1324:, relies on quasi-experiments. For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when testing the hypothesis "Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star. However, by observing various clouds of hydrogen in various states of collapse, and other implications of the hypothesis (for example, the presence of various spectral emissions from the light of stars), we can collect data we require to support the hypothesis. An early example of this type of experiment was the first verification in the 17th century that light does not travel from place to place instantaneously, but instead has a measurable speed. Observation of the appearance of the moons of Jupiter were slightly delayed when Jupiter was farther from Earth, as opposed to when Jupiter was closer to Earth; and this phenomenon was used to demonstrate that the difference in the time of appearance of the moons was consistent with a measurable speed.
1115:. The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample). Most often, tests are done in duplicate or triplicate. A positive control is a procedure similar to the actual experimental test but is known from previous experience to give a positive result. A negative control is known to give a negative result. The positive control confirms that the basic conditions of the experiment were able to produce a positive result, even if none of the actual experimental samples produce a positive result. The negative control demonstrates the base-line result obtained when a test does not produce a measurable positive result. Most often the value of the negative control is treated as a "background" value to subtract from the test sample results. Sometimes the positive control takes the quadrant of a
1494:. In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control. Observational studies are limited because they lack the statistical properties of randomized experiments. In a randomized experiment, the method of randomization specified in the experimental protocol guides the statistical analysis, which is usually specified also by the experimental protocol. Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on a subjective model. Inferences from subjective models are unreliable in theory and practice. In fact, there are several cases where carefully conducted observational studies consistently give wrong results, that is, where the results of the observational studies are inconsistent and also differ from the results of experiments. For example, epidemiological studies of colon cancer consistently show beneficial correlations with broccoli consumption, while experiments find no benefit.
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eye when vision takes place and what is found in the manner of sensation to be uniform, unchanging, manifest and not subject to doubt. After which we should ascend in our inquiry and reasonings, gradually and orderly, criticizing premisses and exercising caution in regard to conclusionsâour aim in all that we make subject to inspection and review being to employ justice, not to follow prejudice, and to take care in all that we judge and criticize that we seek the truth and not to be swayed by opinion. We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters. For all that, we are not free from that human turbidity which is in the nature of man; but we must do our best with what we possess of human power. From God we derive support in all things.
1546:. For example, in psychology or health care, it is unethical to provide a substandard treatment to patients. Therefore, ethical review boards are supposed to stop clinical trials and other experiments unless a new treatment is believed to offer benefits as good as current best practice. It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health. To understand the effects of such exposures, scientists sometimes use observational studies to understand the effects of those factors.
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1524:, which require large populations of subjects and extensive information on covariates. However, propensity score matching is no longer recommended as a technique because it can increase, rather than decrease, bias. Outcomes are also quantified when possible (bone density, the amount of some cell or substance in the blood, physical strength or endurance, etc.) and not based on a subject's or a professional observer's opinion. In this way, the design of an observational study can render the results more objective and therefore, more convincing.
1501:, and groups receiving different treatments (exposures) may differ greatly according to their covariates (age, height, weight, medications, exercise, nutritional status, ethnicity, family medical history, etc.). In contrast, randomization implies that for each covariate, the mean for each group is expected to be the same. For any randomized trial, some variation from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values that are close, due to the
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science classroom. Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time. Experiments can vary from personal and informal natural comparisons (e.g. tasting a range of chocolates to find a favorite), to highly controlled (e.g. tests requiring complex apparatus overseen by many scientists that hope to discover information about subatomic particles). Uses of experiments vary considerably between the
1509:. With inadequate randomization or low sample size, the systematic variation in covariates between the treatment groups (or exposure groups) makes it difficult to separate the effect of the treatment (exposure) from the effects of the other covariates, most of which have not been measured. The mathematical models used to analyze such data must consider each differing covariate (if measured), and results are not meaningful if a covariate is neither randomized nor included in the model.
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852:âand described it as follows: "Having first determined the question according to his will, man then resorts to experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads her about like a captive in a procession." Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments. Notably, he first ordered the scientific method as we understand it today.
1229:. These hypotheses suggest reasons to explain a phenomenon or predict the results of an action. An example might be the hypothesis that "if I release this ball, it will fall to the floor": this suggestion can then be tested by carrying out the experiment of letting go of the ball, and observing the results. Formally, a hypothesis is compared against its opposite or
686:, which is an expectation about how a particular process or phenomenon works. However, an experiment may also aim to answer a "what-if" question, without a specific expectation about what the experiment reveals, or to confirm prior results. If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis. According to some
1233:("if I release this ball, it will not fall to the floor"). The null hypothesis is that there is no explanation or predictive power of the phenomenon through the reasoning that is being investigated. Once hypotheses are defined, an experiment can be carried out and the results analysed to confirm, refute, or define the accuracy of the hypotheses.
