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210:, a major trade port between China and the US. US officials were worried that others would get infections from cargo carried by ships that would cross the Pacific Ocean. For these reasons, all ships were rigorously inspected. At that time, however, it was not widely known that rats could carry plague, and that fleas on those rats could transmit the disease to humans. Ships arriving in US ports were declared clean after inspection of the passengers showed no signs of disease. Health officials conducted no tests on rats or fleas. Despite important advances in the 1890s in the fight against bubonic plague, many of the world's doctors did not immediately change their ineffective and outdated methods.
681:, a prophylactic anti-plague vaccine that was intended to provide some protection against the plague for a 6-month period. No one spoke about the side effects and that the vaccine was still not approved for humans. Most Chinese residents refused and demanded the vaccine to be tested in rats first. At first, representatives of the Chinese community had agreed that inoculating the population with such serum could be a reasonable and safe solution, but soon after agreed with the rest of the Chinese population in that it was not ethical to try the vaccine in humans first. The representatives from the
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in the
Chinatown community reflected the social norms and racial inequalities during that time for Chinese immigrants. Housing for the majority of Chinatown Chinese immigrants was not fit nor adequate for human living, but with scarce housing options and landlords unwilling to provide equal and fair housing, Chinese immigrants were left little option other than to live with such housing disparities. Discrimination against Chinese Americans culminated in two acts, the quarantine of San Francisco's Chinatown, and the permanent extension of the
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Barker scheduled an inspection of the sick and dead on
February 6. The federal investigators split up the duties. Novy carried out bacteriological tests, while Barker accompanied by a Chinese interpreter visited the sick. By February 12, the team had studied six cases that all identified the characteristics of bubonic plague. This was confirmed by pathological and bacteriological data. Flexner, Novy, and Barker completed their investigation on February 16. They met with Governor Gage the same day and informed him of their conclusion.
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161:. His denial was based on business reasons, to protect the reputations of San Francisco and California and to prevent the loss of revenue due to quarantine. The failure to act quickly may have allowed the disease to establish itself among local animal populations. Federal authorities worked to prove that there was a major health problem, and they isolated the affected area; this undermined Gage's credibility, and he lost the governorship in the 1902 elections. The new governor,
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needed to engage in friendly cooperation with federal authorities. Gage sent representatives to
Washington to reach an agreement for federal authorities to suppress their findings concerning the plague in San Francisco. The federal authorities agreed to these demands after Gage's representatives verbally pledged to manage a sanitary campaign in Chinatown. This would be done secretively under the guidance of an expert from the
323:. The ship sailed between Honolulu and San Francisco regularly, and its passengers and crew were declared clean. Cargo from Honolulu, unloaded at a dock near the outfall of Chinatown's sewers, may have allowed rats carrying the plague to leave the ship and transmit the infection. However, it is difficult to trace the infection to a single vessel. Wherever it came from, the disease was soon established in the cramped Chinese
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to be at risk of infection. Participants in the house-to-house examination were mainly volunteer physicians and residents. On the contrary, other residents did not support the inspection and argued that the disinfecting plan was not being done in good faith. Believing a second quarantine would be soon implemented, worried residents began to flee quietly and hide in friends' houses outside of
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Japan. Kinyoun tried to hinder these advances because he did not want to publicly admit that there was an outbreak. White made his appearance in
January 1901. White and Kinyoun attended the autopsy of Chun Way Lung who was said to have suffered from gonorrhea. Wilfred Kellogg and Henry Ryfkogel conducted the autopsy and achieved respect from White by revealing that Lung had died from the
172:, including all of the Chinatown district. The process of rebuilding began immediately but took several years. While reconstruction was in full swing, a second plague epidemic hit San Francisco in May and August 1907 but it was not centered in Chinatown. Cases occurred randomly throughout the city, including cases identified across the bay in
252:, with severe internal organ damage β quickly leading to death. Not knowing precisely how to control the spread of the disease, city health officials decided to burn infected houses. On January 20, 1900, changing winds fanned the flames out of control, and nearly all of Chinatown burnedβ38 acres (15 ha)βleaving 6,000 without homes.
176:. San Francisco's politicians and press reacted very differently this time, wanting the problem to be solved speedily. Health authorities worked quickly to assess and eradicate the disease. Approximately $ 2 million was spent between 1907 and 1911 to kill as many rats as possible in the city in order to control one of the disease's
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Wilson called for A.P. O'Brien, a city health department officer, after finding suspiciously swollen lymph glands. Wilson and O'Brien then summoned
Wilfred H. Kellogg, San Francisco's city bacteriologist, and the three men performed an autopsy as night closed. Looking through his microscope, Kellogg thought he saw plague bacilli.
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streets now called Grant and
Jackson. The Globe Hotel was built in 1857, with the appearance of an Italian palazzo. However, by the mid-1870s it was a squalid tenement crowded with Chinese residents. Just outside, Jackson Street was the Chinese red-light district, where unmarried men could visit "hundred-men's-wives".
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general. Kinyoun desired that his reputation be restored and that his findings were valid so that he could continue to investigate plague cases. On
January 26, Flexner, Novy, and Barker arrived in San Francisco. The three scientists were appointed to an official commission to prove if the plague existed.
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urging that the federal experts work with state health authorities. Gage's request was not granted because the federal government wanted the commission to be allowed to work independently. They would relay all of their findings to the treasury department and then forwarded to Gage. Flexner, Novy, and
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to bring someone from the outside to investigate
Kinyoun's procedures. In December 1900 Wyman selected Assistant Surgeon General Joseph H. White to manage the investigation surrounding all of the Pacific Coast stations. White wanted to focus on how food was handled while being imported from China and
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Kinyoun's lab confirmed the disease was bubonic plague and informed the Health Board right away. In an attempt to avoid a second controversial quarantine, the Health Board continued with a house-to-house inspection to look for possible plague infested households β disinfecting those that were thought
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rights. The ruling required that the same restrictions, if any, be applied to everyone no matter their ethnic group. The defendants did not have enough evidence to prove that the
Chinese were transmitting the plague. Morrow agreed with the argument that if they were, the city would not have permitted
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Nevertheless, the Board of Health lifted the quarantine on March 9 after it had been in force for only 2Β½ days. O'Brien said, by way of explanation, that "the general clamor had become too great to ignore". The animals tested in
Kinyoun's lab seemed to be in normal conditions after the first 48 hours
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Governor Gage refused to support the diagnoses that were verified by the competent Pasteurians in San Francisco. Kinyoun was starting to express his frustration and suggested that independent outside experts confirm that the plague was present. White agreed and passed this information to the surgeon
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The Board then "attempted to sidestep the decision by instituting a quarantine order that avoided mention of race, but which was precisely drafted so as to encompass all of the Chinatown area of San Francisco while excluding white-owned businesses on the periphery of that area"; this effort was also
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San Francisco's quarantine measures were explicitly discriminatory and segregatory, allowing European Americans to leave the affected area, but Chinese and Japanese Americans required a health certificate to leave the city. Residents were initially angered as those with jobs outside of San Francisco
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was socially accepted during the initial time of the Chinatown plague in the early 1900s. Standard social rights and privileges were often denied to the Chinese people, as shown in the way landlords would refuse to maintain their own property when renting to Chinese immigrants. The living conditions
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When dawn came on March 7, 1900, Chinatown was circled by rope and surrounded by policemen preventing egress or access to anyone but Whites. The 12-block area was bordered by four streets: Broadway, Kearney, California and Stockton. Approximately 25,000β35,000 residents were unable to leave. Chinese
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Late at night, Kellogg ran the suspicious samples of lymph fluid to Angel Island to be tested on animals in Kinyoun's better-equipped laboratory β an operation that would take at least four days. Meanwhile, Wilson and O'Brien called upon the city's Board of Health and insisted that Chinatown be
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common to Chinatown's residents at that time. After failed medications and no relief for his illness, he died in his bed after suffering for four weeks. In the morning, the body was taken to a Chinese undertaker, where it was examined by San Francisco police surgeon Frank P. Wilson on March 6, 1900.
