:
4067:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4014:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3932:
3900:
3889:
3888:
3878:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3803:
3797:
3796:
3768:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3723:
3706:
3705:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3660:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3617:
3605:
3599:
3598:
3570:
3561:
3560:
3550:
3540:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3507:
3501:. Archived from
3468:
3459:
3438:
3437:
3401:
3390:
3389:
3363:
3354:
3341:
3340:
3330:
3298:
3285:
3284:
3274:
3264:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3223:
3213:
3196:(11): e0206908.
3181:
3175:
3174:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3134:
3124:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3083:
3073:
3049:
3043:
3042:
3032:
3021:10.1136/bmj.c723
3000:
2991:
2990:
2954:
2948:
2947:
2937:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2896:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2855:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2816:. Archived from
2789:
2783:Jain SL (2010).
2780:
2774:
2773:
2763:
2753:
2729:
2720:
2719:
2702:(3â4): 319â329.
2691:
2685:
2684:
2674:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2590:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2391:(6): 1539â1544.
2380:
2371:
2370:
2360:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2294:
2262:
2256:
2255:
2236:
2179:
2173:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2154:. Archived from
2129:
2123:Dehue T (2000).
2120:
2114:
2113:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2064:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2014:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1911:
1905:
1901:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1861:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1777:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1685:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1636:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1544:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1503:
1492:10.1136/bmj.c869
1471:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1432:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1358:
1347:10.1136/bmj.c332
1326:
1266:Drug development
1149:publication bias
1106:situation (e.g.
957:As of 1998, the
706:Analysis of data
680:physical therapy
656:statistical test
507:, especially in
333:informed consent
293:Cochrane Library
256:Ronald A. Fisher
239:in 1901, and by
237:Edward Thorndike
233:Robert Woodworth
98:standard of care
21:
11119:
11118:
11114:
11113:
11112:
11110:
11109:
11108:
11064:
11063:
11062:
11057:
11009:
10980:Margaret Sanger
10948:
10907:
10791:
10789:
10783:
10726:
10720:
10692:Safety scandals
10651:
10645:
10567:
10561:
10495:
10489:
10485:Social medicine
10478:Race and health
10413:Child mortality
10394:
10353:Open defecation
10235:Human nutrition
10225:Family planning
10213:Behavior change
10199:
10155:Right to health
10068:Maternal health
10058:Health politics
10009:Health literacy
9925:
9920:
9890:
9885:
9848:
9819:
9781:
9718:
9704:quality control
9671:
9653:Clinical trials
9630:
9605:
9589:
9577:Hazard function
9571:
9525:
9487:
9471:
9434:
9430:BreuschâGodfrey
9418:
9395:
9335:
9310:Factor analysis
9256:
9237:Graphical model
9209:
9176:
9143:
9129:
9109:
9063:
9030:
8992:
8955:
8954:
8923:
8867:
8854:
8846:
8838:
8822:
8807:
8786:Rank statistics
8780:
8759:Model selection
8747:
8705:Goodness of fit
8699:
8676:
8650:
8622:
8575:
8520:
8509:Median unbiased
8437:
8348:
8281:Order statistic
8243:
8222:
8189:
8163:
8115:
8070:
8013:
8011:Data collection
7992:
7904:
7859:
7833:
7811:
7771:
7723:
7640:Continuous data
7630:
7617:
7599:
7594:
7564:
7559:
7537:
7519:
7496:Crossover study
7487:
7485:Latin hypercube
7421:PlackettâBurman
7400:
7397:
7396:
7388:
7291:
7283:
7224:
7216:
7133:
7126:
7121:
7091:
7086:
7057:
7021:
6983:
6928:
6882:
6856:
6830:Risk difference
6818:
6779:
6713:
6705:
6660:
6652:
6616:Trial protocols
6599:
6590:
6560:
6549:
6536:
6529:
6522:
6508:
6502:
6491:
6467:
6465:Further reading
6462:
6425:
6421:
6376:
6372:
6338:
6334:
6297:
6293:
6260:
6256:
6223:
6216:
6201:
6197:
6166:
6162:
6117:
6113:
6068:
6064:
6027:Clinical Trials
6019:
6015:
5978:
5974:
5929:
5925:
5888:
5881:
5850:
5846:
5837:
5835:
5826:
5825:
5821:
5774:
5767:
5728:
5721:
5690:
5681:
5666:
5662:
5617:
5613:
5574:
5570:
5539:
5535:
5498:
5494:
5462:
5458:
5449:
5447:
5437:
5430:
5398:
5389:
5380:
5378:
5372:
5368:
5323:
5319:
5287:
5280:
5271:
5269:
5265:
5259:
5248:
5240:
5236:
5217:
5213:
5166:
5162:
5141:(13): 690â694.
5130:
5126:
5089:
5085:
5035:
5031:
4986:
4979:
4934:
4923:
4876:
4872:
4839:(1): MR000034.
4828:
4821:
4797:10.1.1.590.2854
4780:
4776:
4731:
4724:
4687:
4680:
4633:
4629:
4592:
4588:
4551:
4547:
4500:
4496:
4487:
4485:
4476:CONSORT Group.
4474:
4470:
4425:
4421:
4376:
4369:
4332:
4328:
4288:
4284:
4275:
4273:
4227:
4223:
4173:
4169:
4124:
4120:
4075:
4071:
4036:Clinical Trials
4032:
4028:
3991:
3987:
3972:
3950:
3946:
3901:
3892:
3847:
3843:
3804:
3800:
3769:
3765:
3724:
3709:
3678:
3674:
3629:
3625:
3615:
3613:
3608:Rosenberger J.
3606:
3602:
3571:
3564:
3517:
3513:
3505:
3466:
3460:
3441:
3402:
3393:
3361:
3355:
3344:
3299:
3288:
3255:(3): e1002766.
3241:
3237:
3182:
3178:
3167:
3163:
3152:
3148:
3101:
3097:
3050:
3046:
3001:
2994:
2955:
2951:
2914:
2910:
2873:
2869:
2832:
2828:
2820:
2787:
2781:
2777:
2730:
2723:
2692:
2688:
2643:
2639:
2608:
2604:
2559:
2555:
2524:
2520:
2489:
2485:
2450:
2446:
2436:
2434:
2424:
2420:
2381:
2374:
2329:
2325:
2317:Washington Post
2312:
2308:
2263:
2259:
2180:
2176:
2167:
2163:
2158:on 12 Jul 2024.
2127:
2121:
2117:
2102:10.2307/1412596
2082:
2078:
2062:
2056:
2052:
2012:
2006:
2002:
1968:
1964:
1912:
1908:
1879:
1875:
1830:
1826:
1799:Social Research
1795:
1791:
1746:
1742:
1703:
1699:
1654:
1650:
1605:
1601:
1562:
1558:
1521:
1517:
1472:
1451:
1441:
1439:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1376:
1372:
1327:
1318:
1314:
1262:
1253:
1244:
1231:
1182:
1173:
1157:
1128:
1108:patient history
1053:
1045:
935:
927:systematic bias
916:
899:
843:
810:
781:interventions."