1129:. Students might be given a fluid sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein. It is their job to correctly perform a controlled experiment in which they determine the concentration of protein in the fluid sample (usually called the "unknown sample"). The teaching lab would be equipped with a protein standard
1186:, meaning that neither the volunteer nor the researcher knows which individuals are in the control group or the experimental group until after all of the data have been collected. This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the knowledge that he is being treated.
728:, experiments are a primary component of the scientific method. They are used to test theories and hypotheses about how physical processes work under particular conditions (e.g., whether a particular engineering process can produce a desired chemical compound). Typically, experiments in these fields focus on
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than laboratory experiments. However, like natural experiments, field experiments suffer from the possibility of contamination: experimental conditions can be controlled with more precision and certainty in the lab. Yet some phenomena (e.g., voter turnout in an election) cannot be easily studied in a
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It is thus the duty of the man who studies the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical
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is used when it is impractical, unethical, cost-prohibitive (or otherwise inefficient) to fit a physical or social system into a laboratory setting, to completely control confounding factors, or to apply random assignment. It can also be used when confounding factors are either limited or known well
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under study, rather than manipulation of just one or a few variables as occurs in controlled experiments. To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables
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with a known protein concentration. Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard. Negative control samples would contain all of the reagents for the protein assay but no protein. In this example, all samples are performed in duplicate. The
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experiments, which enforce scientific control by testing a hypothesis in the artificial and highly controlled setting of a laboratory. Often used in the social sciences, and especially in economic analyses of education and health interventions, field experiments have the advantage that outcomes are
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We should, that is, recommence the inquiry into its principles and premisses, beginning our investigation with an inspection of the things that exist and a survey of the conditions of visible objects. We should distinguish the properties of particulars, and gather by induction what pertains to the
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A child may carry out basic experiments to understand how things fall to the ground, while teams of scientists may take years of systematic investigation to advance their understanding of a phenomenon. Experiments and other types of hands-on activities are very important to student learning in the
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Controlled experiments can be performed when it is difficult to exactly control all the conditions in an experiment. In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which means that measurements of traits should be similar among the
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Thus, a comparison of earlier results with the experimental results is necessary for an objective experimentâthe visible results being more important. In the end, this may mean that an experimental researcher must find enough courage to discard traditional opinions or results, especially if these
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results are not experimental but results from a logical/ mental derivation. In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinionsâthrough "prejudices" and "leniency"âand thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses.
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well correlated, natural experiments can approach the power of controlled experiments. Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed. Also,
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There remains simple experience; which, if taken as it comes, is called accident, if sought for, experiment. The true method of experience first lights the candle , and then by means of the candle shows the way ; commencing as it does with experience duly ordered and digested, not bungling or
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can measure the amount of protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an added dye. In the illustration, the results for the diluted test samples can be compared to the results of the standard curve (the blue line in the
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in an experiment are controlled (accounted for by the control measurements) and none are uncontrolled. In such an experiment, if all controls work as expected, it is possible to conclude that the experiment works as intended, and that results are due to the effect of the tested variables.
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for the treatments. For example, an experiment on baking bread could estimate the difference in the responses associated with quantitative variables, such as the ratio of water to flour, and with qualitative variables, such as strains of yeast. Experimentation is the step in the
800:âby controlling his experiments due to factors such as self-criticality, reliance on visible results of the experiments as well as a criticality in terms of earlier results. He was one of the first scholars to use an inductive-experimental method for achieving results. In his
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According to his explanation, a strictly controlled test execution with a sensibility for the subjectivity and susceptibility of outcomes due to the nature of man is necessary. Furthermore, a critical view on the results and outcomes of earlier scholars is necessary:
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Depending on the discipline, experiments can be conducted to accomplish different but not mutually exclusive goals: test theories, search for and document phenomena, develop theories, or advise policymakers. These goals also relate differently to
1163:, where there is very little variation between individuals and the group size is easily in the millions, these statistical methods are often bypassed and simply splitting a solution into equal parts is assumed to produce identical sample groups.
747:, where experimental units (usually individual human beings) are randomly assigned to a treatment or control condition where one or more outcomes are assessed. In contrast to norms in the physical sciences, the focus is typically on the
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The term "experiment" usually implies a controlled experiment, but sometimes controlled experiments are prohibitively difficult, impossible, unethical or illegal. In this case researchers resort to natural experiments or
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because natural experiments usually take place in uncontrolled environments, variables from undetected sources are neither measured nor held constant, and these may produce illusory correlations in variables under study.
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by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. There also exist
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enough to analyze the data in light of them (though this may be rare when social phenomena are under examination). For an observational science to be valid, the experimenter must know and account for
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A particular problem with observational studies involving human subjects is the great difficulty attaining fair comparisons between treatments (or exposures), because such studies are prone to
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factors. In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data.