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A Chinese American named Chick Gin, Wing Chung Ging or Wong Chut King became the first official plague victim in California. The 41-year-old man, born in China and a San Francisco resident for 16 years, was a bachelor living in the basement of the Globe Hotel in Chinatown, at the intersection of the
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that he intervene. Secretary Gage agreed, creating a three-man commission of investigators who were respected medical scholars, experienced with identifying and treating the plague in China or India. The commission examined six San Francisco cases and conclusively determined that bubonic plague was
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This deal was designed to avoid impairing the state's reputation and economy. Surgeon general Wyman took the majority of the blame. He was accused of violating U.S. laws and breaking international agreements that required him to notify all nations that there was an existence of contagious disease.
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As days passed, more dead bodies were reported and autopsies revealed the presence of plague bacilli, indicating that a plague epidemic had hit San Francisco's Chinatown, but the health board still was trying to deny it. The health board attempted to keep all the information regarding the outbreak
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ruled uncharacteristically in favor of the Chinese, largely because the defense by the State of California was unable to prove that Chinese Americans were more susceptible to plague than Anglo Americans. The decision set a precedent for greater limits placed on public health authorities seeking to
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On March 11, Kinyoun's lab presented its results. Two guinea pigs and one rat died after being exposed to samples from the first victim, proving the plague was indeed in Chinatown. Without restoring the quarantine, the Board of Health inspected every building in Chinatown, and labored to disinfect
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In this atmosphere of grave danger, January 1900, Kinyoun ordered all ships coming to San Francisco from China, Japan, Australia and Hawaii to fly yellow flags to warn of possible plague on board. Many entrepreneurs and sailing men felt that this was bad for business, and unfair to ships that were
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Gage was upset and accused them of being a threat to public health. Over the next few weeks Gage questioned the diagnoses and blocked the publication of the final report. He blamed the commission of being biased and influenced by Kinyoun. Finally the two senators for California proposed that Gage
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The official inspection and disinfection of Chinatown finally began, thanks to the monetary contributions of the supervisors of the volunteer physicians, policemen, and inspectors that participated in the actual disinfection campaign. The sanitizing of Chinatown began to show results as the death
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Despite the secret agreement allowing for Kinyoun's removal, Gage went back on his promise of assisting federal authorities and continued to obstruct their efforts for study and quarantine. A report issued by the State Board of Health on September 16, 1901, bolstered Gage's claims, denying the
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As with the findings of Kinyoun, the Treasury commission's findings were again immediately denounced by Governor Gage. Gage believed the federal government's growing presence in the matter was a gross intrusion of what he viewed as a state concern. In his retaliation, Gage denied the federal
280:, on January 30, 1900, with 3 deaths out of 17 cases of confirmed plague. All of these ships were quarantined; they are not known to have infected the general population. However, it is possible that plague escaped some unknown ship by way of fleas or rats, later to infect US residents.
674:, was found in an alley in Chinatown. The cause of death of Law An was determined to be bubonic plague. After that, a few more Chinese residents that died suddenly were determined to be infested with plague bacilli. The fear that the bubonic plague was spreading intensified.
549:, yet laws to gag reports amongst the medical community succeeded in passage and were signed into law by the governor. In addition, $ 100,000 was allocated to a public campaign led by Gage to deny the plague's existence. Privately, however, Gage sent a special commission to
768:. Gage's public denials of the plague outbreak were to protect the state's economy and the business interests of his political allies. However, reports from federal agencies and certain newspapers continued to prove Gage incorrect. Other states were moving to quarantine or
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to identify and help the sick. The Health Board had to approve whether or not any health official crossed into the quarantined area. Due to lack of evidence that the cause of death of King was plague, the quarantine was removed the day after to avoid controversy.
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imposed quarantines of California β arguing that since the state had refused to admit to a health crisis within its borders, states receiving rail or shipping cargo from California ports had the duty to protect themselves. Threats of a national quarantine grew.
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the neighborhood. Property was taken and burned if it was suspected of harboring filth. Using physical violence, policemen enforced compliance with the Board of Health's directives. Angry and worried Chinese communities reacted by hiding those that were sick.
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under quarantine, without any notice to the residents β targeting Chinese residents only. White Americans that were walking the streets of Chinatown were allowed to leave; everybody else was forced to stay. Physicians were restricted from crossing into
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In his final speech, to the California State Legislature, in early January 1903, Gage continued to deny the outbreak. He blamed the federal government, in particular, Kinyoun, the MHS, and the San Francisco Board of Health for damaging the state's economy.
557:, newspaper and shipping lawyers to negotiate a settlement with the MHS, whereby the federal government would remove Kinyoun from San Francisco with the promise that the state would secretly cooperate with the MHS in stamping out the plague epidemic.
217:(MHS) chief surgeon, James M. Gassaway, felt obliged to refute rumors of plague in San Francisco. Supported by the city's health officer, Gassaway said that some Chinese residents had died of pneumonia or lung edema, and it was not bubonic plague.
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Upon the death of Wong Chut King, the San Francisco Health Board took immediate action to prevent the spread of plague: Chinatown was quarantined. Health officials, in order to prevent the propagation of the disease, made the decision of placing
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and all of the members of the San Francisco Board of Health. The Chinese wanted the courts to issue a provisional injunction to enforce what they argued was their constitutional right to travel outside of San Francisco. On July 3, 1900, Judge
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were prevented from working. Few Chinese agreed to take the inoculation, especially after press reports on May 22, 1900, that people who did agree were experiencing severe pain from the untested vaccine. On May 24, 1900, with the help of
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secret by implementing strict regulations of what physicians could write official death certificates. Nevertheless, newspapers published the news of the presence of bubonic plague in San Francisco to the entire nation, especially
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free of plague. City promoters were confident that plague could not take hold, and they were unhappy with what they saw as Kinyoun's high-handed abuse of authority. On February 4, 1900, the Sunday magazine supplement of the
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California, and the powerful shipping and rail companies sought a new leader. At the state Republican convention that year, the Railroad Republican faction refused Gage's renomination for governorship. In his place, former
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was identified as another vector of the disease. The initial denial of the 1900 infection may have allowed the pathogen to gain its first toehold in America, from which it spread sporadically to other states in the form of
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developed a vaccine to inoculate humans against the disease. These advancements were discussed in 1897 at medical conferences, but many doctors continued with their previous and outdated methods of dealing with the
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carried an article titled "Why San Francisco Is Plague-Proof". Certain American experts held the mistaken belief that a rice-based diet left Asians with a lower resistance to plague, and that a diet of meat kept
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in June 1899, had two plague deaths at sea, and there were two more cases of stowaways found dead in the bay, with postmortem cultures proving they had the plague. In New York in November 1899, the British ship
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was in favor of keeping the Chinese-speaking residents separated from the Anglo-Americans β claiming that Chinese Americans were unclean, filthy, and "a constant menace to the public health."