708:
675:
669:
660:null hypothesis
651:
645:
613:
607:
586:
549:
537:
494:
448:
434:
418:
412:
367:
365:By study design
362:
360:Classifications
350:
305:
203:W. H. R. Rivers
170:
90:
63:medical devices
59:clinical trials
53:) is a form of
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11117:
11107:
11106:
11101:
11096:
11091:
11086:
11081:
11076:
11059:
11058:
11056:
11055:
11043:
11031:
11018:
11015:
11014:
11011:
11010:
11008:
11007:
11002:
10997:
10992:
10987:
10982:
10977:
10972:
10967:
10962:
10956:
10954:
10950:
10949:
10947:
10946:
10945:
10944:
10939:
10934:
10929:
10921:
10915:
10913:
10909:
10908:
10906:
10905:
10898:
10893:
10888:
10887:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10863:
10862:
10861:
10856:
10848:
10847:
10846:
10838:
10837:
10836:
10831:
10823:
10822:
10821:
10813:
10812:
10811:
10802:
10800:
10793:
10788:Organizations,
10785:
10784:
10782:
10781:
10776:
10771:
10766:
10761:
10756:
10751:
10746:
10741:
10736:
10730:
10728:
10722:
10721:
10719:
10718:
10717:
10716:
10711:
10701:
10696:
10695:
10694:
10689:
10684:
10679:
10674:
10669:
10664:
10655:
10653:
10647:
10646:
10644:
10643:
10638:
10633:
10628:
10623:
10618:
10613:
10612:
10611:
10601:
10600:
10599:
10589:
10588:
10587:
10577:
10571:
10569:
10563:
10562:
10560:
10559:
10554:
10553:
10552:
10544:
10535:
10530:
10525:
10515:
10510:
10505:
10499:
10497:
10494:Biological and
10491:
10490:
10488:
10487:
10482:
10481:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10460:
10455:
10453:Multimorbidity
10450:
10445:
10440:
10435:
10430:
10425:
10420:
10415:
10410:
10404:
10402:
10396:
10395:
10393:
10392:
10390:Vector control
10387:
10382:
10377:
10375:School hygiene
10372:
10371:
10370:
10365:
10360:
10358:Sanitary sewer
10355:
10350:
10345:
10335:
10330:
10325:
10324:
10323:
10316:Patient safety
10313:
10312:
10311:
10306:
10301:
10296:
10291:
10286:
10276:
10275:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10259:
10249:
10248:
10247:
10242:
10232:
10227:
10222:
10221:
10220:
10209:
10207:
10201:
10200:
10198:
10197:
10192:
10187:
10182:
10177:
10172:
10167:
10162:
10157:
10152:
10147:
10142:
10137:
10132:
10131:
10130:
10125:
10120:
10115:
10110:
10100:
10095:
10090:
10080:
10075:
10070:
10065:
10060:
10055:
10054:
10053:
10048:
10038:
10033:
10028:
10027:
10026:
10021:
10011:
10006:
10001:
9999:Harm reduction
9996:
9991:
9986:
9981:
9980:
9979:
9974:
9964:
9959:
9954:
9949:
9944:
9939:
9933:
9931:
9927:
9926:
9919:
9918:
9911:
9904:
9896:
9887:
9886:
9884:
9883:
9871:
9859:
9845:
9832:
9829:
9828:
9825:
9824:
9821:
9820:
9818:
9817:
9812:
9807:
9802:
9797:
9791:
9789:
9783:
9782:
9780:
9779:
9774:
9769:
9764:
9759:
9754:
9749:
9744:
9739:
9734:
9728:
9726:
9720:
9719:
9717:
9716:
9711:
9706:
9697:
9692:
9687:
9681:
9679:
9673:
9672:
9670:
9669:
9664:
9659:
9650:
9648:Bioinformatics
9644:
9642:
9632:
9631:
9619:
9618:
9615:
9614:
9611:
9610:
9607:
9606:
9604:
9603:
9597:
9595:
9591:
9590:
9588:
9587:
9581:
9579:
9573:
9572:
9570:
9569:
9564:
9559:
9554:
9548:
9546:
9537:
9531:
9530:
9527:
9526:
9524:
9523:
9518:
9513:
9508:
9503:
9497:
9495:
9489:
9488:
9486:
9485:
9480:
9475:
9467:
9462:
9457:
9456:
9455:
9453:partial (PACF)
9444:
9442:
9436:
9435:
9433:
9432:
9427:
9422:
9414:
9409:
9403:
9401:
9400:Specific tests
9397:
9396:
9394:
9393:
9388:
9383:
9378:
9373:
9368:
9363:
9358:
9352:
9350:
9343:
9337:
9336:
9334:
9333:
9332:
9331:
9330:
9329:
9314:
9313:
9312:
9302:
9300:Classification
9297:
9292:
9287:
9282:
9277:
9272:
9266:
9264:
9258:
9257:
9255:
9254:
9249:
9247:McNemar's test
9244:
9239:
9234:
9229:
9223:
9221:
9211:
9210:
9186:
9185:
9182:
9181:
9178:
9177:
9175:
9174:
9169:
9164:
9159:
9153:
9151:
9145:
9144:
9142:
9141:
9125:
9119:
9117:
9111:
9110:
9108:
9107:
9102:
9097:
9092:
9087:
9085:Semiparametric
9082:
9077:
9071:
9069:
9065:
9064:
9062:
9061:
9056:
9051:
9046:
9040:
9038:
9032:
9031:
9029:
9028:
9023:
9018:
9013:
9008:
9002:
9000:
8994:
8993:
8991:
8990:
8985:
8980:
8975:
8969:
8967:
8957:
8956:
8953:
8952:
8947:
8941:
8933:
8932:
8929:
8928:
8925:
8924:
8922:
8921:
8920:
8919:
8909:
8904:
8899:
8898:
8897:
8892:
8881:
8879:
8873:
8872:
8869:
8868:
8866:
8865:
8860:
8859:
8858:
8850:
8842:
8826:
8823:(MannâWhitney)
8818:
8817:
8816:
8803:
8802:
8801:
8790:
8788:
8782:
8781:
8779:
8778:
8777:
8776:
8771:
8766:
8756:
8751:
8748:(ShapiroâWilk)
8743:
8738:
8733:
8728:
8723:
8715:
8709:
8707:
8701:
8700:
8698:
8697:
8689:
8680:
8668:
8662:
8660:Specific tests
8656:
8655:
8652:
8651:
8649:
8648:
8643:
8638:
8632:
8630:
8624:
8623:
8621:
8620:
8615:
8614:
8613:
8603:
8602:
8601:
8591:
8585:
8583:
8577:
8576:
8574:
8573:
8572:
8571:
8566:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8530:
8528:
8522:
8521:
8519:
8518:
8513:
8512:
8511:
8506:
8505:
8504:
8499:
8484:
8483:
8482:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8456:
8454:
8445:
8439:
8438:
8436:
8435:
8430:
8425:
8424:
8423:
8413:
8408:
8407:
8406:
8396:
8395:
8394:
8389:
8384:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8363:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8336:
8335:
8334:
8329:
8324:
8314:
8313:
8312:
8307:
8297:
8296:
8295:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8273:
8268:
8263:
8257:
8255:
8245:
8244:
8232:
8231:
8228:
8227:
8224:
8223:
8221:
8220:
8215:
8210:
8205:
8199:
8197:
8191:
8190:
8188:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8171:
8169:
8165:
8164:
8162:
8161:
8156:
8151:
8146:
8141:
8136:
8131:
8125:
8123:
8117:
8116:
8114:
8113:
8111:Standard error
8108:
8103:
8098:
8097:
8096:
8091:
8080:
8078:
8072:
8071:
8069:
8068:
8063:
8058:
8053:
8048:
8043:
8041:Optimal design
8038:
8033:
8027:
8025:
8015:
8014:
8002:
8001:
7998:
7997:
7994:
7993:
7991:
7990:
7985:
7980:
7975:
7970:
7965:
7960:
7955:
7950:
7945:
7940:
7935:
7930:
7925:
7920:
7914:
7912:
7906:
7905:
7903:
7902:
7897:
7896:
7895:
7890:
7880:
7875:
7869:
7867:
7861:
7860:
7858:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7841:
7839:
7838:Summary tables
7835:
7834:
7832:
7831:
7825:
7823:
7817:
7816:
7813:
7812:
7810:
7809:
7808:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7787:
7781:
7779:
7773:
7772:
7770:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7733:
7731:
7725:
7724:
7722:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7710:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7672:Contraharmonic
7669:
7664:
7653:
7651:
7642:
7632:
7631:
7619:
7618:
7616:
7615:
7610:
7604:
7601:
7600:
7593:
7592:
7585:
7578:
7570:
7561:
7560:
7558:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7535:
7530:
7524:
7521:
7520:
7518:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7499:
7498:
7493:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7461:
7453:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7429:
7428:
7423:
7418:
7413:
7405:
7403:
7390:
7389:
7387:
7386:
7381:
7375:
7374:
7362:
7350:
7345:
7337:
7336:
7328:
7323:
7315:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7298:
7296:
7285:
7284:
7282:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7231:
7229:
7218:
7217:
7215:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7199:
7194:
7189:
7182:Optimal design
7177:
7176:
7171:
7166:
7154:
7149:
7144:
7138:
7136:
7128:
7127:
7120:
7119:
7112:
7105:
7097:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7084:
7081:List of topics
7077:
7070:
7062:
7059:
7058:
7056:
7055:
7050:
7045:
7040:
7035:
7033:Selection bias
7029:
7027:
7023:
7022:
7020:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7004:
6999:
6993:
6991:
6985:
6984:
6982:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6954:Animal testing
6951:
6946:
6940:
6938:
6934:
6933:
6930:
6929:
6906:Mortality rate
6892:
6890:
6884:
6883:
6866:
6864:
6858:
6857:
6828:
6826:
6820:
6819:
6798:
6796:
6787:
6781:
6780:
6778:
6777:
6772:
6767:
6762:
6752:
6751:
6750:
6745:
6735:
6721:
6719:
6707:
6706:
6704:
6703:
6702:
6701:
6699:Platform trial
6691:
6690:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6668:
6666:
6654:
6653:
6651:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6624:
6623:
6618:
6611:Clinical trial
6607:
6605:
6601:
6600:
6589:
6588:
6581:
6574:
6566:
6559:
6558:
6542:
6534:
6532:on 2016-03-03.