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Even when experimental research does not directly involve human subjects, it may still present ethical concerns. For example, the nuclear bomb experiments conducted by the
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705:âany factors that would mar the accuracy or repeatability of the experiment or the ability to interpret the results. Confounding is commonly eliminated through
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A considerable amount of progress on the design and analysis of experiments occurred in the early 20th century, with contributions from statisticians such as
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1542:âintroduces potential ethical considerations, such as balancing benefit and harm, fairly distributing interventions (e.g., treatments for a disease), and
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observed in a natural setting rather than in a contrived laboratory environment. For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher
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often involves experimental tests of theorized human behaviors without relying on random assignment of individuals to treatment and control conditions.
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remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned. The degree to which this is possible depends on the observed
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produced by the experiment. A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through
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Experiments might be categorized according to a number of dimensions, depending upon professional norms and standards in different fields of study.
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Jeremy, Teigen (2014). "Experimental
Methods in Military and Veteran Studies". In Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia; Rietjens, Sebastiaan (eds.).
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In the centuries that followed, people who applied the scientific method in different areas made important advances and discoveries. For example,
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approvalâquantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified. Researchers attempt to reduce the biases of observational studies with
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743:, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines. When used, however, experiments typically follow the form of the
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By placing the distribution of the independent variable(s) under the control of the researcher, an experimentâparticularly when it involves
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Fundamentally, however, observational studies are not experiments. By definition, observational studies lack the manipulation required for
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resorts to experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads her about like a captive in a procession." Bacon, Francis.
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One of the first methodical approaches to experiments in the modern sense is visible in the works of the Arab mathematician and scholar
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implied the use of nuclear reactions to harm human beings even though the experiments did not directly involve any human subjects.
865:(1564â1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.
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samples, which are practically identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect whose effect is being tested (the
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research frequently uses randomized experiments (e.g., to test the comparative effectiveness of different fertilizers), while
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groups and that the groups should respond in the same manner if given the same treatment. This equivalency is determined by
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is measured. The signifying characteristic of a true experiment is that it randomly allocates the subjects to neutralize
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of identical procedures in hopes of producing identical results in each replication. Random assignment is uncommon.
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To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trialsâsay for U.S.
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Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one
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Stohr-Hunt, Patricia (1996). "An
Analysis of Frequency of Hands-on Experience and Science Achievement".
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893:. Because of the importance of controlling potentially confounding variables, the use of well-designed
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Even very young children perform rudimentary experiments to learn about the world and how things work.
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The story of philosophy : the lives and opinions of the great philosophers of the western world
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he describes the fundamentally new approach to knowledge and research in an experimental sense:
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active in the 17th century, became an influential supporter of experimental science in the
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erratic, and from it deducing axioms , and from established axioms again new experiments.
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can disprove a theory or hypothesis, but a theory can always be salvaged by appropriate
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939:), a 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are two kinds of
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with some observer's control, as illustrated, the observation is also an experiment.
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methods that take into account the amount of variation between individuals and the
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General
Relativistic Dynamics: Extending Einstein's Legacy Throughout the Universe
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examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.
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Design and
Analysis of Experiments, Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design
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2013:"Promises and Perils of Experimentation: The Mutual-Internal-Validity Problem"
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869:(1743â1794), a French chemist, used experiment to describe new areas, such as
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Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New
Science in an Age of Revolution
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The physics of everyday phenomena : a conceptual introduction to physics
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Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference
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El-Bizri, Nader (2005). "A Philosophical
Perspective on Alhazen's Optics".
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1259:. Natural experiments rely solely on observations of the variables of the
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1996:. Department of Psychology, University of California Davis. Archived from
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Natural experiments in the social sciences : a design-based approach
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10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199601)33:1<101::AID-TEA6>3.0.CO;2-Z
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one. In many laboratory experiments it is good practice to have several
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that helps people decide between two or more competing explanationsâor
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illustration) to estimate the amount of protein in the unknown sample.
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An example that is often used in teaching laboratories is a controlled
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There are various differences in experimental practice in each of the
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2078:"Ole Roemer Profile: First to Measure the Speed of Light | AMNH"
1753:
Holland, Paul W. (December 1986). "Statistics and Causal
Inference".
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844:. He disagreed with the method of answering scientific questions by
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Fantastic realities : 49 mind journeys and a trip to
Stockholm
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of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into
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30:"Experimental" redirects here. For the musical classification, see
2275:
Shadish, William R.; Cook, Thomas D.; Campbell, Donald T. (2002).
1673:(Online-Ausg. ed.). Singapore: World Scientific. p. 12.
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requires special safeguards against outside variables such as the
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and the other measurements. Scientific controls are a part of the
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1892:"Having first determined the question according to his will, man
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Lin, Hause; Werner, Kaitlyn M.; Inzlicht, Michael (2021-02-16).
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that the subject responds to. The goal of the experiment is to
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performs a gravity test on the moon with a hammer and feather.