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545:, falsifying evidence. In response to what he said to be massive scaremongering by the MHS, Gage pushed a censorship bill to gag any media reports of plague infection. The bill failed in the
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Report of the Special Health Commissioners Appointed by the Governor to Confer with the Federal Authorities at Washington Respecting the Alleged Existence of Bubonic Plague in California
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felt that the quarantine was likely based on false assumptions and that it was entirely unfair to Chinese people and would seek an injunction to lift the quarantine. San Francisco mayor
446:, echoed Gage's denials, beginning what was to become an intense defamation campaign against quarantine officer Kinyoun. In response to the state's denial, Wyman recommended to federal
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Lipson, Loren George (August 1, 1972). "Plague in San Francisco in 1900: The United States Marine Hospital Service Commission To Study the Existence of Plague in San Francisco".
517:, also known as the Six Companies, filed suit on behalf of Wong Wai, a merchant who took a stance against what he perceived as a violation of his personal liberty. Not quite a
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of 1882. The extended quarantine of Chinatown was motivated more by racist images of Chinese Americans as carriers of disease than by actual evidence of the presence of
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toll slowly dropped throughout the month of March and the beginning of April. Towards the end of April, the corpse of Law An, a Chinese laborer from a village near the
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struck down, with the court noting that the boundaries of the quarantine corresponded with the ethnicity of building occupants rather than the presence of the disease.
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Tutorow, Norman E. (Summer 1996). "A Tale of Two Hospitals: U.S. Marine Hospital No. 19 and the U.S. Public Health Service Hospital on the Presidio of San Francisco".
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demanded the vaccination program to be eliminated as an option, and with much pressure and insistence from the Chinese community the vaccination program was halted.
513:, one known to have severe side effects. Spokesmen in Chinatown protested strenuously; they did not give their permission for this kind of mass experimentation. The
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In June 1908, 160 more cases had been identified, including 78 deaths, a much lower mortality rate than 1900β1904. All of the infected people were European, and the
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The controversy of the vaccination program organized by Kinyoun with the help of Surgeon General Wyman spiked. The plan was to inoculate the Chinese residents with
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informed the San Francisco doctors at the end of March 1900 that his laboratory confirmed the fact that fleas can carry the plague and transmit it to a new host.
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of being exposed to the possible plague-causing agents. The lack of early response cast doubt on the theory that plague was the cause of Wong Chut King's death.
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The clash between Gage and federal authorities intensified. Wyman instructed Kinyoun to place Chinatown under a second quarantine, as well as blocking all
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1932β, Risse, Guenter B., (2012). Plague, fear, and politics in San Francisco's Chinatown. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 167β174.
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780:, a German-trained medical physician, received the nomination. Pardee's nomination was largely a compromise between the Railroad Republican factions.
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The third pandemic of the plague started in 1855 in China and eventually killed about 15 million people, mainly in India. In 1894, the plague hit
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On March 13, another lab animal, a monkey that was exposed to the plague, died. All of the dead animals tested positive for the plague bacteria.
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from entering state borders. Wyman also instructed Kinyoun to inoculate all persons of Asian heritage in Chinatown, using an experimental
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153:. The epidemic was recognized by medical authorities in March 1900, but its existence was denied for more than two years by California's
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For the "Railroad Republicans", see W. H. Hutchinson, "Prologue to Reform: the California Anti-Railroad Republicans, 1899β1905",
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The scientist who confirmed the existence of plague in California, Dr. Joseph J. Kinyoun was subjected to a defamation campaign.
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Annual Report of the Supervising Surgeon General of the Marine Hospital Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 1901
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Wyman and President McKinley destroyed the credibility of the American public health in the eyes of the nation and abroad.
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describing the plague's spread, publicly announced the outbreak throughout the United States. The state governments of
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Rumors of the plague's presence abounded in the city, quickly gaining the notice of authorities from MHS stationed on
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Power, J. Gerard (April 1995). "Media Dependency, Bubonic Plague, and the Social Construction of the Chinese Other".
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On February 7, 1900, Wong Chut King, the owner of a lumber yard, fell sick with what the Chinese doctors thought was
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In October 1900, Kinyoun was the subject of a political cartoon about his being kicked out of his federal position.
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Kalisch, Philip A. (Summer 1972). "The Black Death in Chinatown: Plague and Politics in San Francisco 1900β1904".
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brought three cases of plague from Brazil, but the cases were confined to the ship. The Japanese freighter S.S.
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was feeling the pressure of the public to clear his reputation. He summoned the help of U.S. Surgeon General
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fell victim to the plague in December 1899. Residents of Honolulu were reporting cases of fever and swollen
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Between 1901 and 1902, the plague outbreak continued to worsen. In a 1901 address to both houses of the
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The extensive maritime operations of the port of San Francisco caused concern among medical men such as
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publicly denied the existence of any pestilent outbreak in San Francisco, fearing that any word of the
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428:'s presence would deeply damage the city's and state's economy. Supportive newspapers, such as the
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When Germs Travel: Six Major Epidemics That Have Invaded America And the Fears They Have Unleashed
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Trauner, Joan B. (Spring 1978). "The Chinese as Medical Scapegoats in San Francisco, 1870β1905".
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In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America
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board and the "Railroad Republican" faction increasingly saw Gage as an embarrassment to state
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first described the plague bacteria in Hong Kong in 1894. Simultaneously but independently,
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Countering the continued denials made by San Francisco-based newspapers, reports from the
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also attacked the federal commission, branding it as a "youthful and inexperienced trio."
192:(rural plague). However, it is possible that the ground squirrel infection predated 1900.
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neighborhood; a sudden increase in dead rats was observed as local rats became infected.
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San Francisco's 'Chinatown': Race and the cultural politics of public health, 1854β1952
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Gassaway, James M. (November 29, 1898). "False report of plague in San Francisco".
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to further study the outbreak, by threatening the university's state funding. The
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Black Death at the Golden Gate: The Race to Save America from the Bubonic Plague
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Gassaway, James M. (March 14, 1900). "A case of plague in San Francisco, Cal".
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Allied with powerful railroad and city business interests, California governor
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https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/plague-golden-gate/#part01
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2069:"Of Medicine, Race, and American Law: The Bubonic Plague Outbreak of 1900"
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489:'s experimental plague vaccine. Two other doctors appear to be developing
3662:
2850:
849:
558:
502:
481:
published in a Chinese-language daily paper in June 1900; epidemiologist
2574:
2034:
1999:
1907:
1877:
1374:
1342:, and proved the rat to be a major vector in plague. Masanori Ogata and
3227:
3075:
1241:
Haas, Victor H. (March 1959). "When Bubonic Plague Came to Chinatown".