6513:
6511:on 2010-12-25.
6500:
6482:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6461:
6460:
6439:(4): 312â322.
6419:
6390:(4): 926â937.
6370:
6351:(4): 197â212.
6332:
6311:(3): 276â291.
6291:
6254:
6214:
6195:
6176:(5): 401â418.
6160:
6111:
6062:
6033:(4): 343â353.
6013:
5972:
5923:
5902:(4): 477â480.
5879:
5860:(4): 454â465.
5844:
5819:
5765:
5719:
5700:(2): 155â161.
5679:
5660:
5611:
5568:
5549:(7): 645â650.
5533:
5492:
5473:(6): 406â412.
5456:
5428:
5387:
5366:
5317:
5278:
5257:
5234:
5211:
5160:
5124:
5083:
5040:(April 2002).
5029:
4977:
4921:
4870:
4819:
4790:(7): 821â830.
4774:
4722:
4678:
4627:
4606:(4): W60âW66.
4586:
4565:(4): 295â309.
4545:
4494:
4468:
4419:
4390:(3): 321â333.
4367:
4326:
4282:
4221:
4167:
4118:
4069:
4042:(4): 360â365.
4026:
3985:
3970:
3944:
3890:
3861:(7499): 1049.
3841:
3798:
3779:(6): 471â484.
3763:
3734:(4): 365â374.
3707:
3672:
3643:(6): 401â408.
3623:
3600:
3581:(4): 289â311.
3562:
3511:
3439:
3391:
3342:
3286:
3235:
3176:
3161:
3146:
3095:
3044:
2992:
2965:(3): 339â340.
2949:
2928:(9): 977â984.
2908:
2881:Health Affairs
2867:
2826:
2823:on 2020-02-20.
2793:Public Culture
2775:
2721:
2686:
2637:
2602:
2553:
2534:(2): 127â148.
2518:
2499:(3): 141â145.
2483:
2444:
2418:
2372:
2343:(5): 668â676.
2323:
2306:
2257:
2219:. p. 87.
2174:
2161:
2138:(2): 264â268.
2115:
2096:(3): 328â340.
2076:
2050:
2029:10.1086/383850
2023:(4): 653â673.
2000:
1987:10.1086/444032
1962:
1933:10.1086/354775
1927:(3): 427â451.
1906:
1873:
1824:
1789:
1760:(1): F64âF65.
1740:
1697:
1648:
1619:(6): 585â612.
1599:
1556:
1535:(3): 211â217.
1515:
1449:
1427:
1405:
1370:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1181:
1178:
1172:
1169:
1156:
1153:
1127:
1124:
1052:
1051:Time and costs
1049:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1027:
1014:approval, the
1004:
1003:
992:
985:
966:
934:
931:
915:
912:
898:
895:
894:
893:
875:
842:
839:
838:
837:
834:
831:
809:
806:
805:
804:
793:
782:
774:
773:
746:
731:
707:
704:
671:Main article:
668:
665:
647:Main article:
644:
641:
635:as opposed to
609:Main article:
606:
603:
602:
601:
597:
585:
582:
581:
580:
576:
548:
545:
536:
533:
529:
528:
523:effect may be
516:
512:
493:
490:
474:
473:
470:
467:
460:selection bias
447:
444:
433:
430:
414:Main article:
411:
408:
400:
399:
393:
387:
381:
378:Parallel-group
366:
363:
361:
358:
349:
346:
318:Zelen's design
304:
301:
241:John E. Coover
221:Joseph Jastrow
194:Claude Bernard
174:clinical trial
169:
166:
141:drug reactions
118:selection bias
89:
86:
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11116:
11105:
11102:
11100:
11097:
11095:
11092:
11090:
11087:
11085:
11082:
11080:
11077:
11075:
11072:
11071:
11069:
11054:
11053:
11044:
11042:
11041:
11032:
11030:
11029:
11020:
11019:
11016:
11006:
11003:
11001:
10998:
10996:
10993:
10991:
10988:
10986:
10983:
10981:
10978:
10976:
10975:Joseph Lister
10973:
10971:
10968:
10966:
10963:
10961:
10958:
10957:
10955:
10951:
10943:
10940:
10938:
10935:
10933:
10930:
10928:
10925:
10924:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10916:
10914:
10910:
10903:
10899:
10897:
10894:
10892:
10889:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10866:
10864:
10860:
10857:
10855:
10854:Health Canada
10852:
10851:
10849:
10845:
10842:
10841:
10839:
10835:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10826:
10824:
10820:
10817:
10816:
10814:
10810:
10807:
10806:
10804:
10803:
10801:
10799:Organizations
10797:
10794:
10786:
10780:
10777:
10775:
10772:
10770:
10767:
10765:
10762:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10752:
10750:
10747:
10745:
10742:
10740:
10737:
10735:
10732:
10731:
10729:
10723:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10706:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10693:
10690:
10688:
10685:
10683:
10680:
10678:
10675:
10673:
10670:
10668:
10665:
10663:
10660:
10659:
10657:
10656:
10654:
10648:
10642:
10639:
10637:
10636:Vaccine trial
10634:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10622:
10619:
10617:
10614:
10610:
10607:
10606:
10605:
10602:
10598:
10595:
10594:
10593:
10590:
10586:
10583:
10582:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10572:
10570:
10564:
10558:
10555:
10551:
10549:
10545:
10543:
10541:
10536:
10534:
10531:
10529:
10526:
10524:
10521:
10520:
10519:
10516:
10514:
10513:Relative risk
10511:
10509:
10506:
10504:
10501:
10500:
10498:
10492:
10486:
10483:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10473:Health equity
10471:
10469:
10466:
10465:
10464:
10461:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10444:
10441:
10439:
10438:Health system
10436:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10428:Global health
10426:
10424:
10421:
10419:
10416:
10414:
10411:
10409:
10408:Biostatistics
10406:
10405:
10403:
10401:
10397:
10391:
10388:
10386:
10383:
10381:
10378:
10376:
10373:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10346:
10344:
10341:
10340:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10322:
10319:
10318:
10317:
10314:
10310:
10307:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10295:
10292:
10290:
10287:
10285:
10282:
10281:
10280:
10277:
10273:
10270:
10268:
10265:
10263:
10260:
10258:
10255:
10254:
10253:
10250:
10246:
10243:
10241:
10238:
10237:
10236:
10233:
10231:
10228:
10226:
10223:
10219:
10216:
10215:
10214:
10211:
10210:
10208:
10206:
10202:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10181:
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10166:
10163:
10161:
10158:
10156:
10153:
10151:
10150:Right to food
10148:
10146:
10143:
10141:
10138:
10136:
10133:
10129:
10126:
10124:
10121:
10119:
10116:
10114:
10111:
10109:
10106:
10105:
10104:
10101:
10099:
10096:
10094:
10091:
10088:
10084:
10083:Mental health
10081:
10079:
10076:
10074:
10071:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10052:
10049:
10047:
10044:
10043:
10042:
10039:
10037:
10034:
10032:
10031:Housing First
10029:
10025:
10022:
10020:
10019:Health system
10017:
10016:
10015:
10014:Health policy
10012:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9985:
9982:
9978:
9975:
9973:
9970:
9969:
9968:
9965:
9963:
9960:
9958:
9955:
9953:
9950:
9948:
9945:
9943:
9940:
9938:
9935:
9934:
9932:
9928:
9924:
9923:Public health
9917:
9912:
9910:
9905:
9903:
9898:
9897:
9894:
9882:
9881:
9872:
9870:
9869:
9860:
9858:
9857:
9852:
9846:
9844:
9843:
9834:
9833:
9830:
9816:
9813:
9811:
9810:Geostatistics
9808:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9796:
9793:
9792:
9790:
9788:
9784:
9778:
9777:Psychometrics
9775:
9773:
9770:
9768:
9765:
9763:
9760:
9758:
9755:
9753:
9750:
9748:
9745:
9743:
9740:
9738:
9735:
9733:
9730:
9729:
9727:
9725:
9721:
9715:
9712:
9710:
9707:
9705:
9701:
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9688:
9686:
9683:
9682:
9680:
9678:
9674:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9658:
9654:
9651:
9649:
9646:
9645:
9643:
9641:
9640:Biostatistics
9637:
9633:
9629:
9624:
9620:
9602:
9601:Log-rank test
9599:
9598:
9596:
9592:
9586:
9583:
9582:
9580:
9578:
9574:
9568:
9565:
9563:
9560:
9558:
9555:
9553:
9550:
9549:
9547:
9545:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9532:
9522:
9519:
9517:
9514:
9512:
9509:
9507:
9504:
9502:
9499:
9498:
9496:
9494:
9490:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9474:
9472:(BoxâJenkins)
9468:
9466:
9463:
9461:
9458:
9454:
9451:
9450:
9449:
9446:
9445:
9443:
9441:
9437:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9425:DurbinâWatson
9423:
9421:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9407:DickeyâFuller
9405:
9404:
9402:
9398:
9392:
9389:
9387:
9384:
9382:
9381:Cointegration
9379:
9377:
9374:
9372:
9369:
9367:
9364:
9362:
9359:
9357:
9356:Decomposition
9354:
9353:
9351:
9347:
9344:
9342:
9338:
9328:
9325:
9324:
9323:
9320:
9319:
9318:
9315:
9311:
9308:
9307:
9306:
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9281:
9278:
9276:
9273:
9271:
9268:
9267:
9265:
9263:
9259:
9253:
9250:
9248:
9245:
9243:
9240:
9238:
9235:
9233:
9230:
9228:
9227:Cohen's kappa
9225:
9224:
9222:
9220:
9216:
9212:
9208:
9204:
9200:
9196:
9191:
9187:
9173:
9170:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9158:
9155:
9154:
9152:
9150:
9146:
9140:
9136:
9132:
9126:
9124:
9121:
9120:
9118:
9116:
9112:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9098:
9096:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9080:Nonparametric
9078:
9076:
9073:
9072:
9070:
9066:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9050:
9047:
9045:
9042:
9041:
9039:
9037:
9033:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9014:
9012:
9009:
9007:
9004:
9003:
9001:
8999:
8995:
8989:
8986:
8984:
8981:
8979:
8976:
8974:
8971:
8970:
8968:
8966:
8962:
8958:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8942:
8938:
8934:
8918:
8915:
8914:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8903:
8900:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8887:
8886:
8883:
8882:
8880:
8878:
8874:
8864:
8861:
8857:
8851:
8849:
8843:
8841:
8835:
8834:
8833:
8830:
8829:Nonparametric
8827:
8825:
8819:
8815:
8812:
8811:
8810:
8804:
8800:
8799:Sample median
8797:
8796:
8795:
8792:
8791:
8789:
8787:
8783:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8767:
8765:
8762:
8761:
8760:
8757:
8755:
8752:
8750:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8720:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8710:
8708:
8706:
8702:
8696:
8694:
8690:
8688:
8686:
8681:
8679:
8674:
8670:
8669:
8666:
8663:
8661:
8657:
8647:
8644:
8642:
8639:
8637:
8634:
8633:
8631:
8629:
8625:
8619:
8616:
8612:
8609:
8608:
8607:
8604:
8600:
8597:
8596:
8595:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8586:
8584:
8582:
8578:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8561:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8531:
8529:
8527:
8523:
8517:
8514:
8510:
8507:
8503:
8500:
8498:
8495:
8494:
8493:
8490:
8489:
8488:
8485:
8481:
8478:
8476:
8473:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8463:
8462:
8461:
8458:
8457:
8455:
8453:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8440:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8422:
8419:
8418:
8417:
8414:
8412:
8409:
8405:
8404:loss function
8402:
8401:
8400:
8397:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8379:
8378:
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8345:
8342:
8341:
8340:
8337:
8333:
8330:
8328:
8325:
8323:
8320:
8319:
8318:
8315:
8311:
8308:
8306:
8303:
8302:
8301:
8298:
8294:
8291:
8290:
8289:
8286:
8282:
8279:
8278:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8262:
8259:
8258:
8256:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8242:
8237:
8233:
8219:
8216:
8214:
8211:
8209:
8206:
8204:
8201:
8200:
8198:
8196:
8192:
8186:
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8173:
8172:
8170:
8166:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8145:
8142:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8126:
8124:
8122:
8118:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8106:Questionnaire
8104:
8102:
8099:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8086:
8085:
8082:
8081:
8079:
8077:
8073:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8049:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8037:
8034:
8032:
8029:
8028:
8026:
8024:
8020:
8016:
8012:
8007:
8003:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7969:
7966:
7964:
7961:
7959:
7956:
7954:
7951:
7949:
7946:
7944:
7941:
7939:
7936:
7934:
7933:Control chart
7931:
7929:
7926:
7924:
7921:
7919:
7916:
7915:
7913:
7911:
7907:
7901:
7898:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7885:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7870:
7868:
7866:
7862:
7856:
7853:
7851:
7848:
7846:
7843:
7842:
7840:
7836:
7830:
7827:
7826:
7824:
7822:
7818:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7792:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7782:
7780:
7778:
7774:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7734:
7732:
7730:
7726:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7663:
7660:
7659:
7658:
7655:
7654:
7652:
7650:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7637:
7633:
7629:
7624:
7620:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7605:
7602:
7598:
7591:
7586:
7584:
7579:
7577:
7572:
7571:
7568:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7541:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7525:
7522:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7505:
7501:
7500:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7491:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7465:
7462:
7460:
7459:
7455:
7454:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7435:
7431:
7430:
7427:
7424:
7422:
7419:
7417:
7414:
7412:
7411:
7407:
7406:
7404:
7402:
7395:
7391:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7379:Compare means
7377:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7367:
7363:
7361:
7359:
7355:
7351:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7343:
7339:
7338:
7335:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7321:
7320:Random effect
7317:
7316:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7299:
7297:
7295:
7290:
7286:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7269:
7265:
7263:
7262:Orthogonality
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7237:
7233:
7232:
7230:
7228:
7223:
7219:
7213:
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7197:Randomization
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7184:
7183:
7179:
7178:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7137:
7135:
7129:
7125:
7118:
7113:
7111:
7106:
7104:
7099:
7098:
7095:
7083:
7082:
7078:
7076:
7075:
7071:
7069:
7068:
7064:
7063:
7060:
7054:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7030:
7028:
7024:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7012:Meta-analysis
7010:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6994:
6992:
6990:
6986:
6980:
6979:Vaccine trial
6977:
6975:
6974:Seeding trial
6972:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6941:
6939:
6935:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6903:
6899:
6895:
6891:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6869:
6865:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6851:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6788:
6786:
6782:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6760:
6756:
6753:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6743:Retrospective
6741:
6740:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6730:
6726:
6723:
6722:
6720:
6717:
6712:
6708:
6700:
6697:
6696:
6695:
6692:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6670:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6663:EBM I to II-1
6659:
6655:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6587:
6582:
6580:
6575:
6573:
6568:
6567:
6564:
6555:
6548:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6528:
6521:
6520:
6514:
6507:
6503:
6497:
6490:
6489:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6470:
6469:
6456:
6452:
6447:
6442:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6423:
6415:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6374:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6345:
6336:
6328:
6324:
6319:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6295:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6272:(1): 89â106.
6271:
6267:
6266:
6258:
6250:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6234:
6230:
6229:
6221:
6219:
6210:
6206:
6199:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6164:
6156:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6115:
6107:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6066:
6058:
6054:
6049:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6017:
6009:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5976:
5968:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5927:
5919:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5893:
5886:
5884:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5848:
5834:on 2014-12-16
5833:
5829:
5823:
5815:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5772:
5770:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5726:
5724:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5688:
5686:
5684:
5675:
5671:
5664:
5656:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5615:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5572:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5544:
5537:
5529:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5503:
5496:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5460:
5446:
5442:
5435:
5433:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5377:
5370:
5362:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5321:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5285:
5283:
5268:on 2017-10-14
5264:
5260:
5254:
5247:
5246:
5238:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5215:
5207:
5203:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5164:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5128:
5120:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5094:
5087:
5079:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5033:
5025:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4984:
4982:
4973:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4917:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4884:PLOS Medicine
4881:
4874:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4826:
4824:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4778:
4770:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4729:
4727:
4718:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4700:
4696:
4692:
4685:
4683:
4674:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4631:
4623:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4590:
4582:
4578:
4573:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4541:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4522:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4498:
4484:on 2019-05-09
4483:
4479:
4472:
4464:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4374:
4372:
4363:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4330:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4286:
4272:on 2005-05-10
4271:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4230:Noseworthy JH
4225:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4171:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4122:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4073:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4030:
4022:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3989:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3948:
3940:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3886:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3802:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3749:2027.42/27041
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3712:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3676:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3627:
3611:
3604:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3569:
3567:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3515:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3400:
3398:
3396:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3347:
3338:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3249:PLOS Medicine
3246:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3172:
3165:
3157:
3150:
3142:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3048:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
2999:
2997:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2953:
2945:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2871:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2800:(1): 89â117.