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2155:(Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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2301:
Routledge
Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies
1440:
Field experiments are so named to distinguish them from
1212:, two or more "treatments" are applied to estimate the
675:. Researchers also use experimentation to test existing
2178:"Why Propensity Scores Should Not Be Used for Matching"
27:
Scientific procedure performed to validate a hypothesis
2351:
Lessons In
Electric Circuits â Volume VI â Experiments
1107:
samples for the test being performed and have both a
4750:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
2122:
2093:
1805:
Cambridge handbook of experimental political science
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1368:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1011:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4212:
594:is a procedure carried out to support or refute a
2010:
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1732:. New Jersey: World Scientific. pp. 61â62.
1272:in the observed data. When these variables are
1155:of individuals in each group. In fields such as
4298:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
1755:Journal of the American Statistical Association
679:or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.
2279:(Nachdr. ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
1920:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster.
1703:(3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. pp.
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2380:
2176:King, Gary; Nielsen, Richard (October 2019).
2153:Statistical models : theory and practice
1727:
1189:In human experiments, researchers may give a
701:An experiment must also control the possible
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947:is manipulated by the experimenter, and the
698:modifications at the expense of simplicity.
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2260:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2231:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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1807:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1627:
1428:Learn how and when to remove this message
1071:Learn how and when to remove this message
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2303:. New York: Routledge. pp. 228â238.
2150:
2126:; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007).
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897:experiments is preferred when possible.
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1636:Journal of Research in Science Teaching
1574:Concept development and experimentation
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4824:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
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1972:(New illustrated ed.). Springer.
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1728:Wilczek, Frank; Devine, Betsy (2006).
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2017:Perspectives on Psychological Science
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1236:Experiments can be also designed to
1009:adding citations to reliable sources
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667:procedure that arbitrates competing
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4429:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
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2736:Generalized randomized block design
2360:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
24:
4524:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
3150:Pearson product-moment correlation
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2130:(4th ed.). New York: Norton.
1878:Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali Al-Hasan.
1863:Ibn al-Haytham, Abu Ali Al-Hasan.
1201:the response to the stimulus by a
1170:that he or she wishes to isolate.
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682:An experiment usually tests a
630:Experiments typically include
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5077:Geographic information system
4293:Simultaneous equations models
1968:Brock, Thomas D, ed. (1988).
1947:. W.W. Norton & Company.
1941:Bell, Madison Smartt (2005).
1669:Cooperstock, Fred I. (2009).
1240:onto nearby untreated units.
1095:); and the one receiving the
877:and to develop the theory of
4260:Coefficient of determination
3871:Uniformly most powerful test
2706:Response surface methodology
2614:Analysis of variance (Anova)
1697:Griffith, W. Thomas (2001).
1514:Food and Drug Administration
613:natural experimental studies
7:
4829:Proportional hazards models
4773:Spectral density estimation
4755:Vector autoregression (VAR)
4189:Maximum posterior estimator
3421:Randomized controlled trial
2776:Randomized controlled trial
2151:Freedman, David A. (2009).
1556:
931:In some disciplines (e.g.,
920:(1909â1980), among others.
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39:Experiment (disambiguation)
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4589:Multivariate distributions
3009:Average absolute deviation
2102:(Second ed.). Wiley.
1970:Pasteur and Modern Science
1880:Dubitationes in Ptolemaeum
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1569:Black box experimentation
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1522:propensity score matching
1280:Much research in several
531:Qualitative data analysis
5072:Environmental statistics
4594:Elliptical distributions
4387:Generalized linear model
4316:Simple linear regression
4086:HodgesâLehmann estimator
3543:Probability distribution
3452:Stochastic approximation
3014:Coefficient of variation
2762:Repeated measures design
2474:Restricted randomization
2029:10.1177/1745691620974773
1620:
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832:(1561â1626), an English
749:average treatment effect
4732:Cross-correlation (XCF)
4340:Non-standard predictors
3774:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
3447:Adaptive clinical trial
1594:Experimental psychology
1284:disciplines, including
918:William Gemmell Cochran
688:philosophies of science
5128:Mathematics portal
4949:Engineering statistics
4857:NelsonâAalen estimator
4434:Analysis of covariance
4321:Ordinary least squares
4245:Pearson product-moment
3649:Statistical functional
3560:Empirical distribution
3393:Controlled experiments
3122:Frequency distribution
2900:Descriptive statistics
2817:Mathematics portal
2579:Ordinary least squares
2256:Dunning, Thad (2012).
1994:"Types of experiments"
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967:Controlled experiments
891:germ theory of disease
887:spontaneous generation
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788:History of experiments
776:experimental economics
711:randomized experiments
663:, an experiment is an
410:Inferential statistics
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5184:Design of experiments
5044:Population statistics
4986:System identification
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4648:Exponential smoothing
4562:Discriminant analysis
4557:Canonical correlation
4421:Partition of variance
4283:Regression validation
4127:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
4026:Likelihood-ratio test
3715:Frequentist inference
3627:Locationâscale family
3548:Sampling distribution
3513:Statistical inference
3480:Cross-sectional study
3467:Observational studies
3426:Randomized experiment
3255:Stem-and-leaf display
3057:Central limit theorem
2414:Scientific experiment
2396:Design of experiments
2356:Experiment in Physics
2227:Bailey, R.A. (2008).