421:
413:
245:
158:
85:
2723:
2332:
1894:(March 30, 1900). "Concerning plague subjects at San Francisco, Cal".
2373:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2330:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2026:
1991:
753:
350:
292:
207:
1825:
1690:
3582:
2728:
2724:
2652:
Contagious divides: Epidemics and race in San Francisco's Chinatown
1795:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 115β117.
879:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 277β298.
745:
542:
241:
2501:
Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague: 1894β1901
2364:
2309:
2192:(1 ed.), Sacramento: California State Board of Health, 1901,
311:
called Chinese-Americans "a constant menace to the public health."
769:
506:
1628:. United States Public Health Service, Marine Hospital Service.
367:
346:
324:
2479:
The Barbary Plague: The Black Death in Victorian San Francisco
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
493:
on their heads from the oversized inoculations. Federal judge
749:
408:
1914:
490:
249:
168:
Much of urban San Francisco was destroyed by a fire in the
2522:
Silent travelers: germs, genes, and the "immigrant menace"
2243:"A History of Chinese Americans in California: THE 1900s"
1109:
American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health
760:
As the 1902 general elections approached, members of the
611:
ruled that the defendants were violating the plaintiffs'
2261:"A History of Chinese Americans in California:THE 1900s"
1297:
Perry, J.C. (August 29, 1908). Thomas L. Stedman (ed.).
2620:
Plague, Fear, and Politics in San Francisco's Chinatown
2339:
Plague, fear, and politics in San Francisco's Chinatown
2219:
Plague, Fear, and Politics in San Francisco's Chinatown
1793:
Plague, fear, and politics in San Francisco's Chinatown
1299:"Plague; Mode of Dissemination and Methods for Control"
877:
Plague, fear, and politics in San Francisco's Chinatown
1425:"A History of Plague in the United States of America"
1243:
The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
403:
2458:
Disasters, Accidents, and Crises in American History
576:
2685:PBS American Experience: Plague at the Golden Gate
1403:. Honolulu: Advertiser Publishing Company. p.
2649:
2476:
1206:. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 295β296.
979:"Present Status of Plague, with Historical Review"
824:"Plague in the Continental United States, 1900β76"
2616:"Bubonic Plague Visits San Francisco's Chinatown"
2341:. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
3740:
2129:. Mark Skubik, San Jose State University. 2002.
712:Gage reacted by sending a telegram to President
315:In January 1900, the four-masted steamship S.S.
1933:Chase 2003, pp. 70, 72, 79β81, 85, 115, 119β122
1830:The Journal of the American Medical Association
1654:
1652:
1105:"Plague Situation in the Western United States"
1047:. New York: D. Appleton & Company. p.
1283:
1281:
898:
896:
861:
859:
3714:
2709:
2212:
2210:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2110:
972:
970:
2681:, Early Motion Pictures, Library of Congress
1649:
1193:
1191:
1044:How to Keep Well: A Health Book for the Home
2060:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1695:Journal of the American Medical Association
1546:Journal of the American Medical Association
1418:
1416:
1414:
1278:
1036:
1034:
910:
908:
893:
856:
616:them to roam the streets of San Francisco.
515:Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association
51:residents cooking meals while quarantined,
2716:
2702:
2304:Vaccine, Vaccination, and Immunization Law
2207:
2107:
1823:
1666:
1664:
1462:
1460:
1269:
1225:
1055:
967:
666:which published a special plague edition.
149:. It was the first plague epidemic in the
40:
2897:"Cocoliztli" epidemics in colonial Mexico
2504:. Sacramento: New York University Press.
2497:
2460:. Infobase Publishing. pp. 182β184.
1188:
1136:
1079:
1002:
935:
839:
3779:Healthcare in the San Francisco Bay Area
2451:
1863:
1848:
1768:
1411:
1360:
1031:
905:
822:Anderson, Elizabeth T. (MayβJune 1978).
821:
563:
472:
407:
380:
302:
219:
2589:
2560:
2277:
2267:from the original on February 10, 2018.
2249:from the original on February 10, 2018.
2066:
2012:
1977:
1721:
1688:
1661:
1457:
1061:
976:
14:
3741:
2539:
2437:from the original on December 7, 2017.
2402:from the original on December 7, 2017.
2067:McClain, Charles (November 17, 2006).
1626:"Bubonic Plague at San Francisco, Cal"
1396:
1216:
1159:
529:to the US constitution. Federal judge
2964:Great Plague in the late Ming dynasty
2697:
2610:
2518:
2474:
2336:
2216:
1942:
1890:
1790:
1691:"The Bubonic Plague in San Francisco"
1296:
1197:
1102:
1040:
914:
874:
27:Early 20th-century epidemic in the US
2647:
2636:
2217:Risse, Guenter B. (March 14, 2012).
1422:
1240:
228:burned down in an effort to control
3864:1904 disasters in the United States
3859:1903 disasters in the United States
3854:1902 disasters in the United States
3849:1901 disasters in the United States
3844:1900 disasters in the United States
1632:. U.S. Government Printing Office:
623:
24:
2656:. University of California Press.
2454:"1900: Outbreak of Bubonic Plague"
2136:from the original on March 4, 2016
2085:10.1111/j.1747-4469.1988.tb01126.x
1221:. Stanford University. p. 14.
1204:Pioneer Microbiologists of America
1019:from the original on June 29, 2016
561:was appointed in Kinyoun's place.
404:Denial and suppression by governor
25:
3875:
2672:
1842:10.1001/jama.1900.24620280022001f
1707:10.1001/jama.1900.24610200021001g
1606:from the original on June 9, 2016
1313:from the original on May 12, 2016
1219:A History of Plague in California
1062:Kellogg, Wilfred H. (July 1937).
983:American Journal of Public Health
577:Racism and discrimination lawsuit
135:San Francisco plague of 1900β1904
18:San Francisco plague of 1900-1904
3669:encephalitis lethargica epidemic
2196:from the original on May 4, 2016
1945:Journal of Communication Inquiry
1824:Montgomery, Douglass W. (1900).
1564:from the original on May 7, 2016
1558:10.1001/jama.1901.52470150038003
1542:"On The Plague in San Francisco"
1041:Evans, William Augustus (1917).
917:"Plague in San Francisco (1900)"
523:"equal protection under the law"
485:being injected in the head with
3789:Disease outbreaks in California
3447:Gorakhpur Japanese encephalitis
2744:List of epidemics and pandemics
2444:
2423:
2406:
2388:
2355:
2296:
2271:
2253:
2235:
2180:
2148:
2041:
2006:
1971:
1936:
1884:
1857:
1817:
1784:
1749:
1730:
1682:
1673:
1640:
1618:
1576:
1534:
1525:
1506:
1497:
1478:
1469:
1390:
1381:
1354:
1325:
1290:
1234:
1210:
1153:
1068:California and Western Medicine
977:Kellogg, W.H. (November 1920).
