882:). Himmler however only made this call at 1:30 in the afternoon that Sunday, and by that time, the people on the train were dead. What had happened was that there was no housing for the deported German Jews when they arrived in Riga, so the Nazis left them on the train. The next morning, the Nazis ran the trainload of people down to the Rumbula station. They took the people off the train, marched them the short distance to the crime scene and shot them all between 8:15 and 9:00 a.m. They were the first group murdered that day. The Nazi euphemism for this crime was that the 1,000 Berlin Jews had been "disposed of." Thereafter, on December 1, and, in a personal conference on December 4, 1941, Himmler issued strict instructions to Jeckeln that no mass murders of deported German Jews were to occur without his express orders: "The Jews deported into the territory of the Ostland are to be dealt with only according to the guideline given by me and the Reich Security Main Office acting on my behalf. I will punish unilateral acts and violations."
1205:
Ezergailis, this time 300 Jews were murdered in forcing people out of the ghetto. (Another source reports that the brutality in the Ghetto was worse on
December 8 than on November 30.). It was snowing that Monday, and the people may have believed that the worst had passed. Even so, the columns were formed up and marched out of the city just as on Sunday, November 30, but with some differences. The 20 kilogram packs were not carried to the site, as they had been on November 30, but were left in the ghetto. Their owners were told that their luggage would be carried on by truck to the fictitious point of departure for resettlement. Mothers with small children and older people were told they could ride by sleigh, and sleighs were in fact available. At least two policemen who had played some role in the November 30 massacre refused to participate again on December 8. These were the German Zimmermann and the Latvian Vilnis. The march itself was fast-paced and brutal. Many people were trampled to death.
1262:, a well known Jewish writer, historian and activist. Dubnow had fled Berlin in 1933 when the Nazis took power, seeking safety in Riga. On December 8, 1941, too ill to be marched to the forest, he was murdered in the ghetto. and was buried in a mass grave. Kaufmann states that after November 30, Professor Dubnow was brought to live with the families of the Jewish policemen at 56 Ludzas Street. On December 8, the brutal Latvian guard overseer Alberts Danskop came to the house and asked Dubnow if he was a member of the policemen's families. Dubnow said he was not and Danskop forced him out of the house to join one of the columns that was marching past at the time. Uproar broke out in the house and one of the Jewish policemen, whom Kaufmann reports to have been a German who had won the Iron Cross, rushed out to try and save Dubnow, but it was too late.
568:
1289:
their turn came to be murdered. One of the first trains to arrive in Riga was called the "Bielefeld
Transport." Once the German Jews arrived on the Riga transports in December, 1941, they were sent to the ghetto, where they found that the houses had obviously been left in a hurry. The furnishings in the residences were in great disarray and some were stained with blood. Frozen but cooked food was on the tables, and baby carriages with bottles of frozen milk were outside in the snow. On a wall a German family found the words written "Mama, farewell." Years later, a German survivor, then a child, remembers being told "Latvians lived here", with no mention they were Jews. Another German survivor, Ruth Foster, recounted what she had heard about the massacre:
1175:
German soldiers with whom they were acquainted to go to the ghetto to see what happened. These soldiers did go, but could not gain admission to the ghetto itself. From a distance, they could still see "many horrible things". They reported these facts to the Jews of the work detachments, who asked them to be released early from work to see to their families. At 14:00 hours this request was granted, at least for a few of the men, and they returned to the ghetto. They found the streets scattered with things, which they were directed to collect and carry to the guardhouse. They also found a small bundle which turned out to be a living child, a baby aged about four weeks. A Latvian guard took the child away. Kaufmann believed the child's murder was a certainty.
29:
847:
of 1,000 people each near the ghetto gate for evacuation from the ghetto. The people living closest to the gate would be the first to depart. Kaufmann doesn't describe a specific order separating the able-bodied men from the rest of the people. Instead he states that "the larger work crews were told they had the possibility of staying in the newly formed small camp and rejoining their families later. According to
Kaufmann, while the columns of 1,000 were formed on the morning of the 29th, they were later dispersed, causing relief among the inhabitants, who believed that the entire evacuation had been cancelled. 300 women seamstresses were also selected and moved to the Central Prison from the ghetto.
907:
is, towards
Rumbula), squads of the SD, the Protective Police, the Araji commando, and about 80 Jewish ghetto police rousted people from their sleep and told them to report for assembly in half an hour. Max Kaufmann describes the raid as beginning in the middle of the night on the 29th. He describes "thousands" of "absolutely drunk" Germans and Latvians invading the ghettos, bursting into apartments, and hunting down the occupants while shouting wildly. He states that children were thrown from third floor windows. Detachments cut special openings in the fence to allow more rapid access to the highway south to the forest site. (Detailed maps of the ghetto are provided by Ezergailis and Kaufmann.)
898:. Another reason may have been that Himmler hesitated to carry out the execution of German Jews for fear of the effect that it might have on the attitude of the United States, which as of November 30, 1941, was not yet at war with Germany. Professor Browning attributes the order and the fact that, with two significant exceptions, in general further transports of Jews to Riga from Germany did not result in immediate mass execution, to Himmler's concern over some of the issues raised by the shooting of German (as opposed to native) Jews and the desire to postpone the same until it could be in greater secrecy and at a time when less controversy might arise among the Nazis themselves.
624:
595:, who later claimed he was shocked when he learned in advance of the number of people to be murdered, nevertheless made no objection at the time and proceeded to supervise the digging of six murder pits, sufficient to bury 25,000 people. The actual excavation of the pits was done by 200 or 300 Russian prisoners of war. The pits themselves were purpose-designed: they were excavated in levels, like an inverted pyramid, with the broader levels towards the top, and a ramp down to the different levels to allow the victims to be literally marched into their own graves. It took about three days to finish the pits which were complete by November 23, 1941.
843:
6:00 a.m. on
November 30 to a different area for "light work" with no more than a 20-kilogram (44 lb) bag. The reaction among the Jews was one of horror. In July and August, it was the men of Latvia who were shot first, while the women and children were allowed to live, at least for a time. The order for the men to separate themselves from their families was thus perceived as a prerequisite for the murder of the men, the arrangements between Rosenberg and Himmler having been made without their knowledge. By the morning of Saturday, November 29, the Nazis had finished segregating the able-bodied men into the small ghetto.
1135:
indeed
Latvian and had been adopted as a child by Jews. The others were Jewish. One of them hoped for support from her first husband, Army Lieutenant Skuja. Asked on the telephone about her nationality, he answered that she was a Jew and he was not interested in her fate. She was murdered. The second woman received no mercy from Jeckeln, because she was the Latvian wife of a Jew engaged in Judaic studies. With this answer she signed her death warrant, for Jeckeln decided she was "tainted by Judaism." Only the third girl, Ella Medalje, was clever enough to give Jeckeln plausible answers and thus escaped with her life.
347:, which means Crow Forest in English. The sounds of gun fire could be heard from the highway. The German occupation authorities carried out a number of other massacres on the north bank of the Daugava in the Rumbula vicinity. The soil was sandy and it was easy to dig graves. While the surrounding pine woods were sparse, there was a heavily forested area in the center which became the execution site. The rail line and highway made it easy to move the victims in from Riga (it had to be within walking distance of the Riga Ghetto on the southeast side of the city), as well as transport the shooters and their weapons.
783:, the head of the protective police. He told his men they would have to report the next morning at 4:00 a.m. to carry out a "resettlement" of the people in the Riga ghetto. Although "resettlement" was a Nazi euphemism for mass murder, Heisse and a majority of men of the participating Protective Police knew the true nature of the action. Final instructions were also passed to the Latvian militia and police who would be rounding up people in the ghetto and acting as guards along the way. The Latvian police were told they would be moving the Jews to the Rumbula station for transport to a resettlement camp.
2045:
Einsatzgruppen leaders encountered a difficulty they had not anticipated. Many of the enlisted men were husbands and fathers, and they winced as they pulled their triggers on these helpless creatures who reminded them of their own wives and offspring at home. In this emotional disturbance they often aimed badly and it was necessary for the
Kommando leaders to go about with a revolver or carbine, firing into the moaning and writhing forms." This situation was reported to the RSHA in Berlin, and to relieve the emotional sensitivity of the executioners, gas vans were sent as an additional killing system.
1102:, Hesfer, Otto Tuchel, and Neuman, among others. There were still the hundreds of bodies left from the morning's forced evacuation. A squad of able-bodied Jews was delegated to pick them up and take them to the Jewish cemetery using sleds, wheelbarrows and horse carts. Not every one who had been shot down in the streets was dead; those still alive were finished off by the Arajs commando. Individual graves were not dug at the cemetery. Instead, using dynamite, the Germans blew out a large crater in the ground, into which the dead were dumped without ceremony.
480:, wanted not so much to exterminate the Jews but rather to steal all their property, confine them to ghettos, and use them as slave laborers for Germany's war effort. This bureaucratic conflict slowed down the pace of the killings in September and October 1941. Lohse, as part of the "civil administration" was perceived by the SD as resisting their plans. On November 15, 1941, Lohse asked for directions from Rosenberg as to whether all Jews were to be murdered "regardless of economic considerations." By the end of October, Lohse had confined all the Jews of
507:
971:
evening there had been a snowfall of 7 cm (2.8 in), but no snow fell on
November 30 from 07:00 to 21:00. The people could not keep up the pace demanded by the guards and the column kept stretching out. The guards murdered anyone who fell out of the column or stopped to rest along the 10-kilometer (6.2 mi) march route. German guards, when later tried for war crimes, claimed it was the Latvians who did most of the killing. In Latvia, however, there were stories about Latvian policemen refusing orders to shoot people.
821:, a Major General of Engineers, learned on November 28 that planned mass executions would soon take place in Riga. Bruns sent a report to his superiors, then urged a certain "administrative officer", named Walter Altemeyer to postpone the action until Bruns could receive a response. Altemeyer told Bruns that the operation was being carried out pursuant to a "FĂźhrer-order". Bruns then sent out two officers to observe and report. Advance word of the planned murders reached the Wehrmacht intelligence office ("
776:
exterminate the Jews of the Riga ghetto, just as much as if they were on the front lines of the battles then currently raging far to the east. Officers also later claimed that
Jeckeln told them that failure to participate in the murders would be considered the equivalent of desertion, and that all HSSPF personnel who would not be participating in the action were required to attend the extermination site as official witnesses. No Latvian officials were present at the November 29 Ritterhaus meeting.
980:
the wood. They were then marched towards the murder pits. If there were too many people arriving to be readily murdered immediately, they were held in the nearby forest until their turn came. As the piles of clothing became huge, members of the Arajs
Commando loaded the articles on trucks to be transported back to Riga. The disrobing point was watched carefully by the killers, because it was here that there was a pause in the conveyor-like system, where resistance or rebellion might arise.
1392:
1217:... we encountered the first evacuees. We slowed down. They were walking quite calmly, and hardly a sound was heard. The first person in the procession we met was Mrs. Pola Schmulian * * * Her head was deeply bowed and she seemed to be in despair. I also saw other acquaintances of mine among the people marching; the Latvians would occasionally beat one or another of them with truncheons. * * * On the way, I counted six murdered people who were lying with their faces in the snow.
1231:
certain the German army had played a role in the Rumbula massacre.) They drove on that day down the highway past Rumbula to the Salaspils concentration camp, to investigate a rumor that the Jews had been evacuated to that point. At the camp they encountered Russian prisoners of war, but no Jews from Riga. The prisoners told them that they knew nothing about the Jews. Frida Michelson had been marched out with the column, and she described the forest as being surrounded by a ring of
1457:
1833:
to be evacuated and residential space in Riga is very crowded, 24,000 of the 28,000 Jews living in Riga have been transferred into the Ghetto so far. In creating the Ghetto, the Security Police restricted themselves to mere policing duties, while the establishment and administration of the Ghetto as well as the regulation of the food supply for the inmates of the Ghetto were left to Civil Administration; the Labor Offices were left in charge of Jewish labor."
1748:
influences on the Latvian auxiliary to set in motion a pogrom against Jews also in Riga. During this pogrom all synagogues were destroyed and about 400 Jews were murdered. As the population of Riga quieted down quickly, further pogroms were not convenient. So far as possible, both in Kowno and in Riga evidence by film and photo was established that the first spontaneous executions of Jews and Communists were carried out by Lithuanians and Latvians.
950:
SS man started firing with an automatic gun point blank into the crowd. People were mowed down by the shots, and fell on the cobblestones. There was confusion in the column. People were trampling over those who had fallen, they were pushing forward, away from the wildly shooting SS man. Some were throwing away their packs so they could run faster. The Latvian policemen were shouting 'Faster, faster' and lashing whips over the heads of the crowd.
559:. Back in Berlin, Rosenberg, Lohse's superior in the Nazi hierarchy, was able to get one concession out of Himmler, that slave labor extracted from male Jews aged 16â60 would be considered too important to Germany's war effort. Consequently, these people would be spared, while women, children, old and disabled people would be shot. Jeckeln's plan for carrying out this segregation of the victims came to be known as the "Little Ghetto".
339:. Located on a hill about 250 meters (820 ft) from the station, the massacre site was a "rather open and accessible place". The view was blocked by vegetation, but the sound of gunfire would have been audible from the station grounds. The area lay between the rail line and the Riga-Daugavpils highway, with the rail line to the north of the highway. Rumbula was part of a forest and swamp area known in
1317:
2020:(sardine packing). When this method was employed, the victims climbed into the grave and lay down on the bottom. Cross fire from above dispatched them. Then another batch of victims was ordered into the grave, positioning themselves on top of the corpses in a head-to-foot configuration. They too were murdered by cross-fire from above. The procedure continued until the grave was full."
911:
about 1,000 people were formed and marched out. The first column was led by the lawyer, Dr. Eljaschow. "The expression on his face showed no disquiet whatsoever; on the contrary, because everyone was looking at him, he made an effort to smile hopefully." Next to Dr. Eljaschow was Rabbi Zack. Other well-known citizens of Riga were in the columns. Among the guards were Altmeyer, Jäger, and
362:
2852:. p. 113, reporting statement of Ezra Jurmann: "We arrived in the ghetto and were taken to a group of houses which had obviously been left in a hurry: there was complete turmoil, they were completely deserted and they had not been heated. In a pantry there was a pot of potatoes frozen solid. ... Complete chaos. Ominous. On the walls, a message said, 'Mama, farewell.'"
954:... I stood by the window and watched until about midday when the horror of the march ended ... . Now the street was quiet, nothing moved. Corpses were scattered all over, rivulets of blood still oozing from the lifeless bodies. They were mostly old people, pregnant women, children, handicapped -- all those who could not keep up with the inhuman tempo of the march.
1275:
work. Whoever they found in hiding was taken out to the Biġernieki forest, on the northeast side of Riga, in blue buses borrowed from the Riga municipal authorities, where they were murdered and buried in mass graves. About 500 people were murdered in this operation. As with the Rumbula murders, evacuations from the ghetto ceased at 12 noon.
1823:: "Clarification of the Jewish question has most likely been achieved by now through verbal discussions. Economic considerations should fundamentally remain unconsidered in the settlement of the problem. Moreover, it is requested that questions arising be settled directly with the Senior SS and Police Leaders.
886:
before the Rumbula massacre, mass murders of German Jews upon or shortly after arrival in the East had been carried out in Kaunas, Lithuania, on November 25 and 29, 1941, when the SiPo murdered 5,000 German and Austrian Jews who had arrived on transports on November 11, including some 1,000 Jews from Berlin.