2799:
2795:
2794:
2786:
2779:
2771:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2738:PLOS Medicine
2735:
2728:
2726:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2657:(7131): 606.
2656:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2557:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2319:
2318:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2188:
2178:
2171:
2165:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2119:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2080:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1877:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1437:
1431:
1415:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1374:
1366:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1237:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1177:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1152:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1138:
1133:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1048:
1043:Disadvantages
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1001:
997:
993:
990:
986:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
964:
960:
956:
955:
954:
952:
948:
944:
940:
930:
928:
924:
920:
911:
908:
904:
891:
888:
884:
880:
876:
873:
869:
868:
867:
864:
861:
860:
854:
850:
849:
835:
832:
829:
828:
827:
825:
820:
817:
816:
802:
798:
794:
791:
787:
783:
779:
778:
777:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
744:
740:
736:
732:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
712:
711:
703:
701:
697:
692:
689:
683:
681:
674:
664:
661:
657:
650:
640:
638:
634:
630:
629:meta-analyses
626:
620:
618:
612:
598:
595:
591:
590:
589:
577:
574:
570:
566:
561:
558:
557:
556:
554:
544:
542:
532:
526:
521:
517:
513:
510:
506:
502:
501:
500:
497:
489:
486:
484:
479:
471:
468:
465:
461:
457:
456:
455:
453:
452:randomization
446:Randomization
443:
440:
429:
427:
426:effectiveness
423:
417:
407:
405:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
375:
374:
372:
357:
355:
352:In 2004, the
345:
341:
339:
334:
329:
327:
323:
319:
314:
310:
300:
298:
294:
289:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
268:
264:
259:
257:
253:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
204:
200:
199:Enlightenment
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
165:
163:
158:
154:
150:
144:
142:
138:
137:interventions
134:
130:
129:gold standard
125:
123:
119:
114:
112:
107:
103:
99:
95:
85:
83:
79:
75:
70:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
34:
27:
19:
11050:
11038:
11026:
10995:Radium Girls
10990:Typhoid Mary
10677:Microbiology
10547:
10539:
10507:
10423:Epidemiology
10321:Organization
10272:Oral hygiene
10262:Hand washing
10240:Healthy diet
10170:Right to sit
10063:Labor rights
9878:
9866:
9847:
9840:
9752:Econometrics
9702: /
9685:Chemometrics
9662:Epidemiology
9655: /
9628:Applications
9470:ARIMA model
9417:Q-statistic
9366:Stationarity
9262:Multivariate
9205: /
9201: /
9199:Multivariate
9197: /
9137: /
9133: /
8907:Bayes factor
8806:Signed rank
8718:
8692:
8684:
8672:
8367:Completeness
8203:Cohort study
8148:
8101:Opinion poll
8036:Missing data
8023:Study design
7978:Scatter plot
7900:Scatter plot
7893:Spearman's Ï
7855:Grouped data
7503:
7502:
7488:
7470:Latin square
7456:
7432:
7408:
7369:
7365:
7358:multivariate
7357:
7353:
7340:
7318:
7266:
7234:
7180:
7079:
7072:
7065:
6854:Hazard ratio
6738:Cohort study
6671:
6553:
6527:the original
6518:
6506:the original
6487:
6477:
6436:
6432:
6422:
6387:
6383:
6373:
6348:
6342:
6335:
6308:
6304:
6294:
6269:
6263:
6257:
6232:
6226:
6208:
6198:
6173:
6169:
6163:
6128:
6124:
6114:
6079:
6075:
6065:
6030:
6026:
6016:
5989:
5985:
5975:
5940:
5936:
5926:
5899:
5895:
5857:
5853:
5847:
5836:. Retrieved
5832:the original
5822:
5785:
5781:
5735:
5731:
5697:
5693:
5673:
5663:
5628:
5624:
5614:
5581:
5577:
5571:
5546:
5542:
5536:
5509:
5505:
5495:
5470:
5466:
5459:
5448:. Retrieved
5444:
5409:(1): 43â47.
5406:
5402:
5379:. Retrieved
5369:
5334:
5330:
5320:
5295:
5291:
5270:. Retrieved
5263:the original
5244:
5237:
5224:
5214:
5177:
5173:
5163:
5138:
5134:
5127:
5103:(1): 39â53.
5100:
5096:
5086:
5049:
5045:
5032:
4997:
4993:
4945:
4941:
4887:
4883:
4873:
4836:
4832:
4787:
4783:
4777:
4742:
4738:
4698:
4694:
4644:
4640:
4630:
4603:
4599:
4589:
4562:
4558:
4548:
4511:
4507:
4497:
4486:. Retrieved
4482:the original
4471:
4436:
4432:
4422:
4387:
4383:
4343:
4339:
4329:
4296:
4292:
4285:
4274:. Retrieved
4270:the original
4244:(1): 16â20.
4241:
4237:
4224:
4181:
4177:
4170:
4135:
4131:
4121:
4086:
4082:
4072:
4039:
4035:
4029:
4002:
3998:
3988:
3953:
3947:
3912:
3908:
3858:
3854:
3844:
3814:(2): 87â89.
3811:
3807:
3801:
3776:
3772:
3766:
3731:
3727:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3640:
3636:
3626:
3616:24 September
3614:. Retrieved
3603:
3578:
3574:
3528:
3524:
3514:
3503:the original
3474:
3470:
3409:
3405:
3369:
3365:
3310:
3306:
3252:
3248:
3238:
3193:
3189:
3179:
3170:
3164:
3155:
3149:
3115:(3): e0119.
3112:
3109:JBJS Reviews
3108:
3098:
3061:
3057:
3047:
3012:
3008:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2925:
2921:
2911:
2884:
2880:
2870:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2818:the original
2797:
2791:
2778:
2744:(11): e324.
2741:
2737:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2654:
2650:
2640:
2615:
2611:
2605:
2570:
2566:
2556:
2531:
2527:
2521:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2461:
2457:
2447:
2435:. Retrieved
2432:The Guardian
2431:
2421:
2388:
2384:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2315:
2309:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2243:
2212:
2205:
2191:
2185:
2183:
2177:
2169:
2164:
2156:the original
2135:
2131:
2118:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2070:
2066:
2053:
2020:
2016:
2003:
1981:(1): 60â70.
1978:
1974:
1965:
1924:
1918:
1909:
1897:
1893:
1876:
1844:(1): 33â47.
1841:
1837:
1827:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1665:
1661:
1651:
1616:
1612:
1602:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1532:
1528:
1518:
1483:
1479:
1440:. Retrieved
1430:
1418:. Retrieved
1408:
1386:(1): 31â49.
1383:
1379:
1373:
1338:
1334:
1254:
1245:
1232:
1208:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1174:
1166:
1158:
1142:
1129:
1120:psychosocial
1097:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1054:
1046:
1005:
936:
917:
907:sample sizes
900:
865:
857:
846:
844:
821:
813:
811:
775:
764:for time to
739:atorvastatin
709:
693:
684:
676:
652:
621:
614:
594:minimization
587:
572:
550:
538:
530:
498:
495:
487:
482:
477:
475:
449:
435:
419:
401:
371:study design
368:
351:
342:
330:
321:
306:
290:
286:heart attack
279:
267:tuberculosis
263:Streptomycin
260:
252:Jerzy Neyman
249:
245:Frank Angell
207:
171:
156:
145:
126:
115:
91:
77:
71:
50:
46:
42:
40:
26:
11099:Experiments
11052:WikiProject
10792:and history
10672:Engineering
10385:Vaccination
10257:Food safety
9880:WikiProject
9795:Cartography
9757:Jurimetrics
9709:Reliability
9440:Time domain
9419:(LjungâBox)
9341:Time-series
9219:Categorical
9203:Time-series
9195:Categorical
9130:(Bernoulli)
8965:Correlation
8945:Correlation
8741:JarqueâBera
8713:Chi-squared
8475:M-estimator
8428:Asymptotics
8372:Sufficiency
8139:Interaction
8051:Replication
8031:Effect size
7988:Violin plot
7968:Radar chart
7948:Forest plot
7938:Correlogram
7888:Kendall's Ï
7445:BoxâBehnken
7326:Mixed model
7257:Confounding
7252:Interaction
7242:Effect size
7212:Sample size
7048:Null result
7007:Replication
6902:Infectivity
6824:Association
6775:Case report
6765:Case series
6748:Prospective
6235:(1): 9â38.