1397:Taylor, Albert Pierce (1922).
1200:"16: California and the coast"
1096:
868:
815:
534:isolate diseased populations.
35:1900β1904 San Francisco plague
13:
1:
2772:
2596:. W.W. Norton & Company.
2452:Campbell, Ballard C. (2008).
2414:Southern California Quarterly
1826:"The Plague in San Francisco"
1590:Philadelphia Medical Journal.
1198:Clark, Paul Franklin (1961).
1103:Creel, R.H. (November 1941).
804:
195:
170:1906 San Francisco earthquake
1689:Kellogg, Wilfred H. (1900).
1552:(15): 1042. April 13, 1901.
547:California State Legislature
539:California State Legislature
355:sexually transmitted disease
298:
7:
2306:(Bloomberg Law, 2019), 6β8.
1162:Annals of Internal Medicine
787:
338:, including Chief Kinyoun.
10:
3880:
3557:2024 Latin American dengue
3337:Western African meningitis
3151:Pacific Northwest smallpox
2590:Randall, David K. (2019).
2337:Risse, Guenter B. (2012).
1957:10.1177/019685999501900106
1791:Risse, Guenter B. (2012).
1174:10.7326/0003-4819-77-2-303
937:10.1177/00333549061210S103
875:Risse, Guenter B. (2012).
460:University of California's
458:commission any use of the
416:denied there was a plague.
199:
185:California ground squirrel
3581:
3257:
3178:
3163:Buenos Aires yellow fever
3083:
3074:
3061:Philadelphia yellow fever
3031:Great Plague of Marseille
3025:Great Northern War plague
3019:Iceland smallpox epidemic
3011:
2932:
2877:
2866:
2803:
2759:
2752:
2739:
2498:Echenberg, Myron (2007).
2431:"George Pardee 1903β1907"
2158:Plague at the Golden Gate
581:Widespread racism toward
362:quarantined immediately.
278:Port Townsend, Washington
213:In November 1898, the US
151:continental United States
121:
111:
103:
95:
77:
67:
39:
34:
3759:Chinatown, San Francisco
3727:Mpox (clade Ib) epidemic
3721:Mpox (clade II) outbreak
3681:Seventh cholera pandemic
2643:. University of Chicago.
2546:. Random House Digital.
2483:. Random House Digital.
2073:Law & Social Inquiry
1596:Occidental Medical Times
1423:Link, Vernon B. (1955).
1338:described and named the
1255:10.4269/ajtmh.1959.8.141
809:
295:free from this disease.
3764:Disasters in California
3639:Fourth cholera pandemic
3621:Second cholera pandemic
3467:Γquateur province Ebola
3055:North American smallpox
2970:Great Plague of Seville
2679:1902 Scene in Chinatown
2540:Markel, Howard (2005).
2519:Kraut, Alan M. (1995).
2475:Chase, Marilyn (2004).
2396:"Migration and Disease"
1432:Public Health Monograph
1217:Walker, Wesley (1948).
1121:10.2105/AJPH.31.11.1155
799:Chinese boycott of 1905
729:
723:Marine Hospital Service
688:
658:William Randolph Hearst
628:
236:In the newly formed US
215:Marine Hospital Service
3839:1904 disease outbreaks
3834:1903 disease outbreaks
3829:1902 disease outbreaks
3824:1901 disease outbreaks
3819:1900 disease outbreaks
3774:1900s in San Francisco
3769:20th-century epidemics
3749:1900s health disasters
3657:Sixth cholera pandemic
3645:Fifth cholera pandemic
3627:Third cholera pandemic
3615:First cholera pandemic
3597:Second plague pandemic
3157:Barcelona yellow fever
3002:Great Plague of Vienna
2988:Great Plague of London
2958:Massachusetts smallpox
2278:McClain, C.J. (1994).
1658:Echenberg 2007, p. 214
1064:"The Plague Situation"
995:10.2105/ajph.10.11.835
902:Echenberg 2007, p. 231
865:Echenberg 2007, p. 237
569:
498:
417:
386:
312:
287:San Francisco Examiner
233:
3784:Third plague pandemic
3633:Third plague pandemic
3591:First plague pandemic
3385:Western African Ebola
3295:Chikungunya outbreaks
3247:Malaysian Nipah virus
3115:Great Plains smallpox
2302:Brian Dean Abramson,
2054:May 19, 2016, at the
1896:Public Health Reports
1866:Public Health Reports
1762:May 22, 2016, at the
1743:May 10, 2016, at the
1519:May 11, 2016, at the
1491:May 29, 2016, at the
1453:on December 21, 2013.
1363:Public Health Reports
1287:Echenberg 2007, p. 11
924:Public Health Reports
915:Dolan, Brian (2006).
828:Public Health Reports
683:Chinese Six companies
600:Chinese Six Companies
588:Chinese Exclusion Act
567:
476:
411:
384:
321:Port of San Francisco
306:
223:
202:Third plague pandemic
3693:Russian flu pandemic
3435:Angolan yellow fever
3186:San Francisco plague
3139:Broad Street cholera
3037:Great Plague of 1738
2648:Shah, Nayan (2001).
2637:Shah, Nayan (1995).
2563:Arizona and the West
1646:Kalisch 1972, p. 113
1400:Under Hawaiian Skies
1332:Kitasato ShibasaburΕ
1275:Echenberg 2007, p. 7
1231:Echenberg 2007, p. 6
613:Fourteenth Amendment
527:Fourteenth Amendment
412:California governor
395:U.S. Surgeon General
226:Honolulu's Chinatown
3754:1900s in California
3599:(1348β19th century)
3527:New Zealand measles
3355:Darfur yellow fever
3198:LA pneumonic plague
2815:Plague of Justinian
1679:Chase 2003, p. 210
573:plague's outbreak.
319:laid anchor in the
238:Territory of Hawaii
137:was an epidemic of
3814:1904 in California
3809:1903 in California
3804:1902 in California
3799:1901 in California
3794:1900 in California
3609:Influenza pandemic
3603:Influenza pandemic
3551:Bangsamoro measles
3533:Singaporean dengue
3497:Pacific NW measles
3491:Philippine measles
3479:Madagascar measles
3461:Kerala Nipah virus
3454:Saudi Arabian MERS
3367:Singaporean dengue
3313:Zimbabwean cholera
3283:Singaporean dengue
3127:Copenhagen cholera
3109:Groningen epidemic
2903:Influenza pandemic
2885:Influenza pandemic
2361:Risse 2012, p. 118
2015:California History
1980:California History
1854:Markel 2005, p. 66
1781:Markel 2005, p. 65
1586:American Medicine,
1475:Chase 2003, p. 223
679:Haffkine's vaccine
583:Chinese immigrants
570:
499:
448:Treasury Secretary
418:
387:
313:
234:
3736:
3735:
3577:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3509:Kuala Koh measles
3423:South Korean MERS
3411:Polio declaration
3399:Madagascar plague
3331:Gujarat hepatitis
3319:Madagascar plague
3271:Midwest monkeypox
3222:Yugoslav smallpox
3192:Manchurian plague
3133:Stockholm cholera
3070:
3069:
2857:Sweating sickness
2845:Japanese smallpox
2794:Plague of Cyprian
2733:disease outbreaks
2612:Risse, Guenter B.