2790:. p. 262: "A few months later, on June 26, 1942, SS ObersturmfĂźhrer Heinz Ballensiefen, head of the Jewish section of Amt VII (research) in the RSHA, informed his colleagues that in Riga his men had secured ("sichergestellt") about 45 boxes containing the archive and library of the Jewish historian Dubnow.
2029:
The Tribunal's judgment states (p. 444): "In some instances, the slain persons did not fall into the graves, and the executioners were then compelled to exert themselves to complete the job of interment. A method, however, was found to avoid this additional exertion by simply having the victims enter
1832:
Stahlecker report, at 987: "In Riga the so-called "Moskau suburb" was designated as a Ghetto. This is the worst dwelling district of Riga, already now mostly inhabited by Jews. The transfer of the Jews into the Ghetto-district proved rather difficult because the Latvians dwelling in that district had
1747:
Stahlecker report, at 984-85: "It proved much more difficult to set in motion similar cleansing actions in Latvia. Essentially the reason was that the whole of the national stratum of leaders had been assassinated or destroyed by the Soviets, especially in Riga. It was possible though through similar
1288:
In December 1941, the Nazis continued issuing directions to Jews in Germany that they were to report to be deported to the East. For most of these people, because of Himmler's change of plan (as shown in his "keine Liquiderung" telephone call) they would get a year or two of life in a ghetto before
1265:
According to another account, Dubnow's killer was a German who had been a former student. A rumor, which later grew into a legend, stated that Dubnow said to the Jews present at the last moments of his life: "If you survive, never forget what is happening here, give evidence, write and rewrite, keep
1254:
Of the 12,000 people forced out of the ghetto to Rumbula that day, three known survivors later gave accounts: Frida Michelson, Elle Madale, and Matiss Lutrins. Michelson survived by pretending to be dead as victims discarded heaps of shoes on her. Elle Madale claimed to be a Latvian. Matiss Lutrins,
1239:
As we came to the forest we heard shooting again. This was the horrible portent of our future. If I had any doubts about the intentions of our tormenters, they were all gone now. ... We were all numb with terror and followed orders mechanically. We were incapable of thinking and were submitting to
1174:
The men in the newly created small ghetto were sent out to their work stations that Sunday, as they had been the day before. On the way, they saw the columns formed up for the march to Rumbula, and they heard weeping, screaming, and shooting, but they could learn no details. The men asked some of the
949:
It was already beginning to get light. An unending column of people, guarded by armed policemen, was passing by. Young women, women with infants in their arms, old women, handicapped helped by their neighbors, young boys and girls -- all marching, marching. Suddenly, in front of our window, a German
712:
Russian submachine guns (another source says semi-automatic pistols) were used rather than German arms, because the magazine held 50 rounds and the weapon could be set to fire one round at a time. This also allowed some deniability because should the bodies be discovered, the claim could be made that
598:
The actual shooting was done by 10 or 12 men of Jeckeln's bodyguard, including Endl, Lueschen, and Wedekind, all experienced murderers. Much later, Jeckeln's driver, Johannes Zingler, claimed in testimony that Jeckeln had forced him to join in as a killer by making threats to harm Zingler's family.
1274:
Some Jews who were not able-bodied working men were able to escape from the mass actions on November 30 and December 8 and hide in the new "small ghetto". On December 9, 1941, the Nazis began a third massacre, this time in the small ghetto. They searched through the ghetto while the men were out at
1204:
Jeckeln seems to have wanted to continue the murders on December 1, but did not. Professor Ezergailis proposed that Jeckeln may have been bothered by problems such as the resistance of the Jews in Riga. In any case, the killing did not resume until Monday, December 8, 1941. According to Professor
1022:
A: All of the Jews went by foot from the ghetto in Riga to the liquidation site. Near the pits, they had to deposit their overclothes, which were washed, sorted, and shipped back to Germany. Jews – men, women, and children – passed through police cordons on their way to
936:
states that "although Arajs' men were not the only ones on the ghetto end of the operation, to the degree they participated in the atrocities there the chief responsibility rests on Herberts Cukurs' shoulders." Ezergailis later retracted his interpretations that Cukurs had personally participated in
906:
When the columns were dispersed on Saturday, November 29, the ghetto inhabitants believed, to their relief, that there would be no evacuation. This proved wrong. The first action in the ghetto began at 4:00 a.m., well before dawn, on Sunday, November 30, 1941. Working from west to east (that
846:
Ghetto survivor Max Kaufmann described the scene somewhat differently, writing that on Thursday morning, November 27, a large poster was put up on Sadornika Street in the ghetto, which said, among other things, that on Saturday, November 29, 1941, all inmates of the ghetto were to form up in columns
734:
Jeckeln had at his direct disposal 10 to 12 automobiles and 6 to 8 motorcycles. This was enough to transport the killers themselves and certain official witnesses. Jeckeln needed more and heavier transport for the sick, disabled or other of his intended victims who could not make the 10 kilometers
2015:
Rubenstein and Roth describe Jeckeln's system (p. 179): "In the western Ukraine, SS General Friedrich Jeckeln notices that the haphazard arrangement of the corpses meant an inefficient use of burial space. More graves would have to be dug than absolutely necessary. Jeckeln solved the problem. He
1134:
Four young women initially escaped the bullets. Naked and trembling, they stood before their murderers' gun barrels and screamed in extreme mortal agony that they were Latvians, not Jews. They were believed and taken back to the city. The next morning Jeckeln himself decided their fate. One was
1115:
The pit itself was still alive; bleeding and writhing bodies were regaining consciousness. ... Moans and whimpers could be heard well into the night. There were people who had been only slightly wounded, or not hit at all; they crawled out of the pit. Hundreds must have smothered under the weight
587:
To fulfill Himmler's order to clear out the Ghetto, Jeckeln would need to kill 12,000 people per day. At that time of year, there were only about eight hours of day and twilight, so, the last column of victims would have to leave the Riga ghetto no later than 12:00 noon. Guards would be posted on
1110:
By the end of the first day about 13,000 people had been shot but not all were dead. Kaufman reported that "the earth still heaved for a long time because of the many half-dead people." Wounded naked people were wandering about as late as 11:00 am the next day, seeking help but getting none. In
1034:
The shooters fired from the brink of the smaller pits. For the larger pits, they walked down in the graves among the dead and dying to shoot additional victims. Captain Otto Schulz-Du Bois, of the Engineer Reserves of the German Army, was in the area on bridge and road inspection duties, when he
991:
The victims were made to lie face down on top of those who had already been shot and were still writhing and heaving, oozing blood, stinking of brains and excrement. With their Russian automatic weapons set on single shots, the marksmen murdered the Jews from a distance of about two meters with a
979:
The first column of people arrived at Rumbula at about 9:00 am on November 30. The people were ordered to disrobe and deposit their clothing and valuables in designated locations and collection boxes, shoes in one, overcoats in another, and so forth. Luggage was deposited before the Jews entered
724:
The killers forced the victims to lie face down on the trench floor, or more often, on the bodies of the people who had just been shot. The people were not sprayed with bullets. Rather, to save ammunition, each person was shot just once, in the back of the head. Anyone not murdered outright was
614:
Jeckeln had no Latvians carrying out shootings. Jeckeln considered the shooting of the victims in the pits to be a deed of marksmanship, and he wanted to prove Germans were inherently more accurate shooters than Latvians. Jeckeln also didn't trust other agencies, even Nazi ones, to carry out his
530:
The Nazis wanted to eliminate the Latvian Jews in Riga to make room for Jews from Germany and Austria to be deported to the Riga ghetto. Similarly motivated mass murders of eastern Jews confined to ghettos were carried out at Kovno on October 28, 1941 (10,000 dead), and at Minsk, where 13,000 were
1779:
Stahlecker report, at 987: "In this connection it may be mentioned that some authorities at the Civil Administration offered resistance, at times even a strong one, against the carrying out of larger executions. This resistance was answered by calling attention to the fact that it was a matter of
1293:
We found out later that three days before we arrived, they murdered 30,000 Latvian Jews who came into the Ghetto from Riga and the surrounding towns. They herded them into a nearby forest where previously the Russian prisoners of war had dug graves for them, they had to undress completely, leave
1208:
Max Kaufmann, one of the men among the work crews in the small ghetto, was anxious to know what was happening to the people marched out on December 8. He organized, through bribery, an expedition by truck ostensibly to gather wood, but actually to follow the columns and learn their destination.
1097:
Karl Heise returned from Rumbula to the Riga ghetto by about 1:00 p.m. There he discovered that about 20 Jews too sick to be moved had been taken not to the murder site but rather to the hospital. Heise ordered they be taken out of the hospital, placed on the street on straw mattresses and
1039:
The first thing he came upon was a huge heap of clothes, then men, women, children and elderly people standing in a line and dressed in their underclothing. The head of the line ended in a small wood by a mass gravesite. Those first in line had to leap into the pit and then were murdered with a
1006:
The shooting continued past sundown into the twilight, probably ending at about 5:00 p.m., when darkness fell. (The evidence is in conflict about when the shooting ended. One source says the shooting went on well into the evening.) Their aim may have been worsened by the twilight, as German
842:
On about November 27, 1941 a four-block area of the Riga ghetto was cordoned off with barbed wire, and this area became known as the "small ghetto". On November 28, the Nazis issued an order requiring the able-bodied men to move to the small ghetto and the rest of the population was to report at
1724:
Stahlecker, report, at 986: "In Latvia as well the Jews participated in acts of sabotage and arson after the invasion of the German Armed Forces. In Duensburg so many fires were lighted by the Jews that a large part of the town was lost. The electric power station burnt down to a mere shell. The
1485:
On the road leading into the forest, a stone marker next to a large metal sculpture states that thousands of people were driven to their deaths along this road and at the entrance to the memorial grounds, stone plaques are inscribed in four languages – Latvian, Hebrew, English and
1230:
Kaufmann noticed machine guns set closely together in the snow near the woods, and sixty to eighty soldiers, whom he identified as being from the German army. The soldier who was driving the truck stated the machine guns were posted just to prevent escapes. (In his book, Kaufmann stated he was
910:
Even though the able-bodied men were gone, people still resisted being forced out of their dwellings and tried to desert from the columns as they moved through the eastern part of the ghetto. The Germans murdered 600 to 1,000 people in the process of forcing out the people. Eventually columns of
885:
Jeckeln claimed at his post-war trial that he'd received orders from Himmler on November 10 or 11, that "all the Jews in the Ostland down to the last man must be exterminated." Jeckeln might well have believed that murdering the German Jews on the Riga transport was what Himmler wished, for just
850:
Professor Ezergailis states that while the men were at work, the Nazis culled the able-bodied men from those left in the ghetto, and once the work crews returned, the same process was employed again on the returning workers. The total, about 4,000 able-bodied men, were sent to the newly created
1157:
Ludzas street in the center of the ghetto was full of murdered people. Their blood flowed in the gutters. In the houses there were also countless people who had been shot. Slowly people began to pick them up. The lawyer Wittenberg had taken this holy task upon himself, and he mobilized the
970:
The first column of people, accompanied by about 50 guards, left the ghetto at 06:00 hours. On November 30, 1941, the air temperatures recorded at Riga were â7.5 °C (18.5 °F) at 07:00 hours, â1.1 °C (30.0 °F) at 09:00, and 1.9 °C (35.4 °F) at 21:00. The previous
804:
Professor Ezergailis questioned whether the Latvian police might have had a better idea of what was actually going to happen, this being their native country, but he also noted contrary evidence including misleading instructions given to the Latvian police by the Germans, and the giving of
775:
Jeckeln convened a second planning session of senior commanders on the afternoon of Saturday, November 29, 1941, this time at the Ritterhaus. According to later versions given by those in attendance, Jeckeln gave a speech to these officers to the effect that it was their patriotic duty to
1580:. p. 163: "Aktion Jeckeln, named after its commander, Hoeherer SS- und PolizeifĂźhrer Friedrich Jeckeln. Undertaken in the Riga ghetto, the Aktion took place between November 30 and December 7, 1941. During the Aktion some 25,000 Jews were transported to the Rumbula Forest and murdered."
599:
In similar massacres in Russia and the Ukraine, however, there were many accounts contrary to Zingler's, to the effect that participation was voluntary, and even sometimes sought after, and that those who refused to take part in shootings suffered no adverse consequences. In particular,
2044:
According to the judgment of the Tribunal in the Einsatzgruppen case (p. 448): "It was stated in the early part of this opinion that women and children were to be executed with the men so that Jews, gypsies, and so-called asocials would be exterminated for all time. In this respect, the
1035:
heard "intermittent but persistent reports of gunfire". Schulz-Du Bois stopped to investigate, and because security was weak, was able to observe the murders. A few months later he described what he saw to friends in Germany, who in 1980 reported what Schulz-Du Bois had told them:
635:
searched the Riga vicinity to find a site. Riga was located in a swampy area where the water table was close to ground level. This would interfere with the proper disposal of thousands of corpses. Jeckeln needed elevated ground. The site also had to be on the north side of the
1184:
952:... The columns of people were moving on and on, sometimes at a half run, marching, trotting, without end. There one, there another, would fall and they would walk right over them, constantly being urged on by the policemen, 'Faster, faster', with their whips and rifle butts.
2032:'The people were executed by a shot in the neck. The corpses were buried in a large tank ditch. The candidates for execution were already standing or kneeling in the ditch. One group had scarcely been shot before the next came and laid themselves on the corpses there.'"
735:(6.2 mi) march. Jeckeln also anticipated there would be a significant number of people murdered along the march route, and he would need about 25 trucks to pick up the bodies. Consequently, he ordered his men to scrounge through Riga to locate suitable vehicles.
1857:, pp. 99â100: "There can be no doubt that the Higher SS and Police Leader Friedrich Jeckeln received the KVK First Class with swords in recognition of his faithful performance: his organization of the mass shootings in Riga, 'on orders from the highest level' (
2313:'The Higher SS and Police leader in Riga, SS Obergruppenfuehrer Jeckeln, has meanwhile embarked on a shooting action and on Sunday, the 30 November 1941, about 4,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto and an evacuation transport from the Reich were disposed of." (NO-3257)
1380:
In 1943, apparently concerned about leaving evidence behind, Himmler ordered that the bodies at Rumbula be dug up and burned. This work was done by a detachment of Jewish slave laborers. Persons travelling on the railway could readily smell the burning corpses.
1357:
to the so-called Jewish question. The Nazis did not find shootings to be a feasible method of murdering millions of people, in particular because it was observed that even SS troops were uncomfortable about shooting assimilated German Jews as opposed to
434:
against the Jews. They spread rumors that Jews were responsible for widespread arson and other crimes, and also reported this to their superiors. This policy of incitement to what the Nazis called "self-cleansing actions" was a failure acknowledged by
919:
The Latvian murderer Cukurs got out of a car wearing a pistol (Nagant) in a leather holster at his side. He went to the Latvian guards to give them various instructions. He had certainly been informed in detail about the great catastrophe that awaited
2310:
The Einsatzgruppen judgment stated (p. 418): "In time the authors of the reports apparently tired of the word 'shot' so, within the narrow compass of expression allowed in a military report, some variety was added. A report originating in Latvia read
829:, which in summary instructed the Riga Abwehr that "it is unworthy of an intelligence officer to be party to, or even present at interrogations or maltreatments". By "interrogations and maltreatments", Canaris was referring to the planned massacre.
2834:. p. 282: "As early as October 1941 Jews had been sent from Berlin and other Reich cites to the already hopelessly overcrowed Lodz ghetto. Before the end of the year deportations had followed to ghettos in the Baltic states and White Russia."
2177:
Max Kaufmann, a ghetto survivor, reported one "Altmeyer" as one of the guards forming up the columns of Jews in the ghetto on the morning of November 30, but whether this is the same person with whom Bruns spoke is not clear from the sources.