6131:(1): 8â11.
4647:: e078524.
3980:j.ctt4cgd52
2200:Mann (1949)
1668:(1): 1â39.
1281:Jadad scale
1229:Criminology
1189:effective:
1100:case report
919:Peer review
914:Peer review
728:hepatitis C
716:dichotomous
643:Sample size
617:confounders
464:confounding
135:of medical
109:sources of
11068:Categories
10805:Caribbean
10682:Processing
10616:Quarantine
10538:Student's
10338:Sanitation
9972:History of
9747:Demography
9465:ARMA model
9270:Regression
8847:(Friedman)
8808:(Wilcoxon)
8746:Normality
8736:Lilliefors
8683:Student's
8559:Resampling
8433:Robustness
8421:divergence
8411:Efficiency
8349:(monotone)
8344:Likelihood
8261:Population
8094:Stratified
8046:Population
7865:Dependence
7821:Count data
7752:Percentile
7729:Dispersion
7662:Arithmetic
7597:Statistics
7401:randomized
7399:Completely
7370:covariance
7132:Scientific
6850:Odds ratio
6842:Risk ratio
6808:Prevalence
6794:Occurrence
6770:Case study
5838:2011-08-19
5788:(1): 179.
5450:2010-03-22
5381:2012-02-15
5272:2010-03-28
5038:Einhorn LH
4890:(3): e67.
4488:2010-03-29
4276:2010-03-25
4199:2115/34681
3064:(1): 332.
2437:3 November
2196:H. B. Mann
1971:Stigler SM
1312:References
1077:per capita
1019:flecainide
933:Advantages
887:metastatic
881:including
696:open-label
633:subjective
547:Restricted
520:covariates
492:Procedures
284:trials on
213:psychology
178:James Lind
157:controlled
149:initialism
92:An RCT in
10985:John Snow
10912:Education
10902:Full list
10790:education
10714:ISO 22000
10667:Chemistry
10580:Epidemics
10533:ROC curve
10343:Emergency
10123:Radiation
10103:Pollution
10087:Ministers
9984:Euthenics
9128:Logistic
8895:posterior
8821:Rank sum
8569:Jackknife
8564:Bootstrap
8382:Bootstrap
8317:Parameter
8266:Statistic
8061:Statistic
7973:Run chart
7958:Pie chart
7953:Histogram
7943:Fan chart
7918:Bar chart
7800:L-moments
7687:Geometric
7410:Factorial
7294:inference
7274:Covariate
7236:Treatment
7222:Treatment
6910:Morbidity
6898:Virulence
6800:Incidence
6365:144571336
6327:0013-1881
6286:141222135
6249:145758503
5943:: g6870.
5445:USA Today
5180:: b1732.
4853:1469-493X
4792:CiteSeerX
4531:2164/2742
4514:: e5661.
4238:Neurology
3313:: a2390.
2814:143641293
2528:Bioethics
2233:0081-4776
2225:2262/2764
2152:1935-990X
2110:0002-9556
2073:(3): 247.
1995:143685203
1915:Hacking I
1886:Jastrow J
1882:Peirce CS
1819:141036212
1805:(1): 18.
1594:143644933
1251:Criticism
1242:Education
1135:from the
1116:diagnosis
1057:Phase III
1023:encainide
883:cisplatin
637:objective
503:Maximize
396:Factorial
384:Crossover
326:screening
247:in 1907.
225:education
190:mesmerism
37:Statement
11028:Category
10727:sciences
10662:Additive
10333:Safe sex
10304:Medicine
10218:Theories
9989:Genomics
9967:Eugenics
9957:Deviance
9937:Auxology
9842:Category
9535:Survival
9412:Johansen
9135:Binomial
9090:Isotonic
8677:(normal)
8322:location
8129:Blocking
8084:Sampling
7963:QâQ plot
7928:Box plot
7910:Graphics
7805:Skewness
7795:Kurtosis
7767:Variance
7697:Heronian
7692:Harmonic
7533:Category
7528:Glossary
7334:Bayesian
7312:Bayesian
7268:Blocking
7247:Contrast
7227:blocking
7187:Bayesian
7174:Blinding
7164:validity
7161:external
7157:Internal
7074:Glossary
7067:Category
6944:In vitro
6785:Measures
6604:Overview
6455:29616838
6414:23766545
6155:12495948
6106:29331519
6082:: 2â21.
6057:20573638
6008:16705108
5967:25491195
5918:14970094
5874:12533125
5814:21569508
5760:41035177
5752:16631910
5714:17673104
5655:19833984
5606:44991220
5598:19362661
5563:12584376
5528:15082697
5361:18456631
5312:11306229
5229:Archived
5206:19435763
5119:12119854
5078:11904381
5024:17303884
4916:18336067
4865:38174786
4814:11497536
4769:10861325
4717:10861324
4673:38981645
4664:11231881
4622:18283201
4581:18283207
4540:22951546
4463:10480822
4414:20149703
4406:12117397
4362:11277825
4321:14583372
4313:11583749
4216:13741892
4208:18675689
4113:17382828
4064:23818514
4056:17060210
4021:11308438
3939:18316340
3885:15817527
3828:15651970
3557:25490908
3499:12902486
3491:11867132
3426:11853818
3386:16522836
3337:19001484
3281:30897095
3230:30408073
3190:PLOS ONE
3141:32224633
3090:31174583
3039:20332510
3015:: c723.
2987:40317464
2979:23680610
2944:19724045
2903:22147862
2862:15356289
2770:18044980
2548:11653056
2478:10949771
2405:15547188
2367:17060757
2301:18890300
2242:(1949).
2045:23526321
1957:52201011
1900:: 73â83.
1888:(1885).
1868:16992882
1735:24361586
1727:15246726
1586:16244516
1551:19463302
1510:20332511
1486:: c869.
1365:20332509
1341:: c332.
1260:See also
1137:Cochrane
795:Whether
750:censored
667:Blinding
625:protocol
584:Adaptive
422:efficacy
133:efficacy
11040:Commons
10953:History
10850:Canada
10825:Europe
10309:Nursing
10289:Hygiene
10252:Hygiene
9977:Liberal
9930:General
9868:Commons
9815:Kriging
9700:Process
9657:studies
9516:Wavelet
9349:General
8516:Plug-in
8310:L space
8089:Cluster
7790:Moments
7608:Outline
7426:Taguchi
7394:Designs
7152:Control
6949:In vivo
6405:3678772
6178:Bibcode
6146:1719287
6097:6019115
6048:3085081
5958:4260649
5805:3113995
5646:2775780
5487:2473403
5423:9024734
5352:2364804
5197:2680945
5015:1800999
4972:8634569
4963:2350940
4907:2265762
4760:1557642
4266:2663997
4258:8290055
4162:7787537
4153:2549744
4104:2039891
3930:2267990
3793:8119063
3758:3203526
3702:2605967
3667:9873981
3595:3060315
3548:4295227
3531:: 480.