2348:978-1-4214-0510-0
1727:Shah 2001, p. 120
1701:(20): 1235β1237.
1670:Chase 2003, p. 17
1602:: 171β179. 1901.
1531:Chase 2003, p. 28
1503:Chase 2003, p. 13
1466:Chase 2003, p. 18
1387:Chase 2003, p. 12
1348:Waldemar Haffkine
1344:Paul-Louis Simond
1115:(11): 1155β1162.
955:on March 31, 2016
886:978-1-4214-0510-0
794:List of epidemics
694:Joseph J. Kinyoun
609:William W. Morrow
604:Joseph J. Kinyoun
531:William W. Morrow
519:class action suit
511:Waldemar Haffkine
495:William W. Morrow
487:Waldemar Haffkine
483:Joseph J. Kinyoun
479:political cartoon
336:San Francisco Bay
265:San Francisco Bay
257:Joseph J. Kinyoun
224:In January 1900,
131:
130:
16:(Redirected from
3871:
3716:
3503:New York measles
3457:
3417:Indian swine flu
3405:Odisha hepatitis
3395:
3349:Pakistani dengue
3301:Pakistani dengue
3250:
3216:WrocΕaw smallpox
3169:Hong Kong plague
3103:Caragea's plague
3081:
3080:
2998:
2891:Mexican smallpox
2875:
2874:
2827:Plague of Sheroe
2782:Plague of Athens
2777:
2774:
2757:
2756:
2718:
2711:
2704:
2695:
2694:
2667:
2655:
2644:
2633:
2607:
2586:
2557:
2536:
2515:
2494:
2482:
2471:
2439:
2438:
2427:
2421:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2392:
2386:
2385:. OCLC 809317536
2375:
2362:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2334:
2307:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2214:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2164:
2161:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2135:
2128:
2120:
2105:
2104:
2064:
2058:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2027:10.2307/25157817
2010:
2004:
2003:
1992:10.2307/25177577
1975:
1969:
1968:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1912:
1911:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1861:
1855:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1766:
1753:
1747:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1686:
1680:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1659:
1656:
1647:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1538:
1532:
1529:
1523:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1495:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1446:. Archived from
1429:
1420:
1409:
1408:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1358:
1352:
1340:plague bacterium
1336:Alexandre Yersin
1329:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1294:
1288:
1285:
1276:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1195:
1186:
1185:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1140:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1083:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1038:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1006:
974:
965:
964:
962:
960:
954:
948:. Archived from
939:
921:
912:
903:
900:
891:
890:
872:
866:
863:
854:
853:
843:
819:
775:Mayor of Oakland
762:Southern Pacific
742:Associated Press
714:William McKinley
672:Sacramento River
663:New York Journal
624:Detailed history
555:Southern Pacific
553:, consisting of
551:Washington, D.C.
462:laboratories in
114:
47:Illustration of
44:
32:
31:
21:
3879:
3878:
3874:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3569:
3452:
3390:
3373:Swansea measles
3325:Bolivian dengue
3253:
3245:
3234:Indian smallpox
3204:Croydon typhoid
3174:
3066:
3007:
2993:
2928:
2869:
2862:
2833:Plague of Amwas
2806:
2799:
2788:Antonine Plague
2775:
2748:
2735:
2722:
2691:
2675:
2670:
2664:
2630:
2604:
2554:
2533:
2512:
2491:
2468:
2447:
2442:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2411:
2407:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2376:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2335:
2310:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2282:. p. 385.
2276:
2272:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2215:
2208:
2199:
2197:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2171:
2169:
2162:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2122:
2121:
2108:
2065:
2061:
2056:Wayback Machine
2046:
2042:
2011:
2007:
1976:
1972:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1915:
1889:
1885:
1872:(11): 577β578.
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1822:
1818:
1803:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1769:
1764:Wayback Machine
1754:
1750:
1745:Wayback Machine
1735:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1669:
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1657:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1609:
1607:
1582:
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1577:
1567:
1565:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1521:Wayback Machine
1511:
1507:
1502:
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1493:Wayback Machine
1483:
1479:
1474:
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1427:
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1412:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1359:
1355:
1330:
1326:
1316:
1314:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1215:
1211:
1196:
1189:
1158:
1154:
1101:
1097:
1060:
1056:
1039:
1032:
1022:
1020:
989:(11): 835β844.
975:
968:
958:
956:
952:
919:
913:
906:
901:
894:
887:
873:
869:
864:
857:
820:
816:
812:
807:
790:
732:
691:
631:
626:
579:
406:
372:James D. Phelan
366:Consul General
353:, the latter a
309:James D. Phelan
301:
204:
198:
190:sylvatic plague
124:
113:Confirmed cases
112:
63:
62:
58:Harper's Weekly
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3877:
3867:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3708:
3702:
3701:(1981βpresent)
3696:
3690:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3594:
3587:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3575:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3554:
3553:(2023βpresent)
3548:
3545:Jamaica dengue
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3488:
3482:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3450:
3444:
3441:Yemeni cholera
3438:
3432:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3408:
3402:
3396:
3392:DR Congo Ebola
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3352:
3346:
3340:
3334:
3328:
3322:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3292:
3286:
3280:
3274:
3268:
3261:
3259:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3243:
3237:
3231:
3225:
3219:
3213:
3207:
3201:
3195:
3189:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3166:
3160:
3154:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3097:Maltese plague
3094:
3091:Ottoman plague
3087:
3085:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3064:
3058:
3052:
3049:Persian Plague
3046:
3043:Russian plague
3040:
3034:
3028:
3022:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2995:Maltese plague
2991:
2985:
2979:
2976:Maltese plague
2973:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2952:Italian plague
2949:
2946:Maltese plague
2943:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2926:
2924:
2918:
2915:Maltese plague
2912:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2881:
2879:
2872:
2864:
2863:
2861:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2811:
2809:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2769:Hittite plague
2765:
2763:
2754:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2721:
2720:
2713:
2706:
2698:
2683:
2682:
2674:
2673:External links
2671:
2669:
2668:
2663:978-0520226296
2662:
2645:
2634:
2629:978-1421405100
2628:
2608:
2603:978-0393609455
2602:
2587:
2569:(2): 113β136.
2558:
2553:978-0375726026
2552:
2537:
2532:978-0801850967
2531:
2516:
2511:978-0814722329
2510:
2495:
2490:978-0375757082
2489:
2472:
2467:978-1438130125
2466:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2422:
2405:
2387:
2363:
2354:
2347:
2308:
2295:
2288:
2270:
2252:
2234:
2227:
2206:
2179:
2147:
2106:
2079:(3): 447β513.
2059:
2040:
2005:
1986:(2): 154β169.
1970:
1935:
1913:
1883:
1856:
1847:
1816:
1801:
1783:
1767:
1748:
1729:
1720:
1681:
1672:
1660:
1648:
1639:
1617:
1575:
1533:
1524:
1505:
1496:
1477:
1468:
1456:
1410:
1389:
1380:
1353:
1324:
1303:Medical Record
1289:
1277:
1268:
1249:(2): 141β147.