1914:Durant, Will (2012).
1579:Design of experiments
1503:central limit theorem
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1270:explanatory variables
1210:design of experiments
1172:Human experimentation
977:Design of experiments
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4347:Nonlinear regression
4326:General linear model
4288:Mixed effects models
4278:Errors and residuals
4255:Confounding variable
4157:Bayesian probability
4135:Van der Waerden test
4125:Ordered alternative
3890:Multiple comparisons
3769:RaoâBlackwellization
3732:Estimating equations
3688:Statistical distance
3406:Factorial experiment
2939:Arithmetic-Geometric
2688:Fractional factorial
2347:at Wikimedia Commons
2000:on 19 December 2014.
1614:Long-term experiment
1589:Experimental physics
1492:Baconian experiments
1470:). When there are a
1362:improve this article
1089:independent variable
1005:improve this article
945:independent variable
879:conservation of mass
636:independent variable
519:Reference management
469:Scientific modelling
211:Critical rationalism
37:For other uses, see
5189:Science experiments
5039:Official statistics
4962:Methods engineering
4643:Seasonal adjustment
4411:Poisson regressions
4331:Bayesian regression
4270:Regression analysis
4250:Partial correlation
4222:Regression analysis
3821:Prediction interval
3816:Likelihood interval
3806:Confidence interval
3798:Interval estimation
3759:Unbiased estimators
3577:Model specification
3457:Up-and-down designs
3145:Partial correlation
3101:Index of dispersion
3019:Interquartile range
2822:Statistical outline
2782:Sequential analysis
2747:Graeco-Latin square
2656:Multiple comparison
2603:Hierarchical model:
2195:10.1017/pan.2019.11
2094:Hinkelmann, Klaus;
1900:, i, 63. Quoted in
1797:Kuklinski, James H.
1648:1996JRScT..33..101S
1609:List of experiments
1584:Experimentum crucis
1507:Markov's inequality
1480:observational study
1244:Natural experiments
889:and to develop the
842:English renaissance
768:branches of science
707:scientific controls
703:confounding factors
598:, or determine the
499:Argument technology
5059:Spatial statistics
4939:Medical statistics
4839:First hitting time
4793:Whittle likelihood
4444:Degrees of freedom
4439:Multivariate ANOVA
4372:Heteroscedasticity
4184:Bayesian estimator
4149:Bayesian inference
3998:KolmogorovâSmirnov
3883:Randomization test
3853:Testing hypotheses
3826:Tolerance interval
3737:Maximum likelihood
3632:Exponential family
3565:Density estimation
3525:Statistical theory
3485:Natural experiment
3431:Scientific control
3348:Survey methodology
3034:Standard deviation
2827:Statistical topics
2419:Statistical design
2182:Political Analysis
1789:Druckman, James N.
1599:Empirical research
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1250:Natural experiment
1136:colorimetric assay
973:Scientific control
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493:Tools and software
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2722:Central composite
2620:Cochran's theorem
2574:Linear regression
2551:Nuisance variable
2464:Random assignment
2441:Experimental unit
2343:Media related to
2315:Library resources
2162:978-0-521-74385-3
2137:978-0-393-92972-0
2109:978-0-471-72756-9
2096:Kempthorne, Oscar
1927:978-0-671-69500-2
1739:978-981-256-649-2
1680:978-981-4271-16-5
1551:Manhattan Project
1447:external validity
1438:
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1328:Field experiments
1257:quasi-experiments
1223:scientific method
1216:between the mean
1140:spectrophotometer
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961:validity concerns
953:experimenter bias
937:political science
916:(1900â1978), and
914:Gertrude Mary Cox
867:Antoine Lavoisier
757:systematic review
726:physical sciences
715:random assignment
661:scientific method
644:scientific method
588:
587:
554:Philosophy portal
462:Systematic review
447:Literature review
405:Historical method
388:Social experiment
323:Scientific method
308:Narrative inquiry
159:Interdisciplinary
153:Research strategy
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4942:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4922:
4920:Bioinformatics
4916:
4914:
4904:
4903:
4891:
4890:
4887:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4875:
4869:
4867:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4859:
4853:
4851:
4845:
4844:
4842:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4820:
4818:
4809:
4803:
4802:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4769:
4767:
4761:
4760:
4758:
4757:
4752:
4747:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4725:partial (PACF)
4716:
4714:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4686:
4681:
4675:
4673:
4672:Specific tests
4669:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4624:
4622:
4615:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4586:
4585:
4584:
4574:
4572:Classification
4569:
4564:
4559:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4538:
4536:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4519:McNemar's test
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4495:
4493:
4483:
4482:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4447:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4425:
4423:
4417:
4416:
4414:
4413:
4397:
4391:
4389:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4357:Semiparametric
4354:
4349:
4343:
4341:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4312:
4310:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4274:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4241:
4239:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4219:
4213:
4205:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4191:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4153:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4141:
4140:
4138:
4137:
4132:
4131:
4130:
4122:
4114:
4098:
4095:(MannâWhitney)
4090:
4089:
4088:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4062:
4060:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4028:
4023:
4020:(ShapiroâWilk)