3328:3266844
3272:6428259
3221:6224098
3198:Bibcode
3132:7161716
3081:6555976
3030:2844941
2761:2082641
2716:6135666
2681:9518917
2672:1112637
2597:9794861
2588:1114158
2513:3600702
2413:5376391
2358:1856609
2292:2091872
2252:0032177
2240:Mann HB
2037:9519574
1949:1013489
1859:1533733
1784:9059193
1775:1720613
1683:2025310
1634:2025229
1501:2844943
1442:9 March
1420:9 March
1400:7261638
1356:2844940
1104:medical
941:in the
790:imputed
756:(e.g.,
390:Cluster
168:History
106:blinded
102:placebo
10840:India
10815:China
10687:Safety
10368:Worker
9737:Census
9327:Normal
9275:Manova
9095:Robust
8845:2-way
8837:1-way
8675:-test
8346:
7923:Biplot
7714:Median
7707:Lehmer
7649:Center
7466:(GRBD)
7366:Ancova
7354:Manova
7289:Models
7134:method
6498:
6453:
6412:
6402:
6363:
6325:
6284:
6247:
6153:
6143:
6104:
6094:
6055:
6045:
6006:
5965:
5955:
5916:
5909:332713
5906:
5872:
5812:
5802:
5758:
5750:
5732:Lancet
5712:
5653:
5643:
5604:
5596:
5578:Lancet
5561:
5526:
5485:
5421:
5359:
5349:
5310:
5255:
5204:
5194:
5155:355881
5153:
5117:
5076:
5069:123692
5066:
5022:
5012:
4970:
4960:
4914:
4904:
4863:
4851:
4812:
4794:
4767:
4757:
4715:
4671:
4661:
4620:
4579:
4538:
4461:
4451:
4412:
4404:
4360:
4319:
4311:
4293:Lancet
4264:
4256:
4214:
4206:
4178:Lancet
4160:
4150:
4111:
4101:
4083:Lancet
4062:
4054:
4019:
3978:
3968:
3937:
3927:
3883:
3876:557221
3873:
3836:202149
3834:
3826:
3791:
3756:
3700:
3665:
3658:479141
3655:
3593:
3555:
3545:
3525:Trials
3497:
3489:
3471:Lancet
3434:291300
3432:
3424:
3406:Lancet
3384:
3335:
3325:
3279:
3269:
3228:
3218:
3139:
3129:
3088:
3078:
3058:Trials
3037:
3027:
2985:
2977:
2942:
2901:
2860:
2812:
2768:
2758:
2714:
2679:
2669:
2632:431682
2630:
2595:
2585:
2546:
2511:
2476:
2411:
2403:
2365:
2355:
2299:
2289:
2250:
2231:
2150:
2108:
2043:
2035:
1993:
1955:
1947:
1941:234674
1939:
1866:
1856:
1817:
1782:
1772:
1733:
1725:
1707:Lancet
1692:831755
1690:
1680:
1643:795448
1641:
1631:
1592:
1584:
1549:
1508:
1498:
1398:
1363:
1353:
1155:Ethics
1010:After
741:after
541:robust
535:Simple
525:biased
404:PubMed
322:before
313:ethics
303:Ethics
182:scurvy
10865:U.S.
10709:HACCP
10658:Food
10550:-test
10542:-test
10128:Light
10113:Water
9361:Trend
8890:prior
8832:anova
8721:-test
8695:-test
8687:-test
8594:Power
8539:Pivot
8332:shape
8327:scale
7777:Shape
7757:Range
7702:Heinz
7677:Cubic
7613:Index
7458:Block
6888:Other
6550:(PDF)
6530:(PDF)
6523:(PDF)
6509:(PDF)
6492:(PDF)
6361:S2CID
6282:S2CID
6245:S2CID
5756:S2CID
5602:S2CID
5266:(PDF)
5249:(PDF)
4454:28218
4410:S2CID
4317:S2CID
4262:S2CID
4212:S2CID
4060:S2CID
3976:JSTOR
3832:S2CID
3506:(PDF)
3495:S2CID
3467:(PDF)
3430:S2CID
3362:(PDF)
2983:S2CID
2821:(PDF)
2810:S2CID
2788:(PDF)
2409:S2CID
2128:(PDF)
2063:(PDF)
2041:S2CID
2013:(PDF)
1991:S2CID
1953:S2CID
1937:JSTOR
1815:S2CID
1731:S2CID
1590:S2CID
1159:If a
10641:WASH
10597:List
10585:List
10118:Soil
9594:Test
8794:Sign
8646:Wald
7719:Mode
7657:Mean
7292:and
7225:and
7159:and
6727:vs.
6595:and
6496:ISBN
6451:PMID
6410:PMID
6323:ISSN
6151:PMID
6102:PMID
6053:PMID
6004:PMID
5986:JAMA
5963:PMID
5914:PMID
5896:CMAJ
5870:PMID
5854:JAMA
5810:PMID
5748:PMID
5710:PMID
5651:PMID
5594:PMID
5559:PMID
5524:PMID
5506:JAMA
5483:PMID
5419:PMID
5357:PMID
5308:PMID
5253:ISBN
5202:PMID
5151:PMID
5115:PMID
5074:PMID
5020:PMID
4968:PMID
4912:PMID
4861:PMID
4849:ISSN
4810:PMID
4784:JAMA
4765:PMID
4713:PMID
4669:PMID
4618:PMID
4577:PMID
4536:PMID
4459:PMID
4402:PMID
4384:JAMA
4358:PMID
4340:JAMA
4309:PMID
4254:PMID
4204:PMID
4158:PMID
4109:PMID
4052:PMID
4017:PMID
3999:JAMA
3966:ISBN
3935:PMID
3881:PMID
3824:PMID
3789:PMID
3754:PMID
3698:PMID
3663:PMID
3618:2012
3591:PMID
3553:PMID
3487:PMID
3422:PMID
3382:PMID
3366:JAMA
3333:PMID
3277:PMID
3226:PMID
3137:PMID
3086:PMID
3035:PMID
2975:PMID
2940:PMID
2922:JAMA
2899:PMID
2858:PMID
2766:PMID
2712:PMID
2677:PMID
2628:PMID
2593:PMID
2544:PMID
2509:PMID
2474:PMID
2439:2020
2401:PMID
2363:PMID
2297:PMID
2229:ISSN
2148:ISSN
2106:ISSN
2033:PMID
1920:Isis
1864:PMID
1780:PMID
1723:PMID
1688:PMID
1639:PMID
1582:PMID
1547:PMID
1506:PMID
1444:2024
1422:2024
1396:PMID
1361:PMID
1065:mean
1021:and
987:The
885:for
812:The
760:and
726:for
714:For
462:and
282:ISIS
254:and
243:and
235:and
219:and
111:bias
45:(or
10108:Air
8774:BIC
8769:AIC
6441:doi
6400:PMC
6392:doi
6388:101
6353:doi
6313:doi
6274:doi
6237:doi
6186:doi
6141:PMC
6133:doi
6092:PMC
6084:doi
6080:210
6043:PMC
6035:doi
5994:doi
5990:295
5953:PMC
5945:doi
5941:349
5937:BMJ
5904:PMC
5900:170
5862:doi
5858:289
5800:PMC
5790:doi
5740:doi
5736:367
5702:doi
5641:PMC
5633:doi
5586:doi
5582:373
5551:doi
5547:348
5514:doi
5510:291
5475:doi
5471:321
5411:doi
5347:PMC
5339:doi
5335:336
5331:BMJ
5300:doi
5225:NPR
5192:PMC
5182:doi
5178:338
5174:BMJ
5143:doi
5139:299
5105:doi
5064:PMC
5054:doi
5010:PMC
5002:doi
4998:334
4994:BMJ
4958:PMC
4950:doi
4946:312
4942:BMJ
4902:PMC
4892:doi
4857:PMC
4841:doi
4802:doi
4788:286
4755:PMC
4747:doi
4743:342
4703:doi
4699:342
4659:PMC
4649:doi
4645:386
4641:BMJ
4608:doi
4604:148
4567:doi
4563:148
4526:hdl
4516:doi
4512:345
4508:BMJ
4449:PMC
4441:doi
4437:319
4433:BMJ
4392:doi
4388:288
4348:doi
4344:285
4301:doi
4297:358
4246:doi
4194:hdl
4186:doi
4182:372
4148:PMC
4140:doi
4136:310
4132:BMJ
4099:PMC
4091:doi
4087:369
4044:doi
4007:doi
4003:285
3958:doi
3925:PMC
3917:doi
3913:336
3909:BMJ
3871:PMC
3863:doi
3859:330
3855:BMJ
3816:doi
3812:182
3781:doi
3744:hdl
3736:doi
3690:doi
3653:PMC
3645:doi
3583:doi
3543:PMC
3533:doi
3479:doi
3475:359
3414:doi
3410:359
3374:doi
3370:295
3323:PMC
3315:doi
3311:337
3307:BMJ
3267:PMC
3257:doi
3216:PMC
3206:doi
3127:PMC
3117:doi
3076:PMC
3066:doi
3025:PMC
3017:doi
3013:340
3009:BMJ
2967:doi
2930:doi
2926:302
2889:doi
2848:doi
2844:351
2802:doi
2756:PMC
2746:doi
2704:doi
2667:PMC
2659:doi
2655:316
2651:BMJ
2620:doi
2616:300
2583:PMC
2575:doi
2571:317
2567:BMJ
2536:doi
2501:doi
2497:317
2466:doi
2393:doi
2389:183
2353:PMC
2345:doi
2341:244
2287:PMC
2279:doi
2221:hdl
2202:."
2140:doi
2098:doi
2025:doi
1983:doi
1979:101
1929:doi
1854:PMC
1846:doi
1807:doi
1770:PMC
1762:doi
1715:doi
1711:364
1678:PMC
1670:doi
1629:PMC
1621:doi
1574:doi
1537:doi
1496:PMC
1488:doi
1484:340
1480:BMJ
1388:doi
1351:PMC
1343:doi
1339:340
1335:BMJ
1002:)."