1233:
1224:
1209:
1187:
1168:(2): 303β310.
1152:
1095:
1054:
1030:
966:
904:
892:
885:
867:
855:
834:(3): 297β301.
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
801:
796:
789:
786:
737:Sacramento Bee
731:
728:
703:bubonic plague
690:
687:
630:
627:
625:
622:
592:Bubonic plague
578:
575:
525:, part of the
426:bubonic plague
405:
402:
300:
297:
263:, arriving in
240:, the city of
230:bubonic plague
200:Main article:
197:
194:
139:bubonic plague
129:
128:
125:
122:
119:
118:
115:
109:
108:
105:
101:
100:
97:
93:
92:
79:
75:
74:
72:Bubonic plague
69:
65:
64:
46:
45:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3876:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3744:
3728:
3725:
3722:
3719:
3713:(2019βpresent
3712:
3709:
3706:
3703:
3700:
3697:
3694:
3691:
3688:
3687:Hong Kong flu
3685:
3682:
3679:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3667:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3634:
3631:
3628:
3625:
3622:
3619:
3616:
3613:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3563:
3560:
3559:
3558:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3515:Tonga measles
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3485:Samoa measles
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3350:
3347:
3344:
3343:Haiti cholera
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3320:
3317:
3314:
3311:
3308:
3307:Iraqi cholera
3305:
3302:
3299:
3296:
3293:
3290:
3289:Indian dengue
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3170:
3167:
3164:
3161:
3158:
3155:
3152:
3149:
3146:
3145:Guam smallpox
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3003:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2982:Naples Plague
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2940:London plague
2938:
2937:
2935:
2931:
2925:
2922:
2921:London plague
2919:
2916:
2913:
2910:
2909:London plague
2907:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2865:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2840:
2839:Plague of 664
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2802:
2795:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2719:
2714:
2712:
2707:
2705:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2665:
2659:
2654:
2653:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2625:
2622:. JHU Press.
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2595:
2594:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2545:
2544:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:. JHU Press.
2524:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2503:
2502:
2496:
2492:
2486:
2481:
2480:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2449:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2420:(3): 175β218.
2419:
2415:
2409:
2401:
2397:
2391:
2384:
2383:9781421405100
2380:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2358:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2305:
2299:
2291:
2289:9780520205147
2285:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2256:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2230:
2228:9781421405100
2224:
2220:
2213:
2211:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2183:
2172:September 25,
2168:
2160:
2159:
2151:
2132:
2125:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2111:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2044:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1951:(1): 89β110.
1950:
1946:
1939:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1892:Wyman, Walter
1887:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1802:9781421405100
1798:
1794:
1787:
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1765:
1761:
1758:
1755:Markel 2005,
1752:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1733:
1724:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1643:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1584:"The Plague,
1579:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1528:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1512:Markel 2005,
1509:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1487:
1481:
1472:
1463:
1461:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1426:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1406:
1402:
1401:
1393:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1284:
1282:
1272:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1228:
1220:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1192:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1156:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1058:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1037:
1035:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
973:
971:
951:
947:
943:
938:
933:
929:
925:
918:
911:
909:
899:
897:
888:
882:
878:
871:
862:
860:
851:
847:
842:
837:
833:
829:
825:
818:
814:
800:
797:
795:
792:
791:
785:
781:
779:
778:George Pardee
776:
771:
767:
763:
758:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
738:
727:
724:
718:
715:
710:
706:
704:
699:
695:
686:
684:
680:
675:
673:
667:
665:
664:
659:
653:
651:
645:
642:
637:
621:
617:
614:
610:
605:
601:
595:
593:
589:
584:
574:
566:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
535:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
509:developed by
508:
504:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
471:
469:
465:
461:
455:
452:
451:Lyman J. Gage
449:
445:
444:
439:
438:
433:
432:
427:
423:
415:
410:
401:
399:
396:
391:
383:
379:
375:
373:
369:
363:
359:
356:
352:
348:
343:
339:
337:
333:
328:
326:
322:
318:
310:
305:
296:
294:
289:
288:
281:
279:
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271:
266:
262:
258:
253:
251:
247:
243:
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227:
222:
218:
216:
211:
209:
203:
193:
191:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
166:
164:
163:George Pardee
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
143:San Francisco
140:
136:
126:
120:
116:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
91:
90:United States
87:
83:
82:San Francisco
80:
76:
73:
70:
66:
60:
59:
54:
50:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
3539:Uganda Ebola
3258:21st century
3240:Surat plague
3210:NYC smallpox
3179:20th century
3084:19th century
3012:18th century
2933:17th century
2899:(1545, 1576)
2878:16th century
2821:Roman Plague
2790:(165β180 AD)
2784:(429β426 BC)
2731:and notable
2690:
2684:
2651:
2639:
2619:
2592:
2566:
2562:
2542:
2521:
2500:
2478:
2457:
2445:Bibliography
2425:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2390:
2357:
2338:
2303:
2298:
2279:
2273:
2255:
2237:
2218:
2200:December 26,
2198:, retrieved
2188:
2182:
2170:. Retrieved
2166:
2157:
2150:
2138:. Retrieved
2076:
2072:
2062:
2047:Kraut 1995,
2043:
2021:(1): 70β87.
2018:
2014:
2008:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1899:
1895:
1886:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1850:
1836:(2): 86β89.
1833:
1829:
1819:
1792:
1786:
1751:
1736:Kraut 1995,
1732:
1723:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1675:
1642:
1629:
1620:
1610:December 26,
1608:. Retrieved
1599:
1595:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1568:December 26,
1566:. Retrieved
1549:
1545:
1536:
1527:
1508:
1499:
1484:Kraut 1995,
1480:
1471:
1448:the original
1435:
1431:
1399:
1392:
1383:
1369:(51): 1503.
1366:
1362:
1356:
1327:
1317:December 26,
1315:. Retrieved
1306:
1302:
1292:
1271:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1212:
1203:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1112:
1108:
1098:
1074:(1): 69β71.