644:
concentration camp (then under construction), and it fitted what he was looking for. The site was close to Riga, it was on elevated ground, and it had sandy soil, with the only drawback being its proximity to the highway (about 100 meters).
1294:
their clothes in neat order, and then they had to go to the edge of the pits where they were mown down with machine guns. So when we came to the Riga Ghetto, we lived in the houses where those poor people had been driven out and murdered.
1702:
Stahlecker report, at 985: "Special detachments reinforced by selected units -- in Lithuania partisan detachments, in Latvia units of the Latvian auxiliary police -- therefore performed extensive executions both in the towns and in rural
1388:, who was a child during World War II, spoke at a 60-year anniversary memorial service about the destruction of the bodies: "We could smell the smoke coming from Rumbula, where corpses were being dug up and burnt to erase the evidence."
889:
Professor Fleming suggests several reasons for Himmler's "no liquidation" order. On board the train were 40 to 45 people who were considered "cases of unjustified evacuation", meaning they were either elderly or had been awarded the
851:
small ghetto. Kaufmann states that after returning from work on the 29th, he and his son, then aged 16, would not return to the large ghetto, but were housed instead in a ruined building on Vilanu Street in the small ghetto.
677:, himself a prolific killer, objected to Jeckeln's techniques according to his testimony at his post-war trial for crimes against humanity. Jeckeln had staff which specialized in each separate part of the process, including
547:
where sometime between November 10 and November 12, 1941, he met with Himmler. Himmler told Jeckeln to kill the entire Riga ghetto and to instruct Lohse, should he object, that this was an order of Himmler's and also of
2094:
case states (p. 444): "In fact, one defendant did not exclude the possibility that an executee could only seem to be dead because of shock or temporary unconsciousness. In such cases it was inevitable he would be buried
467:
which can be translated as "Jew free." By October 15, 1941, the Nazis had murdered up to 30,000 of the approximately 66,000 Jews that had not been able to flee the country before the German occupation was completed.
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pistol bullet in the head. Six SS men were busy with this grisly chore. The victims maintained a perfect composure. There were no outcries, only light sobbing and crying, and saying soothing words to the children.
1255:
a mechanic, persuaded some Latvian truck drivers to allow him and his wife (whom the Germans later found and murdered) to hide under a truckload of clothing from the victims that was being hauled back into Riga.
3554:, "Comprehensive Report of Einsatzgruppe A Operations up to 15 October 1941", Exhibit L-180, translated in part and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality,
1421:
served four years in a British POW camp after the war, but avoided detection for years in West Germany. He was finally found and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1979, and died in solitary confinement in 1988.
3522:
Brätigam, Otto, Memorandum dated 18 Dec. 1941, "Jewish Question re correspondence of 15 Nov. 1941" translated and reprinted in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel For Prosecution of Axis Criminality,
983:
The people were then marched down the ramps into the pits, in single file ten at time, on top of previously shot victims, many of whom were still alive. Some people wept, others prayed and recited the
555:
Jeckeln then went to Riga and explained the situation to Lohse, who raised no further objection. By mid-November 1941, Jeckeln had set himself up in a building in the old section of Riga known as the
1899:, p. 241: "On November 12, Jeckeln received his order from Himmler to kill the Jews of the Riga ghetto." Other sources give the date of Himmler's order as November 10 or November 11. Fleming,
878:
was also Jeckeln's boss. According to Himmler's telephone log, his order to Heydrich was that the Jews on the transport from Berlin were not to be murdered, or in the Nazi terminology, "liquidated" (
867:
decided he did not want these German Jews murdered immediately; his plan instead was to house them in the Riga Ghetto in the dwellings to be made available from the murder of the Latvian Jews.
307:. The word "Aktion", which translates literally to action or operation in English, was used by the Nazis as a euphemism for murder. For Rumbula, the official euphemism was "shooting action" (
669:
commanders at Nuremberg Military Tribunal, as a means of avoiding the extra work associated with having to push the bodies into the grave. It was reported that even some of the experienced
757:) to coordinate their actions in the forthcoming massacre. This appears consistent with the substantial role that the Order Police played in the Holocaust, as stated by Professor Browning:
3533:, excerpts from minutes of interrogation, 14 December 1945 (Maj. Zwetajew, interrogator, Sgt. Suur, interpreter), pages 8â13, from the Historical State Archives, as reprinted in Fleming,
4437:
575:, another perpetrator of the Latvian Holocaust, prepared this map. Illustrated with coffins, it shows there were still 35,000 Jews remaining in Latvia before the Rumbula massacres.
1489:
The memorial was designed by architect Sergey Rizh. Financial contributions to build the memorial were made by individuals and organizations in Germany, Israel, Latvia and the USA.
1116:
of human flesh. Sentries were posted at the pits and a unit of Latvian Schutzmannschaften was sent out to guard the area. The orders were to liquidate all survivors on the spot.
1171:
The blood literally ran in the gutters. Frida Michelson, an eyewitness, recorded that the next day, December 1, there were still puddles of blood in the street, frozen by then.
1011:, who had gone back and forth between Riga and the killing site that day, was hit in the eye by a ricochet bullet. Jeckeln himself described Rumbula at his trial in early 1946.
761:
It is no longer seriously in question that members of the German Order Police, both career professionals and reservists, in both battalion formations and precinct service or
1058:
Jeckeln required high-ranking Nazis to witness the Rumbula murders. Jeckeln himself stood at the top of the pits personally directing the shooters. National Commissioner (
1266:
alive each word and each gesture, each cry and each tear!" What is certain is that the SS stole the historian's library and papers and transported them back to the Reich.
859:
The first transport of German Jews to Riga departed Berlin on Thursday, November 27, 1941 and arrived in Riga on Saturday, November 29, 1941. Whether the Jews were to be
4241:
3027:. p. 340: Jeckeln was " ... responsible for the murder of Jews and Communist Party officials ... convicted and hanged in the former ghetto of Riga on February 3, 1946.
2060:
Ohlendorf: Some of the unit leaders did not carry out the liquidation in the military manner, but murdered the victims singly by shooting them in the back of the neck.
543:(30,000 dead). Jeckeln's crew of about 50 killers and supporting personnel arrived in Riga on November 5, 1941. Jeckeln did not arrive with them, but went instead to
779:
At about 7:00 p.m. on November 29, a brief (about 15 minutes) third meeting was held, this time at the Protective Police headquarters. This was presided over by
488:
within the city, the gates of which were about 10 kilometers from Rumbula. The Riga Ghetto was a creation of the Nazis themselves, and had not existed before the war.
5288:
1464:
On 29 November 2002, a memorial, comprising memorial stones, sculpture and information panels, was unveiled in the forest at the site where the massacre took place.
430:
The Nazis wished to make it appear as if the local populations of Latvians were responsible for killing the Jews. They attempted, without much success, to stir up
3168:
Dribins, Leo, GĹŤtmanis, Armands, and Vestermanis, MarÄŁers, "Latvia's Jewish Community: History, Trajedy, Revival", Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Latvia
797:
That the intermediate commanders also knew that the 20 kilogram luggage rule was a ruse to deceive the victims into a belief that they were truly being resettled;
709:
To save the trouble of tossing dead bodies into the pits, the killers forced the living victims into the trench on top of other people who had already been shot;
280:
are related to the clearing of the Riga Ghetto by the Arajs Kommando. The Rumbula killings, together with many others, formed the basis of the post-World War II
1366:, who had no objection to killing Jews in general objected to German Jews, "who come from our own cultural circle", being casually murdered by German soldiers.
7473:
4984:
3079:
Anders, Edward, and Dubrovskis, Juris, "Who Died in the Holocaust? Recovering Names from Official Records", Holocaust and Genocide Studies 17.1 (2003) 114-138
1819:
The reply, coming from Brätigam, of Rosenburg's bureau on December 18, 1941, after the murders, was essentially that Lohse should follow instructions from the
5171:
4588:
3994:
1475:
stands in the center surrounded by stones bearing the names of Jews murdered at the site. Some of the paving stones bear the names of streets in the former
5091:
2937:
765:, were at the center of the Holocaust, providing a major manpower source for carrying out numerous deportations, ghetto-clearing operations, and massacres.
5800:
1534:
Einsatzgruppen trial, p. 16, Indictment, at 6.F: "(F) On 30 November 1941 in Riga, 20 men of Einsatzkommando 2 participated in the murder of 10,600 Jews."
4695:
1089:, who was drunk, worked very close to the pits supervising the Latvian men of his commando, who were guarding and funnelling the victims into the pits.
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4826:
4703:
1412:
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within walking distance of the ghetto, also on the north side. On or about November 18 or 19 Jeckeln came upon Rumbula as he was driving south to the
3448:
Scheffler, Wolfgang, "Zur Geschichte der Deportation jĂźdischer BĂźrger nach Riga 1941/1942", Volksbund Deutsche KriegsgräberfĂźrsorge e.V. â 23.05.2000
632:
3541:
4527:
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1738:, at page 223, refers to the Stahlecker report as evidence that Nazi efforts to induce local pogroms were in general failures in the Baltic states.
592:
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Hobrecht,JĂźrgen "We did survive it"- The Riga Ghetto. Documentary film, Berlin 2013, 98 Min. Outtakes: www.phoenix-medienakademie.com/Riga-survive
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611:, another Jeckeln atrocity, and at his own request was transferred back to his pre-war position in Berlin with no loss of professional standing.
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1190:
1860â1941, Jewish writer, historian and activist, of whom a legend arose that on December 8, 1941, he counseled the Jews in the Riga ghetto:-
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818:
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825:") in Riga. This office, which was not connected with the massacre, had received a cable shortly before the executions began, from Admiral
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1008:
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The Jews were allowed to carry some luggage as a sham, to create the impression among the victims that they were simply being resettled.
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killers claimed to have been horrified by its cruelty. Extermination by shooting ran into a problem when it came to women and children.
2068:
Ohlendorf: Because both for the victims and for those who carried out the executions, it was, psychologically, an immense burden to bear.
805:
instructions, at least to some Germans, to shoot any guard who might fail to execute a "disobedient" Jew during the course of the march.
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wishes. Although the SD and the Order Police were involved, Jeckeln assigned his own squad to supervise every aspect of the operation.
5703:
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3575:
Trials of War Criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Nuernberg, October 1946 - April 1949
2877:. p. 220, discusses Himmler's concerns about the effect on his men's morale of the mass killings of German Jews at Riga and elsewhere.
3361:
743:
On or about Thursday, November 27, 1941, Jeckeln held a meeting of the leaders of the participating units at the Riga office of the
6572:
4323:
1874:, at page 267: "The mass slaughters of October and November 1941 were intended to make space for the new arrivals from the Reich."
681: – "neck shot specialists". There were nine components to this assembly-line method as applied to the Riga ghetto.
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Two months later, German Jews arriving in the ghetto were still finding bodies of murdered Latvian Jews in basements and attics.
556:
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found that a purpose of the Jeckeln system was to conceal the murderous purpose until the very last. The court further found:
567:
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members murdered six Jews in the church cemetery. The Nazi occupiers were also aided by a unit of native Latvians known as the
3167:
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2016:
told a colleague at one of the Ukrainian killing sites, 'Today we'll stack them like sardines.' Jeckeln called his solution
3658:
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, Holocaust Education, Research and Remembrance in Latvia, 16 Sept 2003
3647:
3381:
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia, Holocaust Remembrance - Rumbula Memorial Site Unveiled, December 2002
3315:
653:
Jeckeln developed his "Jeckeln system" during the many murders he had organized in the Ukraine, which included among others
380:
of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia that had been recently occupied by Soviet forces following a period of independence after
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915:. Cukurs, a world-famous pilot, was the most recognizable Latvian SD man at the scene, whom Kaufmann described as follows:
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That by the evening meeting on November 29, 1941, the intermediate commanders knew the full extent of the intended murders;
588:
both sides along the entire 10 kilometer column route. The whole process required about 1,700 personnel to carry it out.
7273:
5400:
4362:
2315:
And so that no one could be in doubt as to what was meant by 'Disposed of', the word 'killed' was added in parentheses."
390:(which can be translated as "Special Task Groups" or "Special Assignment Groups"), and also the German Security Police (
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The ghetto itself was a scene of mass murder after the departure of the columns on November 30, as Kaufmann described:
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2917:"Styopina, Anastasia, "Latvia remembers Holocaust killings 60 years ago" Reuters World Report, November 30, 2001"
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384:. Murders of Jews, Communists, and others began almost immediately, perpetrated by German death squads known as
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The Holocaust in Latvia began on June 22, 1941, when the German army invaded the Soviet Union, including the
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Kaufmann later described what he saw from the truck as it moved south along the highway from Riga towards
319:, the event was not given a name but simply described as "the murder of 10,600 Jews" on 30 November 1941.
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A serious and deadly (approximately 400 Jews murdered) riot in Riga in early July 1941 was one exception.
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That the men in the lower ranks did not know what was planned until they saw the shootings in the forest.
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258:
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3232:. Riga / Washington DC: Historical Institute of Latvia and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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it is just called "Rumbula" or "Rumbuli". It is sometimes called the Jeckeln Action after its commander
299:
This massacre is known by different names, including "The Big Action", and the "Rumbula Action", but in
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over time, or simply murdered outright had not yet been decided upon. Apparently at the last minute,
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shot on November 7 and an additional 7,000 on November 20. To carry out this plan, Himmler brought
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The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 â March 1942
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As Lohse appeared in 1941 in an announcement in Latvia newspapers following the German occupation.
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German – with information about the events at Rumbula and the history of memorial.
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was publicly hanged in Riga on February 3, 1946, following a trial before the Soviet authorities.
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Remembrance stone, placed in 1964 by Jewish activists in memory of those murdered in the massacre.
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944:, one of the few survivors of the massacre at the pits, later described what she saw that day:
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is a collective term for incidents on November 30 and December 8, 1941, in which about 25,000
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Walking Since Daybreak: A story of Eastern Europe, World War II, and the Heart of our Century
2991:
The Execution of the Hangman of Riga: The Only Execution of a Nazi War Criminal by the Mossad
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shot in the backs of their heads. One bullet per person was allotted in the Jeckeln system.
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3537:, at pages 95â100 (Portions of the Jeckeln interrogation are also available online at the
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or SD). The first killings were on the night of June 23, 1941, in the town of Grobin near
8:
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and sentenced to death, but he died in prison before the sentence could be carried out.
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The Jews were organized into columns of 1000 people and marched to the killing grounds;
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His policy of concentrating the Jews of Latvia into the Riga ghetto made it easier for
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3527:, Exhibit 3666-PS, Volume VII, pages 978â995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")
3106:
Genocide on Trial; war crimes trials and the formation of Holocaust History and Memory
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The victims were run through a double cordon of guards on the way to the killing pits;
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According to historian Bernard Press, himself a survivor of the Holocaust in Latvia:
987:. Handicapped and elderly people were helped into the pit by other sturdier victims.
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276:, also took part in organizing the massacre. Some of the accusations against Latvian
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was the German name for the Baltic states and nearby areas which they had conquered.
1235:. Michelson further described the scene when they arrived at Rumbula that morning:
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257:, with support from other such Latvian auxiliaries. In charge of the operation was
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1362:("Eastern Jews"). The head of the German civil administration in the Baltic area,
870:
For this reason, on Sunday, November 30, 1941, Himmler placed a telephone call to
521:
First Class with Swords (Kriegsverdienstkreuz or KVK) for his ruthless efficiency.