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3987:
3981:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3969:
3961:
3952:
3940:
3934:
3932:Specific tests
3928:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3904:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3863:
3857:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3802:
3800:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3777:
3776:
3771:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3728:
3726:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3685:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3579:
3569:
3568:
3567:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3527:
3517:
3516:
3504:
3503:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3471:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3397:
3395:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3383:Standard error
3380:
3375:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3352:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3313:Optimal design
3310:
3305:
3299:
3297:
3287:
3286:
3274:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3186:
3184:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3152:
3147:
3141:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3113:
3111:
3110:Summary tables
3107:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3097:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3059:
3053:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3005:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2944:Contraharmonic
2941:
2936:
2925:
2923:
2914:
2904:
2903:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2887:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2865:
2864:
2857:
2850:
2842:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2807:
2802:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2733:
2725:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2701:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2677:
2675:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2617:
2609:
2608:
2600:
2595:
2587:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2568:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2503:
2501:
2490:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2454:Optimal design
2449:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2410:
2408:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2391:
2384:
2377:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2353:
2348:
2332:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:External links
2307:
2306:
2305:
2296:
2285:
2272:
2267:978-1107698000
2266:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2244:
2238:978-0521683579
2237:
2219:
2188:(4): 435â454.
2168:
2161:
2143:
2136:
2115:
2108:
2083:
2069:
2058:
2023:(4): 854â863.
2003:
1985:
1979:978-3540501015
1978:
1960:
1954:978-0393051551
1953:
1933:
1926:
1906:
1904:, p. 170.
1885:
1870:
1855:
1836:(2): 189â218.
1820:
1814:978-0521174558
1813:
1780:
1745:
1738:
1720:
1713:
1686:
1679:
1661:
1642:(1): 101â109.
1625:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1576:
1571:
1566:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1540:human subjects
1532:Main article:
1529:
1526:
1499:selection bias
1455:
1452:
1436:
1435:
1350:
1348:
1341:
1332:Main article:
1329:
1326:
1248:Main article:
1245:
1242:
1177:placebo effect
1117:standard curve
1079:
1078:
993:
991:
984:
968:
965:
925:
922:
850:Ibn al-Haytham
803:Book of Optics
794:Ibn al-Haytham
786:Main article:
783:
780:
753:test statistic
745:clinical trial
692:counterexample
656:
653:
586:
585:
583:
582:
575:
568:
560:
557:
556:
550:
549:
546:
545:
544:
543:
538:
533:
523:
522:
521:
516:
506:
501:
495:
492:
491:
488:
487:
484:
483:
478:
477:
476:
466:
465:
464:
459:
457:Scoping review
454:
449:
444:
434:
429:
428:
427:
417:
412:
407:
402:
400:Field research
397:
396:
395:
390:
385:
375:
374:
373:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
337:
334:
333:
330:
329:
326:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
300:
298:Historiography
295:
290:
285:
280:
275:
269:
264:
263:
260:
259:
256:
255:
254:
253:
251:Subtle realism
248:
238:
233:
231:Postpositivism
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
206:Constructivism
203:
201:Antipositivism
197:
192:
191:
188:
187:
184:
183:
178:
177:
176:
166:
161:
155:
152:
151:
148:
147:
144:
143:
142:
141:
136:
126:
121:
116:
110:
105:
104:
101:
100:
92:
91:
85:
84:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5206:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5171:
5169:
5154:
5153:
5144:
5142:
5141:
5132:
5130:
5129:
5124:
5118:
5116:
5115:
5106:
5105:
5102:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5082:Geostatistics
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5056:
5050:
5049:Psychometrics
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4912:Biostatistics
4909:
4905:
4901:
4896:
4892:
4874:
4873:Log-rank test
4871:
4870:
4868:
4864:
4858:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4850:
4846:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4804:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4766:
4762:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4744:(BoxâJenkins)
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4723:
4722:
4721:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4697:DurbinâWatson
4695:
4693:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4679:DickeyâFuller
4677:
4676:
4674:
4670:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4653:Cointegration
4651:
4649:
4646:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4628:Decomposition
4626:
4625:
4623:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4610:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4587:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4535:
4531:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4499:Cohen's kappa
4497:
4496:
4494:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4408:
4404:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4384:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4352:Nonparametric