340:".
51:RCT
11070::
7185::
6924:,
6920:,
6916:,
6912:,
6908:,
6904:,
6900:,
6896:,
6878:,
6874:,
6870:,
6852:,
6848:,
6844:,
6840:,
6836:,
6832:,
6814:,
6810:,
6806:,
6802:,
6731:,
6552:.
6476:.
6449:.
6437:50
6435:.
6431:.
6408:.
6398:.
6386:.
6382:.
6359:.
6349:17
6347:.
6321:.
6309:60
6307:.
6303:.
6280:.
6268:.
6243:.
6231:.
6217:^
6207:.
6184:.
6174:44
6172:.
6149:.
6139:.
6129:88
6127:.
6123:.
6100:.
6090:.
6074:.
6051:.
6041:.
6029:.
6025:.
6002:.
5988:.
5984:.
5961:.
5951:.
5939:.
5935:.
5912:.
5898:.
5894:.
5882:^
5868:.
5856:.
5808:.
5798:.
5784:.
5780:.
5768:^
5754:.
5746:.
5734:.
5722:^
5708:.
5698:33
5696:.
5682:^
5672:.
5649:.
5639:.
5629:99
5627:.
5623:.
5600:.
5592:.
5580:.
5557:.
5545:.
5522:.
5508:.
5504:.
5481:.
5469:.
5443:.
5431:^
5417:.
5407:79
5405:.
5390:^
5355:.
5345:.
5333:.
5329:.
5306:.
5296:20
5294:.
5281:^
5227:.
5223:.
5200:.
5190:.
5176:.
5172:.
5149:.
5137:.
5113:.
5101:24
5099:.
5095:.
5072:.
5062:.
5050:99
5048:.
5044:.
5018:.
5008:.
4996:.
4992:.
4980:^
4966:.
4956:.
4944:.
4940:.
4924:^
4910:.
4900:.
4886:.
4882:.
4855:.
4847:.
4835:.
4822:^
4808:.
4800:.
4786:.
4763:.
4753:.
4741:.
4737:.
4725:^
4711:.
4697:.
4693:.
4681:^
4667:.
4657:.
4643:.
4639:.
4616:.
4602:.
4598:.
4575:.
4561:.
4557:.
4534:.
4524:.
4510:.
4506:.
4457:.
4447:.
4435:.
4431:.
4408:.
4400:.
4386:.
4382:.
4370:^
4356:.
4342:.
4338:.
4315:.
4307:.
4295:.
4260:.
4252:.
4242:44
4240:.
4236:.
4210:.
4202:.
4192:.
4180:.
4156:.
4146:.
4134:.
4130:.
4107:.
4097:.
4085:.
4081:.
4058:.
4050:.
4038:.
4015:.
4001:.
3997:.
3974:.
3964:.
3933:.
3923:.
3911:.
3907:.
3893:^
3879:.
3869:.
3857:.
3853:.
3830:.
3822:.
3810:.
3787:.
3777:14
3775:.
3752:.
3742:.
3730:.
3710:^
3696:.
3686:10
3684:.
3661:.
3651:.
3641:24
3639:.
3635:.
3589:.
3577:.
3565:^
3551:.
3541:.
3529:15
3527:.
3523:.
3493:.
3485:.
3473:.
3469:.
3442:^
3428:.
3420:.
3408:.
3394:^
3380:.
3368:.
3364:.
3345:^
3331:.
3321:.
3309:.
3305:.
3289:^
3275:.
3265:.
3253:16
3251:.
3247:.
3224:.
3214:.
3204:.
3194:13
3192:.
3188:.
3135:.
3125:.
3111:.
3107:.
3084:.
3074:.
3062:20
3060:.
3056:.
3033:.
3023:.
3011:.
3007:.
2995:^
2981:.
2973:.
2963:50
2961:.
2938:.
2924:.
2920:.
2897:.
2885:30
2883:.
2879:.
2856:.
2842:.
2838:.
2808:.
2798:21
2796:.
2790:.
2764:.
2754:.
2740:.
2736:.
2724:^
2710:.
2698:.
2675:.
2665:.
2653:.
2649:.
2626:.
2614:.
2591:.
2581:.
2569:.
2565:.
2542:.
2530:.
2507:.
2495:.
2472:.
2462:14
2460:.
2456:.
2430:.
2407:.
2399:.
2387:.
2375:^
2361:.
2351:.
2339:.
2335:.
2295:.
2285:.
2273:.
2269:.
2248:MR
2227:.
2211:.
2146:.
2136:55
2134:.
2130:.
2104:.
2094:18
2092:.
2088:.
2069:.
2065:.
2039:.
2031:.
2021:88
2019:.
2015:.
1989:.
1977:.
1951:.
1945:MR
1943:.
1935:.
1925:79
1896:.
1892:.
1884:,
1862:.
1852:.
1842:36
1840:.
1836:.
1813:.
1803:72
1801:.
1778:.
1768:.
1758:76
1756:.
1752:.
1729:.
1721:.
1709:.
1686:.
1676:.
1666:35
1664:.
1660:.
1637:.
1627:.
1617:34
1615:.
1611:.
1588:.
1580:.
1570:74
1568:.
1545:.
1531:.
1527:.
1504:.
1494:.
1482:.
1478:.
1452:^
1394:.
1382:.
1359:.
1349:.
1337:.
1333:.
1319:^
1118:,
1114:,
1110:,
1082:.
752:,
639:.
164:.
124:.
113:.
65:,
49:;
41:A
10904:)
10900:(
10548:Z
10540:t
10089:)
10085:(
9915:e
9908:t
9901:v
8719:G
8693:F
8685:t
8673:Z
8392:V
8387:U
7589:e
7582:t
7575:v
7372:)
7368:(
7360:)
7356:(
7116:e
7109:t
7102:v
6761:)
6757:(
6718:)
6714:(
6665:)
6661:(
6585:e
6578:t
6571:v
6556:.
6540:.
6480:.
6457:.
6443::
6416:.
6394::
6367:.
6355::
6329:.
6315::
6288:.
6276::
6270:8
6251:.
6239::
6233:1
6192:.
6188::
6180::
6157:.
6135::
6108:.
6086::
6059:.
6037::
6031:7
6010:.
5996::
5969:.
5947::
5920:.
5876:.
5864::
5841:.
5816:.
5792::
5786:5
5762:.
5742::
5716:.
5704::
5676:.
5657:.
5635::
5608:.
5588::
5565:.
5553::
5530:.
5516::
5489:.
5477::
5453:.
5425:.
5413::
5384:.
5363:.
5341::
5314:.
5302::
5275:.
5208:.
5184::
5157:.
5145::
5121:.
5107::
5080:.
5056::
5026:.
5004::
4974:.
4952::
4918:.
4894::
4888:5
4867:.
4843::
4837:1
4816:.
4804::
4771:.
4749::
4719:.
4705::
4675:.
4651::
4624:.
4610::
4583:.
4569::
4542:.
4528::
4518::
4491:.
4465:.
4443::
4416:.
4394::
4364:.
4350::
4323:.
4303::
4279:.
4248::
4218:.
4196::
4188::
4164:.
4142::
4115:.
4093::
4066:.
4046::
4040:3
4023:.
4009::
3982:.
3960::
3941:.
3919::
3887:.
3865::
3838:.
3818::
3795:.
3783::
3760:.
3746::
3738::
3732:9
3704:.
3692::
3669:.
3647::
3620:.
3597:.
3585::
3579:9
3559:.
3535::
3481::
3436:.
3416::
3388:.
3376::
3339:.
3317::
3283:.
3259::
3232:.
3208::
3200::
3143:.
3119::
3113:8
3092:.
3068::
3041:.
3019::
2989:.
2969::
2946:.
2932::
2905:.
2891::
2864:.
2850::
2804::
2772:.
2748::
2742:4
2718:.
2706::
2700:5
2683:.
2661::
2634:.
2622::
2599:.
2577::
2550:.
2538::
2532:9
2515:.
2503::
2480:.
2468::
2441:.
2415:.
2395::
2369:.
2347::
2320:.
2303:.
2281::
2275:2
2254:.
2235:.
2223::
2142::
2112:.
2100::
2071:8
2047:.
2027::
1997:.
1985::
1959:.
1931::
1898:3
1870:.
1848::
1821:.
1809::
1786:.
1764::
1737:.
1717::
1694:.
1672::
1645:.
1623::
1596:.
1576::
1553:.
1539::
1533:1
1512:.
1490::
1446:.
1424:.
1402:.
1390::
1384:2
1367:.
1345::
466:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.