335:, the second largest city in Latvia, by the rail line along the north side of the
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4872:
4759:
4620:
4541:
4091:
4012:
3868:
3817:
3545:
3334:
3227:
3206:
1425:
1098:
shot in the head. Killers of the patients in the street included members of the
941:
912:
826:
753:
693:
604:
518:
277:
247:
136:
121:
100:
7444:
6665:
4096:
2030:
the ditch or grave while still alive. An SS eyewitness explained this procedure.
7449:
7117:
6956:
6941:
6936:
6931:
6900:
6800:
6775:
6680:
6582:
6496:
6454:
6156:
5624:
5451:
5295:
5266:
5154:
5047:
4936:
4920:
4520:
4161:
4029:
3974:
3958:
3247:
2899:
2776:. Riga: Latvijas VÄsturnieku komisija (Commission of the Historians of Latvia).
1435:
1354:
813:
According to his later testimony before the Nuremberg Military Tribunal at the
700:
Three pits had already been dug where the killing would be done simultaneously;
674:
415:
386:
356:
254:
181:
140:
132:
105:
5323:
4156:
4017:
3662:
1415:
were prosecuted in West German courts and sentenced to terms of imprisonment.
665:). The Jeckeln method was noted, although not by name, in the judgment of the
7506:
7488:
7475:
7399:
7379:
7268:
7184:
7020:
6926:
6895:
6780:
6670:
6655:
5610:
5414:
5309:
5208:
5185:
5083:
5019:
4880:
4711:
4198:
3908:
3848:
3715:
3144:
2458:
2278:
1820:
1807:
1468:
1418:
1408:
1391:
1232:
1086:
1066:
637:
469:
377:
365:
336:
226:, this was the biggest two-day Holocaust atrocity until the operation of the
176:
6815:
5012:
3873:
1482:
Concrete frames demarcate the mass graves situated in the memorial grounds.
7394:
7202:
7179:
7072:
6946:
6885:
6860:
6840:
6795:
6735:
5997:
3938:
3903:
3827:
3349:
The Good Old Days: The Holocaust as seen by its Perpetrators and Bystanders
3291:
3053:. Riga, Latvia: Center for Judaic Studies at the University of Latvia. 2002
1363:
1338:
1259:
1187:
600:
549:
514:
372:
and his unit to kill approximately 24,000 in two days at Rumbula near Riga.
269:
231:
215:
95:
3668:
3652:
1456:
6805:
6760:
6740:
6675:
5040:
4679:
4070:
3853:
3832:
2078:
1476:
895:
452:
381:
327:
Rumbula was a small railway station 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) south of
235:
158:
685:
The Security Police roused the people out of their houses in the ghetto;
7263:
6690:
6660:
5033:
5026:
4952:
4596:
4133:
3883:
3434:, page 179, Louisville, Ky. : Westminster John Knox Press, 2003.
3344:
1210:
891:
332:
3278:
The years of extermination : Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945
3205:(1996a). "Latvia". In Wyman, David S.; Rosenzveig, Charles H. (eds.).
3087:
The 'Final Solution' in Riga: Exploitation and Annihilation, 1941-1944
407:
6890:
4203:
3558:, Volume VII, pages 978â995, USGPO, Washington DC 1946 ("Red Series")
3323:. Translation by Laimdota Mazzarins. Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre Verlag.
1560:
718:
641:
464:
459:
148:
3580:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
44:
Rumbula, Rumbuli, Rumbula Action, the Big Action, the Jeckeln Action
7374:
5379:
4751:
4250:
3406:, at 186, 282, Viking Press, New York, 1957 (Da Capo reprint 1989)
901:
654:
608:
540:
501:
243:
219:
79:
3567:
Yale Law School / Lillian Goldman Law Library / The Avalon Project
552:'s: "Tell Lohse it is my order, which is also the FĂźhrer's wish".
2343:
2077:
Green series, Volume IV, p. 443, quoting Einsatzgruppe commander
1675:
1537:
1398:, standing at left, at his war crimes trial in Riga in early 1946
1063:
854:
787:
786:
In the Jahnke trial in the early 1970s, the West German court in
576:
536:
331:, the capital and major city of Latvia, which was connected with
265:
223:
3665:– Interview with survivor (Yiddish with English subtitles)
2958:
2110:
1725:
streets which were mainly inhabited by Jews remained unscathed."
1092:
361:
5351:
4254:
3663:
Memorializing the Rumbula Massacre of Latvia's Jewish Community
2411:
1429:
1346:
1278:
822:
544:
485:
431:
300:
211:
57:
6430:
3211:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 354â88.
2772:
Dribins, Leo; GĹŤtmanis, Armands; Vestermanis, MarÄŁers (2001).
1651:
1467:
The center of the memorial is an open area in the form of the
1316:
1283:
1183:
3643:
The Holocaust in Latvia and Latvia's Jews Yesterday and Today
2399:
984:
539:, where he had organized a number of mass murders, including
5001:
3495:
Winter, Alfred, "Rumbula Viewed From The Riga Ghetto" from
3418:
The Wannsee Conference and the Final SolutionâA Reassessment
2855:
2677:
2517:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
1770:
Winter, "Rumbula viewed from the Riga Ghetto, at Rumbula.org
1515:
1513:
837:
443:
A, was the Nazis' main killing expert in the Baltic states.
4258:
2698:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2614:
2612:
2389:
2387:
2362:
2360:
2358:
714:
481:
328:
207:
53:
3090:. Translation from German by Ray Brandon. Berghahn Books.
2771:
2581:
2569:
2493:
2372:
2098:
1836:
965:
713:
since the victims had been shot with Russian bullets, the
703:
The victims were stripped of their clothing and valuables;
4786:
3609:
How Dark the Heavensâ1400 Days in the Grip of Nazi Terror
3497:
The Ghetto of Riga and Continuance - A Survivor's Memoir
3468:
The Unfinished Road: Jewish Survivors of Latvia Look Back
3362:
Latvia Institute, The Holocaust in German-Occupied Latvia
3174:
History of the Holocaust : A Handbook and Dictionary
2798:
2796:
2230:
1510:
1324:
in February 1942 shows the population of Jews in Latvia (
1105:
729:
291:
commanders were found guilty of crimes against humanity.
203:
3577:, Volume IV, ("Green Series) (the "Einsatzgruppen case")
2821:. pp. 100, 114, 128, reporting statement of Ruth Foster.
2689:
2609:
2384:
2355:
6580:
3317:
Churbn Lettland - The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia
2736:
1720:
1718:
1428:
escaped to South America, where he was assassinated by
1407:
Some of the Rumbula murderers were brought to justice.
926:
Churbn Lettland - The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia
397:
3351:, (English translation) MacMillan Free Press, NY 1991
3229:
The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1944: The Missing Center
2793:
2505:
1123:
The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1944: The Missing Center
999:
The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941-1944: The Missing Center
206:
were murdered in or on the way to Rumbula forest near
4249:
2331:
1081:, the chief of the Latvian collaborationist militia (
3300:(3d Ed.) Yale University Press, New Haven, CT 2003.
3047:"Riga, Rumbula: Holocaust Memorial Places in Latvia"
2774:
Latvia's Jewish Community: History, Tragedy, Revival
2040:
2038:
1826:
1773:
1741:
1715:
1696:
1663:
1530:
1528:
1023:the pits, where they were shot by German soldiers.
627:
The Riga Ghetto in 1942, after the Rumbula massacre
264:, who had previously overseen similar massacres in
4985:Anti-Jewish violence in Czechoslovakia (1918â1920)
3146:
3123:
2429:
1384:In 2001, the President of the Republic of Latvia,
738:
3563:"The International Military Tribunal for Germany"
3516:
3118:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2349:
2279:Browning, Matthäus. Origins of the Final Solution
2116:
2035:
1808:Browning, Matthäus. Origins of the Final Solution
808:
7504:
3597:, University of Wisconsin Press, (2nd Ed. 2006)
3456:, (2d Ed.) Westport, Conn. : Praeger, 2001
3145:Browning, Christopher; Matthäus, Jßrgen (2004).
2936:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2844:
2842:
2840:
2058:From the transcript of the Einsatzgruppen trial:
1525:
974:
902:Women, children and elderly forced out of ghetto
725:simply buried alive when the pit was covered up.
242:transported to the forest by train. The Rumbula
168:About 24,000 Latvian Jews and 1,000 German Jews.
2813:
2811:
2062:Col. Amen: And you objected to that procedure?
1148:
832:
484:, as well some of the surrounding area, into a
6329:Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting
2919:. Archived from the original on March 10, 2005
2641:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2064:Ohlendorf: I was against that procedure, yes.
1926:
1924:
1864:
1803:
1801:
1799:
855:First transport of German Jews arrives in Riga
446:
6566:
4299:
4235:
3684:
3623:City of Life, City of Death: Memories of Riga
3454:Journey into terror: story of the Riga Ghetto
2837:
2547:
2545:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2161:
2159:
2157:
1971:Jeckeln interrogation excerpts, reprinted in
1967:
1965:
1911:
1909:
1644:Riga trial verdict excerpts, as reprinted in
1640:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1093:Later murders and body disposal in the ghetto
960:Frida Michelson, I Survived Rumbuli, pp. 77-8
880:Judentransport aus Berlin. Keine Liquidierung
3172:Edelheit, Abraham J. and Edelheit, Hershel,
3108:, Oxford University Press, New York NY 2001
3083:
3041:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3033:
2808:
2046:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1369:
1279:Effect of Rumbula on plans for the Holocaust
253:with the help of local collaborators of the
3698:
3430:Rubenstein, Richard L., and Roth, John K.,
3347:, Dressen, Willi, and Riess, Volker, eds.,
3225:
3201:
3126:Nazi Policy, Jewish Workers, German Killers
2964:
2861:
2730:
2726:
2724:
2683:
2624:
2587:
2575:
2523:
2499:
2487:
2417:
2405:
2378:
2265:
2224:
2220:
2218:
2148:
2144:
2142:
2140:
2131:
2127:
2125:
2104:
2003:
1999:
1997:
1956:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1921:
1896:
1796:
1681:
1657:
1592:
1564:
1519:
1284:German Jews replace Latvians in Riga ghetto
517:. On January 27, 1942, he was awarded the
6573:
6559:
4504:Persecution of Jews during the Black Death
4242:
4228:
3691:
3677:
2542:
2284:
2185:
2154:
1983:
1981:
1962:
1906:
1588:
1586:
27:
7553:Holocaust massacres and pogroms in Latvia
3153:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
3030:
2486:The 10 kilometer distance is supplied in
1766:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1607:
838:Able-bodied men separated from the others
396:or SiPo) and the Security Service of the
6241:
4324:Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus
3313:
2802:
2742:
2721:
2702:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2635:
2618:
2598:
2596:
2511:
2393:
2366:
2245:
2215:
2179:
2137:
2122:
1994:
1937:
1813:
1455:
1390:
1353:to give his perspective on the proposed
1315:
1240:everything like a docile herd of cattle.
1182:
751:, a branch of the German Order Police, (
622:
566:
562:
505:
425:
360:
6526:Antisemitic riots in the North Caucasus
4139:Extraordinary (Soviet) State Commission
3370:, Holocaust Library, New York, NY 1979
3246:
2551:
2536:
2432:"JÄmeklÄ patiesÄŤba par Herbertu Cukuru"
2337:
2196:
2165:
1978:
1972:
1915:
1854:
1842:
1669:
1645:
1583:
966:Ten kilometer march to the killing pits
618:
7533:Jewish resistance during the Holocaust
7505:
3625:, University Press of Colorado (2001)
3389:, Northwestern University Press, 2000
3084:Angrick, Andrej; Klein, Peter (2012).
2457:
1751:
1269:
1106:Aftermath at the pits on the first day
1069:was there, at least for a while. Dr.
730:Arranging transport for infirm victims
7060:8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer
6554:
6193:Tel Aviv Central bus station massacre
4223:
3672:
2659:
2593:
1311:
1224:The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia
1178:
1165:The Destruction of the Jews of Latvia
1158:remaining young people for this task.
1085:) was present for much of the time.
1053:
894:for heroic service to Germany during
6345:Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege
5935:Chez Jo Goldenberg restaurant attack
4209:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany
4122:War crimes investigations and trials
3611:, Shengold Publishing (2d ed. 1990)
3484:, Carroll & Graf, New York 2005
3482:Remembering: Voices of the Holocaust
3297:The Destruction of the European Jews
3176:, Westview Press, Boulder, CO 1994
3072:
3051:Holokausta memoriÄlÄs vietas LatvijÄ
1301:Remembering: Voices of the Holocaust
1258:Among those slain on December 8 was
1077:) of Latvia may have been present.
1018:A: Ten or twelve German SD soldiers.
697:or Orpo) led the columns to Rumbula;
579:, the report states, is "Jew-free" (
491:
6070:
5602:
5193:
3511:Aufzeichnungen eines Untermenschen.
2259:"The Origins of the Final Solution"
1196:
1111:the words of Professor Ezergailis:
661:. He called it "sardine packing" (
591:Jeckeln's construction specialist,
230:. About 24,000 of the victims were
13:
3587:
3258:: University of California Press.
14:
7584:
6337:Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting
6086:Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing
6079:Dolphinarium discotheque massacre
4167:Roberts Seduls and Johanna Sedule
3968:Nazi occupation and organizations
3636:
3208:The World Reacts to the Holocaust
3012:Eduard Strauch (German wikipedia)
2993:, Valentine Mitchell, London 2004
2989:Kuenzle, Anton and Shimron, Gad,
2758:. p. 150, citing Press, Bernard,
2430:Andrievs Ezergails (2014-10-17).
648:
457:The SD's goal was to make Latvia
418:, and at least to some extent by
6313:Toulouse and Montauban shootings
6214:Maxim restaurant suicide bombing
6136:Matza restaurant suicide bombing
3387:The Murder of the Jews in Latvia
3190:, Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1999
3017:
2760:Judenmort in Lettland, 1941-1945
1604:Einsatzgruppen judgment, p. 418.
1141:The Murder of the Jews in Latvia
1073:, the Territorial Commissioner (
272:, who later participated in the
71:November 30 and December 8, 1941
7455:Special Prosecution Book-Poland
6432:2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel
5531:KremniÄka and NemeckĂĄ massacres
4332:Jewish revolt against Heraclius
3005:
2982:
2970:
2945:
2909:
2893:
2880:
2867:
2824:
2780:
2765:
2762:, Berlin: Metropol 1992. p. 12.
2748:
2708:
2557:
2529:
2480:
2451:
2423:
2318:
2304:
2251:
2202:
2171:
2090:The Tribunal's judgment in the
2084:
2071:
2052:
2023:
2009:
1890:
1877:
1848:
1783:
1728:
1706:
1687:
739:Final planning and instructions
294:
7563:December 1941 events in Europe
7558:November 1941 events in Europe
7221:Burning of the Riga synagogues
6122:Yeshivat Beit Yisrael massacre
5951:Neve Shalom Synagogue massacre
4961:Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation
4061:Jungfernhof concentration camp
3772:Burning of the Riga synagogues
3556:Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression
3525:Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression
3517:War crimes trials and evidence
3130:. Cambridge University Press.
1598:
1570:
1460:Memorial in the Rumbula forest
1451:
1349:, was invited to the infamous
1029:Jeckeln interrogation excerpts
809:Advance knowledge by Wehrmacht
1:
7573:Death marches in World War II
6369:Pittsburgh synagogue shooting
6038:Mahane Yehuda Market bombings
4066:Kaiserwald concentration camp
3535:Hitler and the Final Solution
3252:Hitler and the Final Solution
3067:
2978:Genocide on Trial. pp. 197-9.
2904:Eichmann: His Life and Crimes
1901:Hitler and the Final Solution
1047:Hitler and the Final Solution
975:Arrival at Rumbula and murder
721:organization was responsible.