4350:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4338:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4136:
4133:
4129:
4123:
4121:
4115:
4113:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4102:
4101:Nonparametric
4099:
4097:
4091:
4087:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4076:
4072:
4071:Sample median
4069:
4068:
4067:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4033:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3960:
3958:
3953:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3891:
3888:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3858:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3782:
3779:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3762:
3761:
3760:
3757:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3734:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3725:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3677:
3676:loss function
3674:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3651:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3617:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3609:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3574:
3573:
3570:
3566:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3509:
3505:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3390:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3378:Questionnaire
3376:
3374:
3371:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3205:Control chart
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3179:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
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2651:Compare means
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2534:Orthogonality
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2469:Randomization
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912:(1919â2000),
911:
908:(1894â1981),
907:
904:(1890â1962),
903:
902:Ronald Fisher
898:
896:
892:
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884:
883:Louis Pasteur
880:
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868:
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839:
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830:Francis Bacon
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762:
761:meta-analysis
758:
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514:Bibliometrics
512:
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452:Meta-analysis
450:
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442:Bibliometrics
440:
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314:
313:Phenomenology
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5024:Econometrics
4974: /
4957:Chemometrics
4934:Epidemiology
4927: /
4900:Applications
4742:ARIMA model
4689:Q-statistic
4638:Stationarity
4534:Multivariate
4477: /
4473: /
4471:Multivariate
4469: /
4409: /
4405: /
4179:Bayes factor
4078:Signed rank
3990:
3964:
3956:
3944:
3639:Completeness
3475:Cohort study
3392:
3373:Opinion poll
3308:Missing data
3295:Study design
3250:Scatter plot
3172:Scatter plot
3165:Spearman's Ï
3127:Grouped data
2774:
2760:
2742:Latin square
2728:
2704:
2680:
2641:
2637:
2630:multivariate
2629:
2625:
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2590:
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2099:
2072:
2066:Dunning 2012
2061:
2020:
2016:
2006:
1998:the original
1988:
1969:
1963:
1943:
1936:
1916:
1909:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1882:. p. 3.
1879:
1873:
1867:. p. 5.
1864:
1858:
1833:
1829:
1823:
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1783:
1758:
1754:
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1729:
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1699:
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1496:
1489:
1477:
1467:
1450:laboratory.
1439:
1424:
1415:
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1398:
1391:
1384:
1377:"Experiment"
1372:
1360:Please help
1355:verification
1352:
1310:paleontology
1279:
1273:
1253:
1235:
1207:
1188:
1183:double blind
1181:
1175:
1167:
1165:
1157:microbiology
1145:
1121:
1084:
1082:
1067:
1058:
1048:
1041:
1034:
1027:
1020:"Experiment"
1015:
1003:Please help
998:verification
995:
957:
930:
927:
906:Jerzy Neyman
899:
875:biochemistry
860:
855:
848:âsimilar to
828:
824:
819:
814:
809:
801:
791:
772:agricultural
765:
734:
719:
700:
681:
658:
640:measurements
629:
617:
591:
589:
377:
293:Hermeneutics
181:Quantitative
5174:Experiments
5152:WikiProject
5067:Cartography
5029:Jurimetrics
4981:Reliability
4712:Time domain
4691:(LjungâBox)
4613:Time-series
4491:Categorical
4475:Time-series
4467:Categorical
4402:(Bernoulli)
4237:Correlation
4217:Correlation
4013:JarqueâBera
3985:Chi-squared
3747:M-estimator
3700:Asymptotics
3644:Sufficiency
3411:Interaction
3323:Replication
3303:Effect size
3260:Violin plot
3240:Radar chart
3220:Forest plot
3210:Correlogram
3160:Kendall's Ï
2717:BoxâBehnken
2598:Mixed model
2529:Confounding
2524:Interaction
2514:Effect size
2484:Sample size
2345:Experiments
1902:Durant 2012
1485:confounding
1468:observables
1318:meteorology
1294:archaeology
1266:correlation
1203:test method
1193:(person) a
1149:statistical
1138:in which a
1134:assay is a
834:philosopher
730:replication
722:engineering
709:and/or, in
366:Ethnography
266:Methodology
221:Fallibilism
169:Qualitative
139:Referencing
62:David Scott
5168:Categories
5019:Demography
4737:ARMA model
4542:Regression
4119:(Friedman)
4080:(Wilcoxon)
4018:Normality
4008:Lilliefors
3955:Student's
3831:Resampling
3705:Robustness
3693:divergence
3683:Efficiency
3621:(monotone)
3616:Likelihood
3533:Population
3366:Stratified
3318:Population
3137:Dependence
3093:Count data
3024:Percentile
3001:Dispersion
2934:Arithmetic
2869:Statistics
2673:randomized
2671:Completely
2642:covariance
2404:Scientific
2320:Experiment
2128:Statistics
1604:Laboratory
1442:laboratory
1418:March 2019
1388:newspapers
1227:hypotheses
1214:difference
1061:March 2019
1031:newspapers
933:psychology
895:laboratory
881:(matter).