1071:
1067:
1057:
1043:
1023:December 26,
1021:. Retrieved
986:
982:
957:. Retrieved
950:the original
927:
923:
876:
870:
831:
827:
817:
782:
759:
735:
733:
719:
711:
707:
698:Walter Wyman
692:
676:
668:
661:
654:
646:
632:
618:
596:
580:
571:
536:
500:
467:
456:
441:
435:
429:
419:
398:Walter Wyman
392:
388:
376:
364:
360:
344:
340:
332:Angel Island
329:
316:
314:
285:
282:
273:
269:
260:
254:
246:lymph glands
235:
212:
205:
182:
167:
141:centered on
134:
132:
96:Arrival date
61:, June 1902
56:
53:W. A. Rogers
29:
3729:(2023β2024)
3723:(2022β2023)
3707:(2009β2010)
3695:(1977β1979)
3689:(1968β1970)
3683:(1961β1975)
3677:(1957β1958)
3671:(1919β1930)
3665:(1918β1920)
3663:Spanish flu
3659:(1899β1923)
3653:(1889β1890)
3651:Russian flu
3647:(1881β1896)
3641:(1863β1879)
3635:(1855β1860)
3629:(1852β1860)
3623:(1829β1851)
3617:(1816β1826)
3611:(1557β1559)
3541:(2022β2023)
3529:(2019β2020)
3523:(2019β2020)
3521:DRC measles
3475:(2018β2020)
3443:(2016β2022)
3431:(2015β2016)
3387:(2013β2016)
3381:(2013β2014)
3379:Chikungunya
3345:(2010β2019)
3339:(2009β2010)
3321:(2008β2017)
3315:(2008β2009)
3279:(2003β2005)
3267:(2002β2004)
3249:(1998β1999)
3230:(1972β1973)
3194:(1910β1911)
3188:(1900β1904)
3153:(1862β1863)
3123:(1847β1848)
3117:(1837β1838)
3099:(1813β1814)
3093:(1812β1819)
3063:(1793β1798)
3057:(1780β1782)
3045:(1770β1772)
3033:(1720β1722)
3027:(1710β1712)
3021:(1707β1708)
2997:(1675β1676)
2990:(1665β1666)
2972:(1647β1652)
2966:(1633β1644)
2954:(1629β1631)
2923:(1592β1593)
2917:(1592β1593)
2911:(1563β1564)
2905:(1557β1559)
2859:(1485β1551)
2853:(1346β1353)
2851:Black Death
2776: 1330
2167:www.pbs.org
1902:(14): 769.
766:Republicans
559:Rupert Blue
503:East Asians
276:arrived in
270:J.W. Taylor
261:Nippon Maru
3743:Categories
3473:Kivu Ebola
3228:London flu
2140:August 19,
1309:(9): 345.
959:October 6,
805:References
422:Henry Gage
414:Henry Gage
274:Nanyo Maru
196:Background
159:Henry Gage
155:Republican
86:California
3705:Swine flu
3675:Asian flu
3593:(541β767)
3562:Argentina
2847:(735β737)
2841:(664β689)
2835:(638β639)
2829:(627β628)
2817:(541β542)
2807:classical
2796:(250β266)
2729:epidemics
2725:Pandemics
2093:0897-6546
2049:pp. 89β92
1965:145556040
1811:809317536
1757:pp. 63β64
1738:pp. 84β85
1129:0090-0036
930:: 16β37.
754:Louisiana
650:Chinatown
641:Chinatown
636:Chinatown
497:looks on.
454:present.
437:Chronicle
351:gonorrhea
317:Australia
299:Infection
293:Europeans
208:Hong Kong
157:governor
147:Chinatown
107:1900β1904
49:Chinatown
3711:COVID-19
3699:HIV/AIDS
3277:Bird flu
2614:(2012).
2583:11614219
2575:40168068
2435:Archived
2400:Archived
2265:Archived
2247:Archived
2194:archived
2131:Archived
2101:12415113
2052:Archived
2035:25157817
2000:25177577
1908:41451990
1878:41455049
1760:Archived
1741:Archived
1715:72037684
1604:Archived
1588:and the
1562:Archived
1517:Archived
1489:Archived
1444:14371919
1438:: 1β11.
1375:41453167
1351:disease.
1311:Archived
1263:13637311
1147:18015519
1090:18744148
1017:Archived
1013:18010389
946:16550761
788:See also
746:Colorado
740:and the
543:cadavers
468:Bulletin
464:Berkeley
443:Bulletin
440:and the
248:forming
242:Honolulu
78:Location
2761:Ancient
2163:(Video)
1636:. 1901.
1182:4565792
1138:1531605
1081:1759892
1004:1362904
841:1431896
770:boycott
507:vaccine
178:vectors
174:Oakland
68:Disease
3605:(1510)
3583:Global
3564:(2024)
3547:(2023)
3535:(2020)
3517:(2019)
3511:(2019)
3505:(2019)
3499:(2019)
3493:(2019)
3487:(2019)
3481:(2018)
3469:(2018)
3463:(2018)
3456:(2018)
3449:(2017)
3437:(2016)
3425:(2015)
3419:(2015)
3413:(2014)
3407:(2014)
3401:(2014)
3394:(2014)
3375:(2013)
3369:(2013)
3363:(2012)
3357:(2012)
3351:(2011)
3333:(2009)
3327:(2009)
3309:(2007)
3303:(2006)
3297:(2006)
3291:(2006)
3285:(2005)
3273:(2003)
3242:(1994)
3236:(1974)
3224:(1972)
3218:(1963)
3212:(1947)
3206:(1937)
3200:(1924)
3171:(1894)
3165:(1871)
3159:(1870)
3147:(1856)
3141:(1854)
3135:(1853)
3129:(1853)
3121:Typhus
3111:(1829)
3105:(1813)
3076:Modern
3051:(1772)
3039:(1738)
3004:(1679)
2984:(1656)
2978:(1655)
2960:(1633)
2948:(1623)
2942:(1603)
2893:(1520)
2887:(1510)
2870:modern
2660:
2626:
2600:
2581:
2573:
2550:
2529:
2508:
2487:
2464:
2381:
2345:
2286:
2225:
2099:
2091:
2033:
1998:
1963:
1906:
1876:
1809:
1799:
1713:
1514:p. 224
1442:
1373:
1261:
1180:
1145:
1135:
1127:
1088:
1078:
1011:
1001:
944:
883:
850:349602
848:
838:
491:buboes
434:, the
368:Ho Yow
347:typhus
325:ghetto
307:Mayor
250:buboes
123:Deaths
2868:Early
2823:(590)
2805:Post-
2753:Local
2571:JSTOR
2416:1962
2134:(PDF)
2127:(PDF)
2097:S2CID
2031:JSTOR
1996:JSTOR
1961:S2CID
1904:JSTOR
1874:JSTOR
1711:S2CID
1486:p. 85
1451:(PDF)
1428:(PDF)
1371:JSTOR
953:(PDF)
920:(PDF)
810:Notes
750:Texas
3429:Zika
3361:MERS
3265:SARS
2658:ISBN
2624:ISBN
2598:ISBN
2579:PMID
2548:ISBN
2527:ISBN
2506:ISBN
2485:ISBN
2462:ISBN
2379:ISBN
2343:ISBN
2284:ISBN
2223:ISBN
2202:2015
2174:2023
2142:2007
2089:ISSN
1807:OCLC
1797:ISBN
1612:2015
1570:2015
1440:PMID
1319:2015
1259:PMID
1178:PMID
1143:PMID
1125:ISSN
1086:PMID
1025:2015
1009:PMID
961:2017
942:PMID
881:ISBN
846:PMID
752:and
730:1902
689:1901
629:1900
431:Call
133:The
104:Date
99:1900
2778:BC)
2081:doi
2023:doi
1988:doi
1953:doi
1838:doi
1703:doi
1634:491
1554:doi
1405:387
1251:doi
1170:doi
1133:PMC
1117:doi
1076:PMC
1049:292
999:PMC
991:doi
932:doi
928:121
836:PMC
660:'s
349:or
334:in
145:'s
127:119
117:121
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2773:c.
2727:,
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2433:.
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1994:.
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