607:5, refused to participate in
238:and approximately 1,000 were
16:1941 massacre in Riga, Latvia
7528:Eastern Front (World War II)
6321:Jerusalem synagogue massacre
6228:Haifa bus 37 suicide bombing
6006:Dizengoff Street bus bombing
4438:Massacres at London and York
4076:Salaspils concentration camp
3470:, Praeger Publishers (1991)
3226:Ezergailis, Andrew (1996b).
2299:Destruction of European Jews
2066:Col. Amen: For what reason?
1149:Reaction among the survivors
833:Preparation for the massacre
659:Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre
350:
259:HĂśherer SS und PolizeifĂźhrer
246:was carried out by the Nazi
7:
7489:56.88538889°N 24.24583333°E
7066:Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz
6731:Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
5769:Night of the Murdered Poets
4149:Righteous Among the Nations
3721:Related articles by country
3583:(well indexed HTML version)
2463:"The Mass Murderer As Hero"
1780:carrying out basic orders."
1499:List of massacres in Latvia
1492:
1197:Yidn, shreibt un fershreibt
861:worked and starved to death
476:rather than the SD's boss,
447:Creation of the Riga Ghetto
322:
317:Nuremberg Military Tribunal
10:
7589:
7126:Lithuanian Security Police
6200:Davidka Square bus bombing
5911:Antwerp summer camp attack
5785:Shafrir synagogue shooting
5488:Operation Harvest Festival
4597:Massacre of the Assumption
3980:Reichskommissariat Ostland
3466:Schneider, Gertrude, ed.,
2888:The Years of Extermination
2788:The Years of Extermination
2654:The Years of Extermination
2564:Reichskommissariat Ostland
1885:The Years of Extermination
1872:The Years of Extermination
1736:The Years of Extermination
1402:
1373:
1331:
1200:("Jews, write and record")
1020:Q: What was the procedure?
495:
450:
354:
62:Reichskommissariat Ostland
7417:
7365:
7347:
7324:
7292:
7254:
7211:
7193:
7165:
7158:
7082:
7029:Reichssicherheitshauptamt
7012:
7005:
6965:
6919:
6714:
6624:
6603:
6596:
6403:
6288:
6266:Tel Aviv shawarma bombing
6221:Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing
6177:
6143:Hebrew University bombing
6099:
6063:
6056:
5973:
5894:
5864:Ben Yehuda Street bombing
5824:Avivim school bus bombing
5815:
5760:
5747:Menarsha synagogue attack
5738:
5711:Ben Yehuda Street bombing
5688:
5638:
5595:
5545:
5501:
5465:
5429:
5280:
5258:
5222:
5184:
4856:
4849:
4655:
4467:
4460:
4389:
4354:
4272:
4265:
4191:
4175:
4147:
4121:
4105:
4084:
4048:
3993:
3967:
3841:
3805:
3764:
3706:
1370:Later actions at the site
691:The German Order Police (
525:
188:
172:
164:
154:
128:
112:
86:
75:
67:
48:
38:
26:
21:
7494:56.88538889; 24.24583333
7279:Ninth Fort November 1941
6881:Karl Eberhard SchĂśngarth
6636:Humbert Achamer-Pifrader
6393:Monsey Hanukkah stabbing
6377:Poway synagogue shooting
6274:Jerusalem yeshiva attack
6108:Ghriba synagogue bombing
6030:Island of Peace massacre
5481:Kielce cemetery massacre
4035:Latvian Auxiliary Police
3653:Killed in Rumbala forest
3404:The SSâAlibi of a Nation
3025:History of the Holocaust
2047:Angrick & Klein 2012
1578:History of the Holocaust
1504:
1016:Q: Who did the shooting?
513:in Soviet custody after
420:Latvian auxiliary police
145:Latvian Auxiliary Police
6701:Franz Walter Stahlecker
5927:Vienna synagogue attack
5903:Paris synagogue bombing
5147:The Bloody Day in Jaffa
3954:Franz Walter Stahlecker
3864:Otto-Heinrich Drechsler
3813:Jewish people of Latvia
3700:The Holocaust in Latvia
3432:Approaches to Auschwitz
3420:, Holt, New York, 2002
2906:(Vintage 2005). p. 110.
1987:Klee and others, eds.,
1567:, pp. 4â7, 239â70.
1320:This document from the
1071:Otto Heinrich Drechsler
679:GenickschuĂspezialisten
573:Franz Walter Stahlecker
437:Franz Walter Stahlecker
7568:Generalbezirk Lettland
7548:World War II massacres
7523:Jewish Latvian history
7460:Einsatzgruppen reports
7425:List of Einsatzgruppen
7274:Kaunas 29 October 1941
6771:Friedrich-Wilhelm Bock
6250:Beersheba bus bombings
5856:Kiryat Shmona massacre
5777:Scorpion Pass massacre
5474:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
4905:Second Kishinev pogrom
4645:Portuguese Inquisition
4289:2nd Alexandrian pogrom
3314:Kaufmann, Max (2010).
2756:Walking Since Daybreak
2326:The Wannsee Conference
1932:Walking Since Daybreak
1810:, pp. 305â7, 406.
1684:, pp. 47, 239â70.
1461:
1399:
1329:
1306:
1252:
1228:
1201:
1169:
1146:
1128:
1051:
1032:
1004:
963:
937:the Rumbula shooting.
930:
874:, who, as head of the
773:
628:
584:
522:
373:
7357:KremniÄka and NemeckĂĄ
6826:Waldemar KlingelhĂśfer
6150:Rishon LeZion bombing
5872:Coastal Road massacre
4873:First Kishinev pogrom
4664:Chmielnicki massacres
4573:Schaffhausen Massacre
4492:Armleder persecutions
4446:Rintfleisch massacres
3452:Schneider, Gertrude,
3120:Browning, Christopher
2967:, pp. 16, 245â8.
2875:Architect of Genocide
2467:Operation Last Chance
2437:NeatkarÄŤgÄ RÄŤta AvÄŤze
2350:Browning. Nazi Policy
2117:Browning. Nazi Policy
1459:
1438:was convicted in the
1394:
1374:Further information:
1319:
1291:
1237:
1215:
1186:
1155:
1132:
1113:
1037:
1013:
989:
946:
917:
759:
631:Jeckeln and his aide
626:
570:
563:Planning the massacre
509:
426:Involvement of locals
364:
52:Rumbula forest, near
7440:Einsatzgruppen trial
7302:Operation Tannenberg
6983:Antanas ImpuleviÄius
6856:Hans-Adolf PrĂźtzmann
6385:Jersey City shooting
6258:Ashdod Port bombings
5840:Lod Airport massacre
5801:Purge of Polish Jews
5725:Kfar Etzion massacre
5231:CzÄstochowa massacre
4992:1920 Nebi Musa riots
4812:Fourth Odessa pogrom
4768:Second Odessa pogrom
4129:Einsatzgruppen trial
3919:Hans-Adolf PrĂźtzmann
3552:Stahlecker, Franz W.
3509:Alexander Bergmann.
3281:, New York, NY 2007
2420:, pp. 192, 267.
1386:Vaira Vike-Freiberga
1303:, pp. 100, 114, 128.
770:Christopher Browning
619:Deciding on the site
313:Einsatzgruppen trial
7538:Mass murder in 1941
7485: /
7390:Kamianets-Podilskyi
7334:Gully of Petrushino
6851:Gustav Adolf Nosske
6686:Friedrich Panzinger
6616:Ernst Kaltenbrunner
6207:CafĂŠ Hillel bombing
5575:Tripolitania pogrom
5373:Kamianets-Podilskyi
4897:Fifth Odessa pogrom
4835:1898 Algerian riots
4776:Third Odessa pogrom
4720:First Odessa pogrom
4605:Spanish Inquisition
4581:Moroccan revolution
4461:14th â 19th century
4391:Rhineland massacres
4183:Bikernieki Memorial
3985:Rollkommando Hamann
3949:Rudolf Joachim Seck
3914:Friedrich Panzinger
3894:Ernst Kaltenbrunner
3648:Remembering Rumbula
3340:on 30 October 2018.
1859:auf hĂśchsten Befehl
1471:. A sculpture of a
1440:Einsatzgruppen case
1270:December 9 massacre
1121:Andrew Ezergailis,
997:Andrew Ezergailis,
745:Protective Police (
439:, who, as chief of
309:Erschiessungsaktion
7037:Sicherheitspolizei
6993:Algirdas Klimaitis
6791:Friedrich Buchardt
6706:Bruno Streckenbach
6305:Burgas bus bombing
5990:Crown Heights riot
5943:Ras Burqa massacre
5654:Haifa Oil Refinery
5510:Ardeatine massacre
5445:Dzyatlava massacre
4865:CzÄstochowa pogrom
4476:Shepherds' Crusade
4281:Alexandrian pogrom
4266:1st â 13th century
3579:also available at
3544:2011-07-18 at the
3531:Jeckeln, Friedrich
3400:Reitlinger, Gerald
3368:I Survived Rumbuli
3366:Michelson, Frida,
3203:Ezergailis, Andrew
3186:Eksteins, Modris,
2733:, pp. 257â61.
2714:Michelson, Frida,
2672:I Survived Rumbuli
2670:Michelson, Frida,
2604:I Survived Rumbuli
2602:Michelson, Frida,
2539:, pp. 95â100.
2210:I Survived Rumbuli
2208:Michelson, Frida,
1975:, pp. 95â100.
1462:
1400:
1351:Wannsee Conference
1334:Wannsee Conference
1330:
1322:Wannsee Conference
1312:Wannsee Conference
1247:I Survived Rumbuli
1222:Churbn Lettland -
1202:
1179:December 8 murders
1163:Churbn Lettland -
1054:Official witnesses
932:Latvian historian
815:High Command Trial
629:
585:
523:
472:, who reported to
393:Sicherheitspolizei
374:
287:where a number of
274:Wannsee Conference
7513:Massacres in 1941
7468:
7467:
7413:
7412:
7308:Intelligenzaktion
7154:
7153:
7145:Ypatingasis bĹŤrys
7045:Sicherheitsdienst
7001:
7000:
6866:Martin Sandberger
6836:Walter Kutschmann
6821:Friedrich Jeckeln
6611:Reinhard Heydrich
6548:
6547:
6544:
6543:
6520:
6519:
6361:Halamish stabbing
6353:Tel Aviv shooting
6284:
6283:
6237:
6236:
6173:
6172:
6129:Passover massacre
6095:
6094:
6052:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6014:Beit Lid massacre
5969:
5968:
5890:
5889:
5880:Nahariya massacre
5811:
5810:
5756:
5755:
5734:
5733:
5684:
5683:
5647:Fajja bus attacks
5634:
5633:
5591:
5590:
5541:
5540:
5497:
5496:
5461:
5460:
5425:
5424:
5276:
5275:
5254:
5253:
5218:
5217:
5202:Tiberias massacre
5131:Constantine riots
5078:
5077:
5003:Russian Civil War
4845:
4844:
4821:
4820:
4557:Brussels massacre
4551:
4550:
4456:
4455:
4424:
4423:
4350:
4349:
4340:Battle of Khaybar
4316:Bar Kokhba revolt
4217:
4216:
4113:Sonderaktion 1005
4056:Daugavpils Ghetto
4049:Ghettos and camps
3934:Martin Sandberger
3879:Friedrich Jeckeln
3631:978-0-87081-642-0
3617:978-0-88400-147-8
3603:978-1-928755-07-4
3595:One Who Came Back
3476:978-0-275-94093-5
3330:978-3-86628-315-2
3287:978-0-06-019043-9
3273:Friedländer, Saul
3160:978-0-8032-5979-9
3104:Bloxham, Donald,
3073:Historiographical
2953:Genocide on Trial
2864:, pp. 254â6.
2716:I Survived Rubuli
2686:, pp. 256â7.
2526:, pp. 253â4.
2461:(July 25, 2005).
2408:, p. 267n55.
2248:, pp. 59â61.
2227:, pp. 247â8.
2151:, pp. 248â9.
2134:, pp. 243â5.
2006:, pp. 240â1.
1989:The Good Old Days
1959:, pp. 241â2.
1595:, pp. 211â2.
1446:Friedrich Jeckeln
1396:Friedrich Jeckeln
1376:Sonderaktion 1005
1245:Frida Michelson,
934:Andrew Ezergailis
872:Reinhard Heydrich
535:into Latvia from
533:Friedrich Jeckeln
511:Friedrich Jeckeln
498:Friedrich Jeckeln
492:Friedrich Jeckeln
412:Sonderkommando 1a
403:Sicherheitsdienst
370:Friedrich Jeckeln
305:Friedrich Jeckeln
262:Friedrich Jeckeln
220:Babi Yar massacre
218:. Except for the
196:
195:
91:Friedrich Jeckeln
7580:
7500:
7499:
7497:
7496:
7495:
7490:
7486:
7483:
7482:
7481:
7478:
7339:Zmievskaya Balka
7269:Kaunas June 1941
7226:DĂźnamĂźnde Action
7163:
7162:
7091:Schutzmannschaft
7010:
7009:
6811:Erich Isselhorst
6751:Wolfgang Birkner
6746:Ernst Biberstein
6718:Einsatzkommandos
6696:Heinrich Seetzen
6641:Walther Bierkamp
6601:
6600:
6589:Einsatzkommandos
6575:
6568:
6561:
6552:
6551:
6537:
6534:Dagestan attacks
6529:
6513:
6506:
6499:
6492:
6485:
6478:
6471:
6464:
6457:
6450:
6443:
6428:
6427:
6423:
6420:Beersheba attack
6415:
6396:
6388:
6380:
6372:
6364:
6356:
6348:
6340:
6332:
6324:
6316:
6308:
6300:
6277:
6269:
6261:
6253:
6239:
6238:
6230:
6223:
6216:
6209:
6202:
6195:
6188:
6175:
6174:
6166:
6159:
6152:
6145:
6138:
6131:
6124:
6117:
6110:
6097:
6096:
6088:
6081:
6068:
6067:
6061:
6060:
6041:
6033:
6025:
6017:
6009:
6001:
5993:
5985:
5982:Cairo bus attack
5971:
5970:
5962:
5954:
5946:
5938:
5930:
5922:
5914:
5906:
5892:
5891:
5883:
5875:
5867:
5859:
5851:
5848:Ma'alot massacre
5843:
5835:
5827:
5813:
5812:
5804:
5796:
5788:
5780:
5772:
5758:
5757:
5749:
5736:
5735:
5727:
5720:
5713:
5706:
5699:
5686:
5685:
5677:
5670:
5663:
5656:
5649:
5636:
5635:
5627:
5620:
5613:
5600:
5599:
5584:
5577:
5570:
5563:
5561:TopoÄžÄany pogrom
5556:
5554:Deutsch SchĂźtzen
5543:
5542:
5534:
5526:
5524:SÄrmaČu massacre
5519:
5512:
5499:
5498:
5490:
5483:
5476:
5463:
5462:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5438:DĂźnamĂźnde Action
5427:
5426:
5418:
5410:
5403:
5401:Kaunas (October)
5396:
5389:
5382:
5375:
5368:
5361:
5354:
5347:
5340:
5333:
5326:
5319:
5312:
5305:
5298:
5291:
5278:
5277:
5269:
5256:
5255:
5247:
5240:
5233:
5220:
5219:
5211:
5204:
5191:
5190:
5177:
5175:
5158:
5150:
5142:
5134:
5126:
5118:
5110:
5102:
5100:
5087:
5084:Zavirtcha pogrom
5071:
5064:
5057:
5050:
5043:
5036:
5029:
5022:
5015:
4999:
4998:
4994:
4987:
4980:
4972:
4964:
4956:
4948:
4940:
4932:
4924:
4916:
4913:BiaĹystok pogrom
4908:
4900:
4892:
4884:
4876:
4868:
4854:
4853:
4838:
4830:
4814:
4807:
4800:
4784:
4783:
4779:
4771:
4763:
4755:
4747:
4739:
4731:
4723:
4715:
4707:
4704:Algiers massacre
4699:
4691:
4688:Massacre of Uman
4683:
4675:
4667:
4648:
4640:
4632:
4624:
4616:
4608:
4600:
4592:
4584:
4576:
4568:
4560:
4544:
4537:
4530:
4523:
4516:
4500:
4499:
4495:
4487:
4479:
4465:
4464:
4449:
4441:
4433:
4417:
4410:
4403:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4379:Granada massacre
4374:
4366:
4363:CĂłrdoba massacre
4343:
4335:
4327:
4319:
4311:
4308:The Great Revolt
4297:
4296:
4292:
4284:
4270:
4269:
4244:
4237:
4230:
4221:
4220:
4192:Related articles
4040:Schutzmannschaft
4026:
4004:
3944:Walther SchrĂśder
3929:Alfred Rosenberg
3924:Eduard Roschmann
3823:Joseph Carlebach
3777:DĂźnamĂźnde Action
3722:
3712:
3693:
3686:
3679:
3670:
3669:
3621:Michelson, Max,
3570:
3446:
3385:Press, Bernard,
3341:
3339:
3333:. Archived from
3322:
3269:
3243:
3222:
3164:
3152:
3141:
3129:
3101:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3043:
3028:
3021:
3015:
3009:
3003:
2986:
2980:
2974:
2968:
2965:Ezergailis 1996b
2962:
2956:
2949:
2943:
2941:
2935:
2927:
2925:
2924:
2913:
2907:
2897:
2891:
2884:
2878:
2871:
2865:
2862:Ezergailis 1996b
2859:
2853:
2846:
2835:
2828:
2822:
2815:
2806:
2800:
2791:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2769:
2763:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2731:Ezergailis 1996b
2728:
2719:
2712:
2706:
2705:, pp. 68â9.