871:combustion
713:, through
684:hypothesis
673:hypotheses
627:sciences.
604:likelihood
596:hypothesis
592:experiment
541:Statistics
536:Simulation
474:Simulation
415:Interviews
378:Experiment
346:Case study
318:Pragmatism
236:Pragmatism
226:Positivism
216:Empiricism
60:Astronaut
4400:Logistic
4167:posterior
4093:Rank sum
3841:Jackknife
3836:Bootstrap
3654:Bootstrap
3589:Parameter
3538:Statistic
3333:Statistic
3245:Run chart
3230:Pie chart
3225:Histogram
3215:Fan chart
3190:Bar chart
3072:L-moments
2959:Geometric
2682:Factorial
2566:inference
2546:Covariate
2508:Treatment
2494:Treatment
2214:1047-1987
2053:231877717
2037:1745-6916
1850:123057532
1322:astronomy
1298:sociology
1286:economics
1218:responses
1161:chemistry
1105:replicate
941:variables
846:deduction
838:scientist
665:empirical
648:variables
174:Art-based
5179:Research
5114:Category
4807:Survival
4684:Johansen
4407:Binomial
4362:Isotonic
3949:(normal)
3594:location
3401:Blocking
3356:Sampling
3235:QâQ plot
3200:Box plot
3182:Graphics
3077:Skewness
3067:Kurtosis
3039:Variance
2969:Heronian
2964:Harmonic
2805:Category
2800:Glossary
2606:Bayesian
2584:Bayesian
2540:Blocking
2519:Contrast
2499:blocking
2459:Bayesian
2446:Blinding
2436:validity
2433:external
2429:Internal
2293:Excerpts
2098:(2008).
2045:33593177
1557:See also
1518:matching
1472:feedback
1268:between
1195:stimulus
1168:variable
1131:solution
739:and the
737:medicine
724:and the
677:theories
655:Overview
632:controls
600:efficacy
341:Analysis
134:Argument
124:Question
119:Proposal
89:Research
81:a series
79:Part of
5140:Commons
5087:Kriging
4972:Process
4929:studies
4788:Wavelet
4621:General
3788:Plug-in
3582:L space
3361:Cluster
3062:Moments
2880:Outline
2698:Taguchi
2666:Designs
2424:Control
1775:2289064
1644:Bibcode
1402:scholar
1314:ecology
1306:geology
1282:science
1208:In the
1199:measure
1191:subject
1124:protein
1101:control
1097:placebo
1085:control
1045:scholar
798:Ptolemy
782:History
659:In the
621:natural
420:Mapping
335:Methods
241:Realism
129:Writing
5009:Census
4599:Normal
4547:Manova
4367:Robust
4117:2-way
4109:1-way
3947:-test
3618:
3195:Biplot
2986:Median
2979:Lehmer
2921:Center
2738:(GRBD)
2638:Ancova
2626:Manova
2561:Models
2406:method
2317:about
2283:
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2235:
2212:
2159:
2134:
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2043:
2035:
1976:
1951:
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1865:Optics
1848:
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1773:
1736:
1711:
1677:
1528:Ethics
1404:
1397:
1390:
1383:
1375:
1320:, and
1261:system
1153:number
1111:and a
1047:
1040:
1033:
1026:
1018:
943:. The
924:Types
696:ad hoc
669:models
481:Survey
114:Ethics
4633:Trend
4162:prior
4104:anova
3993:-test
3967:-test
3959:-test
3866:Power
3811:Pivot
3604:shape
3599:scale
3049:Shape
3029:Range
2974:Heinz
2949:Cubic
2885:Index
2730:Block
2358:from
2049:S2CID
1846:S2CID
1771:JSTOR
1621:Notes
1409:JSTOR
1395:books
1127:assay
1052:JSTOR
1038:books
625:human
4866:Test
4066:Sign
3918:Wald
2991:Mode
2929:Mean
2564:and
2497:and
2431:and
2281:ISBN
2262:ISBN
2233:ISBN
2210:ISSN
2157:ISBN
2132:ISBN
2104:ISBN
2041:PMID
2033:ISSN
1974:ISBN
1949:ISBN
1922:ISBN
1894:then
1809:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1709:ISBN
1675:ISBN
1505:and
1462:The
1381:news
1159:and
1024:news
975:and
873:and
836:and
759:and
623:and
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4041:AIC
2200:hdl
2190:doi
2025:doi
1838:doi
1763:doi
1705:3â4
1652:doi
1478:An
1364:by
1274:not
1007:by
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735:In
720:In
671:or
602:or
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2186:27
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1759:81
1757:.
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1689:^
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1640:33
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2192::
2165:.
2140:.
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2080:.
2055:.
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