2700:
2687:
2684:Ezergailis 1996b
2681:
2675:
2668:
2657:
2650:
2639:
2638:, pp. 64â5.
2633:
2622:
2621:, pp. 63â4.
2616:
2607:
2600:
2591:
2588:Ezergailis 1996b
2585:
2579:
2576:Ezergailis 1996b
2573:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2540:
2533:
2527:
2524:Ezergailis 1996b
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2500:Ezergailis 1996b
2497:
2491:
2488:Ezergailis 1996b
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2455:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2444:
2427:
2421:
2418:Ezergailis 1996b
2415:
2409:
2406:Ezergailis 1996b
2403:
2397:
2396:, pp. 60â1.
2391:
2382:
2379:Ezergailis 1996b
2376:
2370:
2369:, pp. 61â2.
2364:
2353:
2352:, pp. 52â4.
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2322:
2316:
2308:
2302:
2295:
2282:
2276:
2263:
2262:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2228:
2225:Ezergailis 1996b
2222:
2213:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2183:
2182:, pp. 60â1.
2175:
2169:
2168:, pp. 83â7.
2163:
2152:
2149:Ezergailis 1996b
2146:
2135:
2132:Ezergailis 1996b
2129:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2105:Ezergailis 1996b
2102:
2096:
2088:
2082:
2075:
2069:
2056:
2050:
2042:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2013:
2007:
2004:Ezergailis 1996b
2001:
1992:
1985:
1976:
1969:
1960:
1957:Ezergailis 1996b
1954:
1935:
1928:
1919:
1918:, pp. 75â7.
1913:
1904:
1897:Ezergailis 1996b
1894:
1888:
1881:
1875:
1868:
1862:
1852:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1794:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1771:
1768:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1732:
1726:
1722:
1713:
1710:
1704:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1685:
1682:Ezergailis 1996b
1679:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1658:Ezergailis 1996b
1655:
1649:
1648:, pp. 78â9.
1642:
1605:
1602:
1596:
1593:Ezergailis 1996b
1590:
1581:
1574:
1568:
1565:Ezergailis 1996b
1562:
1535:
1532:
1523:
1520:Ezergailis 1996b
1517:
1432:agents in 1965.
1413:Friedrich Jahnke
1328:) down to 3,500.
1304:
1250:
1226:
1198:
1167:
1144:
1126:
1083:Schutzmannschaft
1075:Gebietskommissar
1049:
1045:Gerald Fleming,
1030:
1002:
961:
928:
771:
478:Heinrich Himmler
474:Alfred Rosenberg
200:Rumbula massacre
82:, Mass shootings
41:
31:
22:Rumbula massacre
19:
18:
7588:
7587:
7583:
7582:
7581:
7579:
7578:
7577:
7503:
7502:
7493:
7491:
7487:
7484:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7472:
7471:
7469:
7464:
7435:Commissar Order
7409:
7361:
7343:
7320:
7288:
7250:
7246:LiepÄja (ŠġÄde)
7207:
7189:
7150:
7078:
7053:Ordnungspolizei
6997:
6978:Herberts Cukurs
6961:
6915:
6911:Udo von Woyrsch
6876:Hermann Schaper
6871:Emanuel Schäfer
6846:Josef Meisinger
6831:Wolfgang KĂźgler
6756:Helmut Bischoff
6723:Sonderkommandos
6721:
6716:
6710:
6651:Erich Ehrlinger
6626:
6620:
6592:
6579:
6549:
6540:
6532:
6524:
6516:
6509:
6502:
6495:
6488:
6481:
6474:
6467:
6460:
6453:
6446:
6439:
6426:
6418:
6410:
6399:
6391:
6383:
6375:
6367:
6359:
6351:
6343:
6335:
6327:
6319:
6311:
6303:
6295:
6280:
6272:
6264:
6256:
6248:
6233:
6226:
6219:
6212:
6205:
6198:
6191:
6184:
6169:
6162:
6155:
6148:
6141:
6134:
6127:
6120:
6113:
6106:
6091:
6084:
6077:
6044:
6036:
6028:
6020:
6012:
6004:
5996:
5988:
5980:
5965:
5957:
5949:
5941:
5933:
5925:
5919:Antwerp bombing
5917:
5909:
5901:
5886:
5878:
5870:
5862:
5854:
5846:
5838:
5832:Munich massacre
5830:
5822:
5807:
5799:
5791:
5783:
5775:
5767:
5752:
5745:
5730:
5723:
5716:
5709:
5702:
5695:
5680:
5673:
5666:
5659:
5652:
5645:
5630:
5623:
5616:
5609:
5587:
5580:
5573:
5566:
5559:
5552:
5537:
5529:
5522:
5515:
5508:
5493:
5486:
5479:
5472:
5457:
5450:
5443:
5436:
5421:
5413:
5406:
5399:
5392:
5385:
5378:
5371:
5364:
5357:
5350:
5343:
5336:
5329:
5322:
5315:
5308:
5301:
5294:
5287:
5272:
5265:
5250:
5243:
5236:
5229:
5214:
5207:
5200:
5180:
5165:
5161:
5153:
5145:
5137:
5129:
5123:Campbell pogrom
5121:
5115:Hebron massacre
5113:
5105:
5094:
5090:
5082:
5074:
5067:
5060:
5053:
5046:
5039:
5032:
5025:
5018:
5011:
4997:
4990:
4983:
4975:
4967:
4959:
4951:
4943:
4935:
4927:
4919:
4911:
4903:
4895:
4887:
4881:Zablotov pogrom
4879:
4871:
4863:
4841:
4833:
4825:
4817:
4810:
4803:
4796:
4782:
4774:
4766:
4760:Damascus affair
4758:
4750:
4742:
4734:
4726:
4718:
4710:
4702:
4694:
4686:
4678:
4670:
4662:
4651:
4643:
4635:
4627:
4621:Lisbon massacre
4619:
4611:
4603:
4595:
4587:
4579:
4571:
4563:
4555:
4547:
4540:
4533:
4526:
4519:
4512:
4498:
4490:
4482:
4474:
4452:
4444:
4436:
4428:
4420:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4385:
4377:
4369:
4361:
4346:
4338:
4330:
4322:
4314:
4306:
4295:
4287:
4279:
4261:
4248:
4218:
4213:
4187:
4171:
4143:
4117:
4101:
4092:Generalplan Ost
4080:
4044:
4024:
4013:Herberts Cukurs
4002:
3989:
3963:
3899:Wolfgang KĂźgler
3869:Erich Ehrlinger
3837:
3801:
3797:LiepÄja (ŠġÄde)
3760:
3720:
3710:
3702:
3697:
3639:
3607:Iwens, Sidney,
3590:
3588:Further reading
3561:
3546:Wayback Machine
3519:
3505:Riga Manuskript
3503:Elmar Rivosch.
3444:
3416:Roseman, Mark,
3337:
3331:
3320:
3266:
3248:Fleming, Gerald
3240:
3219:
3161:
3138:
3098:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3056:
3054:
3045:
3044:
3031:
3022:
3018:
3010:
3006:
2987:
2983:
2975:
2971:
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2959:
2950:
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2922:
2920:
2915:
2914:
2910:
2898:
2894:
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2872:
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2860:
2856:
2847:
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2829:
2825:
2816:
2809:
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2781:
2770:
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2749:
2741:
2737:
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2713:
2709:
2701:
2690:
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2678:
2669:
2660:
2651:
2642:
2634:
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2610:
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2594:
2586:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2550:
2543:
2534:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2469:
2456:
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2440:
2428:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2404:
2400:
2392:
2385:
2377:
2373:
2365:
2356:
2348:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2323:
2319:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2296:
2285:
2277:
2266:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2244:
2231:
2223:
2216:
2207:
2203:
2199:, pp. 80â2
2195:
2186:
2176:
2172:
2164:
2155:
2147:
2138:
2130:
2123:
2115:
2111:
2103:
2099:
2089:
2085:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2043:
2036:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2018:Sardinenpackung
2014:
2010:
2002:
1995:
1986:
1979:
1970:
1963:
1955:
1938:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1907:
1895:
1891:
1882:
1878:
1869:
1865:
1853:
1849:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1827:
1818:
1814:
1806:
1797:
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1608:
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1599:
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1584:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1538:
1533:
1526:
1518:
1511:
1507:
1495:
1454:
1426:Herberts Cukurs
1405:
1378:
1372:
1343:Einsatzkommando
1341:, commander of
1336:
1314:
1305:
1298:
1286:
1281:
1272:
1251:
1244:
1227:
1221:
1181:
1168:
1162:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1127:
1120:
1108:
1095:
1060:Reichskommissar
1056:
1050:
1044:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1017:
1003:
996:
977:
968:
962:
959:
956:
953:
951:
942:Frida Michelson
929:
924:
913:Herberts Cukurs
904:
857:
840:
835:
827:Wilhelm Canaris
811:
772:
769:
754:Ordnungspolizei
741:
732:
694:Ordnungspolizei
663:Sardinenpackung
651:
633:Paul Degenhardt
621:
605:Einsatzkommando
565:
528:
519:War Merit Cross
504:
494:
455:
449:
428:
359:
353:
325:
297:
278:Herberts Cukurs
180:
147:and (possibly)
137:Ordnungspolizei
122:Herberts Cukurs
120:
104:
99:
94:
39:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7586:
7576:
7575:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7543:1941 in Latvia
7540:
7535:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7518:Einsatzgruppen
7515:
7466:
7465:
7463:
7462:
7457:
7452:
7450:Korherr Report
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7430:The Black Book
7427:
7421:
7419:
7415:
7414:
7411:
7410:
7408:
7407:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7371:
7369:
7363:
7362:
7360:
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7351:
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7344:
7342:
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7336:
7330:
7328:
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7319:
7318:
7311:
7304:
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7296:
7290:
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7287:
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7260:
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7041:
7033:
7025:
7016:
7014:
7007:
7003:
7002:
6999:
6998:
6996:
6995:
6990:
6988:KonrÄds KalÄjs
6985:
6980:
6975:
6969:
6967:
6963:
6962:
6960:
6959:
6957:Albert Widmann
6954:
6952:Heinz Schubert
6949:
6944:
6942:Emil Haussmann
6939:
6937:Joachim Hamann
6934:
6932:Lothar Fendler
6929:
6923:
6921:
6917:
6916:
6914:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6901:Eduard Strauch
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6801:Gerhard Flesch
6798:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6776:Otto Bradfisch
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6743:
6738:
6733:
6727:
6725:
6712:
6711:
6709:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6693:
6688:
6683:
6681:Otto Ohlendorf
6678:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6632:
6630:
6628:Einsatzgruppen
6625:Commanders of
6622:
6621:
6619:
6618:
6613:
6607:
6605:
6598:
6594:
6593:
6583:Einsatzgruppen
6578:
6577:
6570:
6563:
6555:
6546:
6545:
6542:
6541:
6539:
6538:
6530:
6521:
6518:
6517:
6515:
6514:
6507:
6500:
6493:
6486:
6479:
6472:
6465:
6458:
6451:
6444:
6436:
6434:
6425:
6424:
6416:
6407:
6405:
6401:
6400:
6398:
6397:
6389:
6381:
6373:
6365:
6357:
6349:
6341:
6333:
6325:
6317:
6309:
6301:
6292:
6290:
6286:
6285:
6282:
6281:
6279:
6278:
6270:
6262:
6254:
6245:
6243:
6235:
6234:
6232:
6231:
6224:
6217:
6210:
6203:
6196:
6189:
6181:
6179:
6171:
6170:
6168:
6167:
6160:
6157:Matzuva attack
6153:
6146:
6139:
6132:
6125:
6118:
6111:
6103:
6101:
6093:
6092:
6090:
6089:
6082:
6074:
6072:
6065:
6058:
6054:
6053:
6050:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6042:
6034:
6026:
6022:Purim massacre
6018:
6010:
6002:
5994:
5986:
5977:
5975:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5963:
5959:Purim stabbing
5955:
5947:
5939:
5931:
5923:
5915:
5907:
5898:
5896:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5884:
5876:
5868:
5860:
5852:
5844:
5836:
5828:
5819:
5817:
5809:
5808:
5806:
5805:
5797:
5793:Tripoli pogrom
5789:
5781:
5773:
5764:
5762:
5754:
5753:
5751:
5750:
5742:
5740:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5728:
5721:
5718:Cairo bombings
5714:
5707:
5700:
5692:
5690:
5682:
5681:
5679:
5678:
5671:
5664:
5657:
5650:
5642:
5640:
5632:
5631:
5629:
5628:
5621:
5614:
5606:
5604:
5597:
5593:
5592:
5589:
5588:
5586:
5585:
5578:
5571:
5564:
5557:
5549:
5547:
5539:
5538:
5536:
5535:
5527:
5520:
5517:LuduČ massacre
5513:
5505:
5503:
5495:
5494:
5492:
5491:
5484:
5477:
5469:
5467:
5459:
5458:
5456:
5455:
5452:Sarny massacre
5448:
5441:
5433:
5431:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5411:
5404:
5397:
5390:
5383:
5376:
5369:
5362:
5355:
5348:
5341:
5334:
5327:
5320:
5313:
5306:
5299:
5292:
5284:
5282:
5274:
5273:
5271:
5270:
5267:Dorohoi pogrom
5262:
5260:
5252:
5251:
5249:
5248:
5241:
5238:DynĂłw massacre
5234:
5226:
5224:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5205:
5197:
5195:
5188:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5178:
5159:
5155:Przytyk pogrom
5151:
5143:
5139:Thrace pogroms
5135:
5127:
5119:
5111:
5107:Safed massacre
5103:
5088:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5065:
5058:
5051:
5044:
5037:
5030:
5023:
5016:
5008:
5006:
4996:
4995:
4988:
4981:
4973:
4965:
4957:
4949:
4941:
4933:
4925:
4921:Siedlce pogrom
4917:
4909:
4901:
4893:
4885:
4877:
4869:
4860:
4858:
4851:
4847:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4840:
4839:
4831:
4822:
4819:
4818:
4816:
4815:
4808:
4801:
4793:
4791:
4788:Russian Empire
4781:
4780:
4772:
4764:
4756:
4748:
4744:Safed massacre
4740:
4732:
4724:
4716:
4708:
4700:
4696:TĂŠtouan pogrom
4692:
4684:
4676:
4672:Safed massacre
4668:
4659:
4657:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4641:
4633:
4625:
4617:
4609:
4601:
4593:
4589:Cordoba pogrom
4585:
4577:
4569:
4561:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4545:
4538:
4531:
4524:
4517:
4509:
4507:
4497:
4496:
4488:
4484:Navarre pogrom
4480:
4471:
4469:
4462:
4458:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4442:
4434:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4418:
4411:
4404:
4396:
4394:
4384:
4383:
4375:
4367:
4358:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4348:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4336:
4328:
4320:
4312:
4303:
4301:
4300:Jewish revolts
4294:
4293:
4285:
4276:
4274:
4267:
4263:
4262:
4247:
4246:
4239:
4232:
4224:
4215:
4214:
4212:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4195:
4193:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4185:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4172:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4162:Paul Schiemann
4159:
4153:
4151:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4118:
4116:
4115:
4109:
4107:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4030:Arajs Kommando
4027:
4021:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
3999:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3975:Einsatzgruppen
3971:
3969:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3959:Eduard Strauch
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3889:KonrÄds KalÄjs
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3859:Fritz Dietrich
3856:
3851:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3809:
3807:
3803:
3802:
3800:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3707:
3704:
3703:
3696:
3695:
3688:
3681:
3673:
3667:
3666:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3638:
3637:External links
3635:
3634:
3633:
3619:
3605:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3584:
3571:
3559:
3549:
3539:Nizkor website
3528:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3507:
3501:
3492:
3478:
3464:
3450:
3442:
3428:
3414:
3397:
3383:
3378:
3364:
3359:
3342:
3329:
3311:
3308:
3289:
3270:
3264:
3244:
3239:978-9984905433
3238:
3223:
3217:
3199:
3184:
3170:
3165:
3159:
3142:
3136:
3116:
3102:
3097:978-0857456014
3096:
3081:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3029:
3016:
3004:
2981:
2969:
2957:
2944:
2908:
2900:David Cesarani
2892:
2879:
2866:
2854:
2836:
2823:
2807:
2792:
2779:
2764:
2747:
2745:, p. 150.
2735:
2720:
2707:
2688:
2676:
2658:
2640:
2623:
2608:
2592:
2590:, p. 259.
2580:
2578:, p. 254.
2568:
2556:
2541:
2528:
2516:
2504:
2502:, p. 251.
2492:
2490:, p. 251.
2479:
2459:Zuroff, Efraim
2450:
2422:
2410:
2398:
2383:
2381:, p. 252.
2371:
2354:
2342:
2330:
2317:
2303:
2283:
2281:, p. 396.
2264:
2250:
2229:
2214:
2201:
2184:
2170:
2153:
2136:
2121:
2119:, p. 143.
2109:
2107:, p. 242.
2097:
2092:Einsatzgruppen
2083:
2070:
2051:
2049:, p. 152.
2034:
2022:
2008:
1993:
1977:
1961:
1936:
1920:
1905:
1889:
1876:
1863:
1847:
1835:
1825:
1812:
1795:
1782:
1772:
1750:
1740:
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1705:
1695:
1686:
1674:
1662:
1650:
1606:
1597:
1582:
1569:
1536:
1524:
1522:, p. 239.
1508:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1501:
1494:
1491:
1453:
1450:
1436:Eduard Strauch
1404:
1401:
1371:
1368:
1355:Final Solution
1332:Main article:
1313:
1310:
1296:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1268:
1242:
1219:
1180:
1177:
1160:
1150:
1147:
1137:
1118:
1107:
1104:
1094:
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1055:
1052:
1042:
1026:
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994:
976:
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957:
947:
922:
903:
900:
856:
853:
839:
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834:
831:
810:
807:
802:
801:
798:
795:
767:
740:
737:
731:
728:
727:
726:
722:
717:or some other
710:
707:
704:
701:
698:
689:
686:
675:Otto Ohlendorf
671:Einsatzgruppen
667:Einsatzgruppen
650:
649:Jeckeln system
647:
620:
617:
593:Ernst Hemicker
564:
561:
527:
524:
493:
490:
451:Main article:
448:
445:
427:
424:
416:ArÄjs Commando
387:Einsatzgruppen
357:Einsatzgruppen
352:
349:
324:
321:
296:
293:
289:Einsatzgruppen
283:Einsatzgruppen
255:Arajs Kommando
194:
193:
190:
186:
185:
182:Otto Drechsler
174:
170:
169:
166:
162:
161:
156:
152:
151:
141:Arajs Kommando
133:Einsatzgruppen
130:
126:
125:
114:
110:
109:
106:Eduard Strauch
88:
84:
83:
77:
73:
72:
69:
65:
64:
50:
46:
45:
42:
36:
35:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7585:
7574:
7571:
7569:
7566:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7529:
7526:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7510:
7508:
7501:
7498:
7461:
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7422:
7420:
7416:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7400:Mizocz Ghetto
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7380:Drobytsky Yar
7378:
7376:
7373:
7372:
7370:
7368:
7364:
7358:
7355:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7346:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7332:
7331:
7329:
7327:
7323:
7317:
7316:
7312:
7310:
7309:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7299:
7297:
7295:
7291:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7261:
7259:
7257:
7253:
7247:
7244:
7242:
7239:
7237:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7227:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7218:
7216:
7214:
7210:
7204:
7201:
7200:
7198:
7196:
7192:
7186:
7185:Slutsk Affair
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7175:Ĺachwa Ghetto
7173:
7172:
7170:
7168:
7164:
7161:
7157:
7147:
7146:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7133:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7121:
7116:
7113:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7092:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7081:
7075:
7074:
7070:
7068:
7067:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7055:
7054:
7050:
7047:
7046:
7042:
7039:
7038:
7034:
7031:
7030:
7026:
7023:
7022:
7021:Schutzstaffel
7018:
7017:
7015:
7011:
7008:
7004:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6973:Viktors ArÄjs
6971:
6970:
6968:
6966:Collaborators
6964:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6927:August Becker
6925:
6924:
6922:
6920:Other members
6918:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6902:
6899:
6897:
6896:Eugen Steimle
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6781:Werner Braune
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6719:
6715:Commanders of
6713:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6689:
6687:
6684:
6682:
6679:
6677:
6674:
6672:
6671:Erich Naumann
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6656:Wilhelm Fuchs
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6631:
6629:
6623:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6602:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6590:
6585:
6584:
6576:
6571:
6569:
6564:
6562:
6557:
6556:
6553:
6535:
6531:
6527:
6523:
6522:
6512:
6508:
6505:
6501:
6498:
6494:
6491:
6487:
6484:
6483:Netiv HaAsara
6480:
6477:
6473:
6470:
6466:
6463:
6459:
6456:
6452:
6449:
6448:Ein HaShlosha
6445:
6442:
6438:
6437:
6435:
6433:
6429:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6408:
6406:
6402:
6394:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6346:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6297:Itamar attack
6294:
6293:
6291:
6287:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6246:
6244:
6240:
6229:
6225:
6222:
6218:
6215:
6211:
6208:
6204:
6201:
6197:
6194:
6190:
6187:
6183:
6182:
6180:
6176:
6165:
6164:Hebron ambush
6161:
6158:
6154:
6151:
6147:
6144:
6140:
6137:
6133:
6130:
6126:
6123:
6119:
6116:
6115:Hadera attack
6112:
6109:
6105:
6104:
6102:
6098:
6087:
6083:
6080:
6076:
6075:
6073:
6069:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6055:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6023:
6019:
6015:
6011:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5978:
5976:
5972:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5899:
5897:
5893:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5814:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5759:
5748:
5744:
5743:
5741:
5737:
5726:
5722:
5719:
5715:
5712:
5708:
5705:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5693:
5691:
5687:
5676:
5672:
5669:
5665:
5662:
5658:
5655:
5651:
5648:
5644:
5643:
5641:
5637:
5626:
5622:
5619:
5615:
5612:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5601:
5598:
5594:
5583:
5579:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5568:KrakĂłw pogrom
5565:
5562:
5558:
5555:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5544:
5532:
5528:
5525:
5521:
5518:
5514:
5511:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5500:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5478:
5475:
5471:
5470:
5468:
5464:
5453:
5449:
5446:
5442:
5439:
5435:
5434:
5432:
5428:
5416:
5415:The Holocaust
5412:
5409:
5405:
5402:
5398:
5395:
5394:Ĺ venÄionÄliai
5391:
5388:
5384:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5370:
5367:
5363:
5360:
5356:
5353:
5349:
5346:
5342:
5339:
5335:
5332:
5328:
5325:
5321:
5318:
5314:
5311:
5310:Kaunas (June)
5307:
5304:
5300:
5297:
5293:
5290:
5286:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5268:
5264:
5263:
5261:
5257:
5246:
5245:Silc massacre
5242:
5239:
5235:
5232:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5221:
5210:
5209:Kristallnacht
5206:
5203:
5199:
5198:
5196:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5183:
5173:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5098:
5093:
5092:Oradea pogrom
5089:
5085:
5081:
5080:
5070:
5066:
5063:
5059:
5056:
5052:
5049:
5045:
5042:
5038:
5035:
5031:
5028:
5024:
5021:
5017:
5014:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5000:
4993:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4969:Kielce pogrom
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4929:Shiraz pogrom
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4824:
4823:
4813:
4809:
4806:
4802:
4799:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4785:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4736:Hebron pogrom
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4712:Hep-Hep riots
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4630:
4629:Hebron pogrom
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4553:
4543:
4539:
4536:
4532:
4529:
4525:
4522:
4518:
4515:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4463:
4459:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4426:
4416:
4412:
4409:
4405:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4388:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4359:
4357:
4353:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4277:
4275:
4271:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4245:
4240:
4238:
4233:
4231:
4226:
4225:
4222:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4199:The Holocaust
4197:
4196:
4194:
4190:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4114:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4104:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4085:Documentation
4083:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4025:Organizations
4023:
4022:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4008:Viktors ArÄjs
4006:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3996:
3995:Collaborators
3992:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3909:Hinrich Lohse
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3849:Alois Brunner
3847:
3846:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3808:
3804:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3763:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3719:
3717:
3716:The Holocaust
3714:
3709:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3689:
3687:
3682:
3680:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3640:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3593:Katz, Josef,
3592:
3591:
3582:
3581:Mazel library
3578:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3557:
3553:
3550:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3529:
3526:
3521:
3520:
3512:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3493:
3491:
3490:0-7867-1640-1
3487:
3483:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3463:
3462:0-275-97050-7
3459:
3455:
3451:
3449:
3443:
3441:
3440:0-664-22353-2
3437:
3433:
3429:
3427:
3426:0-8050-6810-4
3423:
3419:
3415:
3413:
3412:0-306-80351-8
3409:
3405:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3395:0-8101-1729-0
3392:
3388:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3376:0-89604-029-1
3373:
3369:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:0-02-917425-2
3354:
3350:
3346:
3343:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3319:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3306:0-300-09557-0
3303:
3299:
3298:
3293:
3292:Hilberg, Raul
3290:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3279:
3274:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3235:
3231:
3230:
3224:
3220:
3218:0-8018-4969-1
3214:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3200:
3197:
3196:0-395-93747-7
3193:
3189:
3185:
3183:
3182:0-8133-1411-9
3179:
3175:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3151:
3150:
3143:
3139:
3137:0-521-77490-X
3133:
3128:
3127:
3121:
3117:
3115:
3114:0-19-820872-3
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3093:
3089:
3088:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3034:
3026:
3020:
3013:
3008:
3001:
3000:0-85303-525-3
2997:
2994:
2992:
2985:
2979:
2973:
2966:
2961:
2954:
2948:
2939:
2933:
2918:
2912:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2889:
2886:Friedländer,
2883:
2876:
2870:
2863:
2858:
2851:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2833:
2827:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2805:, p. 70.
2804:
2803:Kaufmann 2010
2799:
2797:
2789:
2786:Friedländer,
2783:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2744:
2743:Kaufmann 2010
2739:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2717:
2711:
2704:
2703:Kaufmann 2010
2699:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2685:
2680:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2655:
2652:Friedlander,
2649:
2647:
2645:
2637:
2636:Kaufmann 2010
2632:
2630:
2628:
2620:
2619:Kaufmann 2010
2615:
2613:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2565:
2560:
2554:, p. 88.
2553:
2548:
2546:
2538:
2535:Reprinted in
2532:
2525:
2520:
2514:, p. 63.
2513:
2512:Kaufmann 2010
2508:
2501:
2496:
2489:
2483:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2454:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2426:
2419:
2414:
2407:
2402:
2395:
2394:Kaufmann 2010
2390:
2388:
2380:
2375:
2368:
2367:Kaufmann 2010
2363:
2361:
2359:
2351:
2346:
2340:, p. 89.
2339:
2334:
2327:
2321:
2307:
2300:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2280:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2260:
2254:
2247:
2246:Kaufmann 2010
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2226:
2221:
2219:
2211:
2205:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2181:
2180:Kaufmann 2010
2174:
2167:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2133:
2128:
2126:
2118:
2113:
2106:
2101:
2093:
2087:
2080:
2074:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2039:
2026:
2019:
2012:
2005:
2000:
1998:
1990:
1984:
1982:
1974:
1968:
1966:
1958:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1933:
1927:
1925:
1917:
1912:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1887:, at page 267
1886:
1883:Friedländer,
1880:
1873:
1870:Friedländer,
1867:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1844:
1839:
1829:
1822:
1816:
1809:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1792:
1786:
1776:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1744:
1737:
1734:Friedländer,
1731:
1721:
1719:
1709:
1699:
1690:
1683:
1678:
1672:, p. 88.
1671:
1666:
1659:
1654:
1647:
1641:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1629:
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1514:
1509:
1500:
1497:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1469:Star of David
1465:
1458:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1419:Viktors Arajs
1416:
1414:
1410:
1409:Hinrich Lohse
1397:
1393:
1389:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1367:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1352:
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1172:
1166:
1159:
1154:
1142:
1136:
1131:
1124:
1117:
1112:
1103:
1101:
1100:Schutzpolizei
1090:
1088:
1087:Viktors Arajs
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1067:Hinrich Lohse
1065:
1061:
1048:
1041:
1036:
1024:
1012:
1010:
1007:police Major
1000:
993:
988:
986:
981:
972:
955:
945:
943:
938:
935:
927:
921:
916:
914:
908:
899:
897:
896:the Great War
893:
887:
883:
881:
877:
873:
868:
866:
862:
852:
848:
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830:
828:
824:
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789:
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782:
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766:
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750:
748:
747:Schutzpolizei
736:
723:
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705:
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690:
687:
684:
683:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
646:
643:
639:
638:Daugava River
634:
625:
616:
612:
610:
606:
602:
596:
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589:
582:
578:
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569:
560:
558:
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538:
534:
520:
516:
512:
508:
503:
499:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
470:Hinrich Lohse
466:
462:
461:
454:
444:
442:
441:Einsatzgruppe
438:
433:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
404:
399:
395:
394:
389:
388:
383:
379:
378:Baltic States
371:
367:
366:Hinrich Lohse
363:
358:
348:
346:
342:
338:
337:Daugava river
334:
330:
320:
318:
314:
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306:
302:
292:
290:
286:
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279:
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267:
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249:Einsatzgruppe
245:
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237:
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229:
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221:
217:
213:
209:
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201:
191:
187:
183:
178:
177:Hinrich Lohse
175:
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163:
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150:
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142:
138:
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131:
129:Organizations
127:
123:
118:
117:Viktors ArÄjs
115:
111:
107:
102:
97:
92:
89:
85:
81:
78:
76:Incident type
74:
70:
66:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
40:Also known as
37:
30:
25:
20:
7470:
7445:Jäger Report
7395:Lviv pogroms
7314:
7306:
7240:
7203:Kalevi-Liiva
7180:Minsk Ghetto
7143:
7132:Rollkommando
7131:
7119:
7089:
7073:Sonderdienst
7071:
7064:
7051:
7043:
7035:
7032: (RSHA)
7027:
7019:
6947:Felix Landau
6906:Martin Weiss
6886:Erwin Schulz
6861:Walter Rauff
6841:Rudolf Lange
6796:Ernst Damzog
6786:Karl Brunner
6766:Walter Blume
6736:Gerhard Bast
6722:
6717:
6666:Bruno MĂźller
6627:
6587:
6581:
6412:Israel riots
6404:2020âpresent
6057:21st century
5998:AMIA bombing
5582:Cairo pogrom
5407:
5163:Brest pogrom
4953:Skver pogrom
4850:20th century
4827:Corfu pogrom
4728:Tzfat pogrom
4637:Safed pogrom
4613:Arles pogrom
4565:1391 pogroms
4430:Ham massacre
4371:Fez massacre
4097:Jäger Report
3939:Albert Sauer
3904:Rudolf Lange
3842:Perpetrators
3828:Simon Dubnow
3791:
3711:Main article
3622:
3608:
3594:
3574:
3566:
3555:
3534:
3524:
3496:
3481:
3480:Smith, Lyn,
3467:
3453:
3431:
3417:
3403:
3386:
3367:
3348:
3335:the original
3316:
3295:
3277:
3251:
3228:
3207:
3187:
3173:
3148:
3125:
3105:
3086:
3055:. Retrieved
3050:
3024:
3019:
3007:
2990:
2984:
2977:
2972:
2960:
2952:
2947:
2921:. Retrieved
2911:
2903:
2895:
2890:. pp. 362-3.
2887:
2882:
2874:
2869:
2857:
2849:
2831:
2830:Reitlinger,
2826:
2818:
2787:
2782:
2773:
2767:
2759:
2755:
2750:
2738:
2718:. pp. 89-93.
2715:
2710:
2679:
2671:
2656:. pp. 261-3.
2653:
2603:
2583:
2571:
2559:
2552:Fleming 1994
2537:Fleming 1994
2531:
2519:
2507:
2495:
2482:
2470:. Retrieved
2453:
2441:. Retrieved
2435:
2425:
2413:
2401:
2374:
2345:
2338:Fleming 1994
2333:
2325:
2320:
2306:
2298:
2253:
2209:
2204:
2197:Fleming 1994
2173:
2166:Fleming 1994
2112:
2100:
2091:
2086:
2073:
2054:
2025:
2017:
2011:
1991:. pp. 76-86.
1988:
1973:Fleming 1994
1931:
1916:Fleming 1994
1900:
1892:
1884:
1879:
1871:
1866:
1858:
1855:Fleming 1994
1850:
1843:Fleming 1994
1838:
1828:
1815:
1790:
1789:Reitlinger,
1785:
1775:
1743:
1735:
1730:
1708:
1698:
1689:
1677:
1670:Fleming 1994
1665:
1653:
1646:Fleming 1994
1600:
1577:
1572:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1466:
1463:
1444:
1434:
1424:
1417:
1406:
1383:
1379:
1364:Wilhelm Kube
1359:
1342:
1339:Rudolf Lange
1337:
1325:
1307:
1300:
1292:
1287:
1273:
1264:
1260:Simon Dubnow
1257:
1253:
1246:
1238:
1229:
1223:
1216:
1207:
1203:
1191:
1188:Simon Dubnow
1173:
1170:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1140:
1133:
1129:
1122:
1114:
1109:
1099:
1096:
1082:
1079:Roberts Osis
1074:
1059:
1057:
1046:
1038:
1033:
1015:
1005:
998:
990:
982:
978:
969:
948:
939:
931:
925:
918:
909:
905:
888:
884:
879:
869:
858:
849:
845:
841:
819:Walter Bruns
812:
803:
785:
778:
774:
763:Einzeldienst
762:
760:
752:
746:
742:
733:
692:
678:
670:
666:
662:
652:
630:
613:
601:Erwin Schulz
597:
590:
586:
580:
554:
550:Adolf Hitler
529:
515:World War II
458:
456:
440:
429:
401:
391:
385:
375:
344:
326:
308:
298:
295:Nomenclature
288:
282:
270:Rudolf Lange
248:
232:Latvian Jews
216:World War II
199:
197:
184:, and others
124:, and others
113:Participants
108:, and others
101:Roberts Osis
96:Rudolf Lange
87:Perpetrators
7492: /
7236:Pogulianski
6806:Ludwig Hahn
6761:Paul Blobel
6741:Rudolf Batz
6676:Arthur Nebe
6646:Horst BĂśhme
5761:1950sâ1960s
5533:(1944â1945)
5417:(1941â1945)
5166: [
5095: [
5005:(1918â1920)
4977:LwĂłw pogrom
4945:LwĂłw pogrom
4889:Kiev pogrom
4790:(1881â1884)
4680:Mawza Exile
4666:(1648â1657)
4506:(1348â1350)
4494:(1336â1339)
4440:(1189â1190)
4157:JÄnis Lipke
4106:Concealment
4071:Riga Ghetto
4018:KÄrlis Lobe
4003:Individuals
3854:Rudolf Batz
3833:Else Hirsch
3787:Pogulianski
3445:(in German)
3345:Klee, Ernst
2850:Remembering
2819:Remembering
2674:. pp. 85-8.
2606:. pp. 77-8.
2328:. pp. 75-7.
2212:, pp. 74-7.
2079:Paul Blobel
1793:. p. 186n1.
1660:, p. 33n81.
1477:Riga Ghetto
1452:Remembrance
1299:Lyn Smith,
1143:, pp. 106-7
1001:, pp. 253â4
453:Riga ghetto
382:World War I
315:before the
311:). In the
240:German Jews
236:Riga Ghetto
228:death camps
159:Riga ghetto
7507:Categories
7480:24°14â˛45âłE
7477:56°53â˛07âłN
7264:Ninth Fort
7108:Lithuanian
7096:Belarusian
7083:Non-German
6816:Karl Jäger
6691:Otto Rasch
6661:Heinz Jost
5618:Kunmadaras
5027:Justingrad
4535:Strasbourg
4134:Riga Trial
3884:Heinz Jost
3874:Karl Jäger
3265:0520060229
3068:References
3057:2019-02-06
3023:Edelheit,
2923:2009-03-10
2873:Breitman,
2754:Eksteins,
2472:4 December
2443:1 November
1934:, page 150
1930:Eksteins,
1845:, plate 3.
1576:Edelheit,
1249:, pp. 85-8
1211:Daugavpils
1062:) for the
1009:Karl Heise
892:Iron Cross
781:Karl Heise
603:, head of
557:Ritterhaus
496:See also:
355:See also:
345:VÄrnu meĹžs
333:Daugavpils
7385:Drohobycz
7315:AB-Aktion
7256:Lithuania
7112:Ukrainian
6891:Franz Six
6289:2010â2019
6242:2004â2009
6064:2000â2009
5596:1946â1999
5317:Szczuczyn
5289:Bucharest
5186:1938â1945
5062:Proskurov
5020:Radomyshl
4937:The Tritl
4857:1900â1937
4656:1600â1899
4468:1300â1599
4355:1000â1299
4334:(614â617)
4326:(351â352)
4318:(132â136)
4251:Massacres
4204:The Mover
4176:Memorials
3736:Lithuania
2976:Bloxham,
2955:. p. 198.
2951:Bloxham,
2324:Roseman,
2301:. p. 365.
2297:Hilberg,
719:Communist
642:Salaspils
581:judenfrei
465:neologism
463:, a Nazi
460:judenrein
351:Holocaust
234:from the
214:, during
189:Memorials
173:Witnesses
149:Wehrmacht
7375:Babi Yar
7349:Slovakia
7120:Kommando
7100:Estonian
6604:Director
6476:Nahal Oz
6469:Kissufim
6462:Kfar Aza
6186:Istanbul
5380:Babi Yar
5345:Jedwabne
4752:Allahdad
4342:(628 CE)
4257:against
3542:Archived
3256:Berkeley
3250:(1994).
3122:(1999).
2932:cite web
1493:See also
1360:Ostjuden
1326:Lettland
1297:â
1243:â
1220:â
1161:â
1138:â
1125:, p. 255
1119:â
1043:â
1027:â
995:â
958:â
923:â
768:â
657:and the
655:Babi Yar
609:Babi Yar
541:Babi Yar
502:Babi Yar
410:, where
323:Location
244:massacre
80:Genocide
49:Location
7418:Records
7367:Ukraine
7241:Rumbula
7231:Jelgava
7195:Estonia
7167:Belarus
7104:Latvian
6511:Yakhini
6379:(2019)
5704:Djerada
5697:Tripoli
5625:Miskolc
5408:Rumbula
5366:Tykocin
5296:Antwerp
5157:(1936)
5041:Zviahel
4310:(66â73)
4255:pogroms
3818:Gypsies
3806:Victims
3792:Rumbula
3782:Jelgava
3756:Ukraine
3731:Estonia
3726:Belarus
2848:Smith,
2817:Smith,
2095:alive."
1903:, at 75
1703:areas."
1473:menorah
1403:Justice
1193:Yiddish
1064:Ostland
865:Himmler
788:Hamburg
577:Estonia
537:Ukraine
432:pogroms
408:LiepÄja
341:Latvian
266:Ukraine
224:Ukraine
192:On site
165:Victims
7326:Russia
7294:Poland
7284:Ponary
7213:Latvia
7159:Crimes
7134:Hamann
7118:Arajs
7056:(Orpo)
7040:(SiPo)
7013:German
7006:Groups
6597:People
6536:(2024)
6528:(2023)
6490:Nir Oz
6441:Be'eri
6422:(2022)
6414:(2021)
6395:(2019)
6387:(2019)
6371:(2018)
6363:(2017)
6355:(2016)
6347:(2015)
6339:(2014)
6331:(2014)
6323:(2014)
6315:(2012)
6307:(2012)
6299:(2011)
6276:(2008)
6268:(2006)
6260:(2004)
6252:(2004)
6040:(1997)
6032:(1997)
6024:(1996)
6016:(1995)
6008:(1994)
6000:(1994)
5992:(1991)
5984:(1990)
5961:(1989)
5953:(1986)
5945:(1985)
5937:(1982)
5929:(1981)
5921:(1981)
5913:(1980)
5905:(1980)
5882:(1979)
5874:(1978)
5866:(1975)
5858:(1974)
5850:(1974)
5842:(1972)
5834:(1972)
5826:(1970)
5803:(1968)
5795:(1967)
5787:(1956)
5779:(1954)
5771:(1952)
5675:Manama
5668:Aleppo
5611:Kielce
5387:Odessa
5359:Ponary
5352:Farhud
5338:WÄ
sosz
5176:(1937)
5149:(1936)
5141:(1934)
5133:(1934)
5125:(1931)
5117:(1929)
5109:(1929)
5101:(1927)
5086:(1921)
5055:Fastov
4979:(1918)
4971:(1918)
4963:(1917)
4955:(1917)
4947:(1914)
4939:(1912)
4931:(1910)
4923:(1906)
4915:(1906)
4907:(1905)
4899:(1905)
4891:(1905)
4883:(1903)
4875:(1903)
4867:(1902)
4837:(1898)
4829:(1891)
4805:Warsaw
4778:(1871)
4770:(1859)
4762:(1840)
4754:(1839)
4746:(1838)
4738:(1834)
4730:(1834)
4722:(1821)
4714:(1819)
4706:(1805)
4698:(1790)
4690:(1768)
4682:(1679)
4674:(1660)
4647:(1536)
4639:(1517)
4631:(1517)
4623:(1506)
4615:(1484)
4607:(1478)
4599:(1474)
4591:(1473)
4583:(1465)
4575:(1401)
4567:(1391)
4559:(1370)
4542:Zurich
4528:Speyer
4514:Erfurt
4486:(1328)
4478:(1320)
4448:(1298)
4432:(1143)
4415:Mainz
4408:Speyer
4393:(1096)
4381:(1066)
4373:(1033)
4365:(1013)
3765:Crimes
3751:Russia
3746:Poland
3741:Norway
3629:
3615:
3601:
3488:
3474:
3460:
3438:
3424:
3410:
3393:
3374:
3355:
3327:
3304:
3285:
3262:
3236:
3215:
3194:
3180:
3157:
3134:
3112:
3094:
2998:
1430:Mossad
1347:Latvia
1233:SS men
823:Abwehr
545:Berlin
526:Motive
486:ghetto
301:Latvia
212:Latvia
155:Ghetto
58:Latvia
7405:Odesa
6504:Re'im
6497:Nirim
6455:Holit
5974:1990s
5895:1980s
5816:1970s
5303:Gabès
5174:]
5099:]
5048:Pinsk
5034:Skver
4521:Basel
4401:Worms
4273:1â999
3338:(PDF)
3321:(PDF)
2832:Alibi
1791:Alibi
1505:Notes
1345:2 in
985:Torah
571:Nazi
285:trial
7048:(SD)
7024:(SS)
6586:and
6178:2003
6100:2002
6071:2001
5739:1949
5689:1948
5661:Aden
5639:1947
5603:1946
5546:1945
5502:1944
5466:1943
5430:1942
5331:Lviv
5324:IaČi
5281:1941
5259:1940
5223:1939
5194:1938
5069:Kiev
5013:Lida
4798:Kiev
4291:(66)
4283:(38)
4259:Jews
3627:ISBN
3613:ISBN
3599:ISBN
3499:1998
3486:ISBN
3472:ISBN
3458:ISBN
3436:ISBN
3422:ISBN
3408:ISBN
3391:ISBN
3372:ISBN
3353:ISBN
3325:ISBN
3302:ISBN
3283:ISBN
3260:ISBN
3234:ISBN
3213:ISBN
3192:ISBN
3178:ISBN
3155:ISBN
3132:ISBN
3110:ISBN
3092:ISBN
2996:ISBN
2938:link
2474:2010
2445:2015
1411:and
715:NKVD
500:and
482:Riga
329:Riga
208:Riga
204:Jews
198:The
68:Date
54:Riga
7139:TDA
4253:or
920:us.
343:as
222:in
7509::
7110:,
7106:,
7102:,
7098:,
5172:pl
5170:;
5168:de
5097:hu
3565:.
3548:).
3402:,
3294:,
3275:,
3254:.
3049:.
3032:^
2934:}}
2930:{{
2902:,
2839:^
2810:^
2795:^
2723:^
2691:^
2661:^
2643:^
2626:^
2611:^
2595:^
2544:^
2465:.
2434:.
2386:^
2357:^
2311:--
2286:^
2267:^
2232:^
2217:^
2187:^
2156:^
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