568:
199:
1095:. Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly specific terms proliferated—chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer satisfactory to group together those who pursued science, without the caveats of "natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing divisions with Somerville's aim of " a most important service to science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united by the discovery of general principles." Whewell reported in his review that members of the
1027:, discovered animal electricity. He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this effect, and Galvani was convinced that he was seeing the effects of what he called animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the
579:
476:
41:
218:
591:
538:
557:
615:
488:
603:
3260:
511:
1214:
became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and
Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the
2938:
in 2015, across all disciplines and employment sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held 53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and about
2953:
Scientist and engineering statistics are usually intertwined, but they indicate that women enter the field far less than men, though this gap is narrowing. The number of science and engineering doctorates awarded to women rose from a mere 7 percent in 1970 to 34 percent in 1985 and in engineering
630:
The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who
1366:). Scientists tend to be less motivated by direct financial reward for their work than other careers. As a result, scientific researchers often accept lower average salaries when compared with many other professions which require a similar amount of training and qualification.
1041:
is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.
1223:
As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized. However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal requirements for their practice (e.g.
3526:. "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."
643:
associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.
2730:
The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance, there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this number is 79 for the United
Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.
1215:
League of
Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.
1099:
had been complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a good term for "students of the knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with
651:
that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.
667:
contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by
3870:
was referred to in
Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross added a comment that this "some ingenious gentleman" was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962,
1203:. By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place.
716:—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.
1340:
they would like to work in. A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.
2939:
3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59% of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions.
1386:
to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks.
727:
generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge, although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the
3560:
Exploring the Limits of
Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman
3185:
But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says.
3820:
3162:
1362:
Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and
4599:
3210:
A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
567:
3274:
447:
624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the
479:"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist
3419:
1096:
3080:
3605:
3541:
3490:
1327:
After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety of work settings and conditions. In 2017, the
British
4533:
1085:
660:
3090:
2455:
1433:, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the
692:
became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious
4561:
3222:
Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural
Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
1183:. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.
3738:
3169:
3962:
3909:
3654:
3349:
831:, made key improvements on the thermometer and telescope which allowed him to observe and clearly describe the solar system.
676:, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the
3075:
1347:, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of
238:
3579:
4000:
3399:
3231:
3070:
4577:
3987:
3802:
3722:
3678:
3512:
3478:
3436:
3374:
2539:
391:
325:
752:
3768:
2983:
2954:
alone the numbers of bachelor's degrees awarded to women rose from only 385 in 1975 to more than 11000 in 1985.
3390:
Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
1336:
published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students worldwide, asking them which
483:(384-322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren
198:
3313:
1315:, usually a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates whereby they work as
243:
4348:
3797:
Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The
Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43.
3503:
On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008).
1199:
became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in
681:
3265:
1108:, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with this term since we already have such words as
3982:
Tamara Preaud, Derek E. Ostergard, The Sèvres
Porcelain Manufactory. Yale University Press 1997. 416 pages.
4651:
4402:
3197:
1179:. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a
2931:
294:
3788:
Friedrich
Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner's sons v.1, 1887
3881:
Whewell, William. Murray, John (ed.). "On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences By Mrs. Sommerville".
3085:
2425:
20:
3289:
2440:
2435:
724:
3110:
2430:
2124:
1829:
1587:
1552:
863:
3943:
3269:
1276:
for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some common training requirements include
3614:
3574:
3136:
2502:
1998:
1502:
1316:
1277:
448:
4388:
631:
contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the
60:
in Physics for their scientific research; Marie also received the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
3536:
3302:
3065:
2678:
2668:
2663:
2420:
2094:
1273:
623:
153:
4585:
4549:
3817:
3607:
Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"
586:
developed the general theory of relativity and made many substantial contributions to physics.
3416:
2998:
2699:
2608:
2524:
2415:
2366:
2354:
2054:
2033:
1923:
1819:
1799:
1592:
1572:
1527:
1492:
1229:
1008:
965:
867:
736:
648:
563:, referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder of experimental biology.
545:
384:
333:
299:
263:
253:
1232:
meaning that they practice science on their own, but to practice science there are no known
4615:
The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text
4530:
4432:
4212:
4163:
4111:
4030:
4017:
Cyranoski, David; Gilbert, Natasha; Ledford, Heidi; Nayar, Anjali; Yahia, Mohammed (2011).
2816:
2714:
2673:
2658:
2044:
1582:
1383:
1363:
1269:
338:
149:
3902:
The age of wonder: How the romantic generation discovered the beauty and terror of science
3367:
From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science
8:
4646:
4609:
2633:
2628:
2603:
2598:
2465:
2445:
2410:
2304:
2183:
2153:
1879:
1834:
1537:
1487:
1414:
1292:
1281:
1038:
1028:
1024:
895:
788:
784:
702:
697:
424:
413:
276:
4436:
4216:
4167:
4115:
4034:
3937:
914:
827:
made significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The Father of modern Science,
4614:
4556:
4541:
4485:
2988:
2534:
2497:
2460:
2386:
2299:
2269:
2193:
1809:
1497:
1477:
1394:
1328:
1288:
1253:
1065:
945:
848:
728:
707:
432:
348:
248:
228:
115:
4573:
4489:
4450:
4230:
4181:
4129:
4048:
3983:
3905:
3846:
3798:
3742:
3718:
3674:
3650:
3647:
God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science
3642:
3638:
3508:
3474:
3432:
3395:
3370:
3345:
3309:
3227:
3060:
3028:
2709:
2653:
2450:
2396:
2391:
2220:
2203:
2064:
2028:
1895:
1844:
1628:
1567:
1542:
1532:
1422:
1402:
1379:
1311:. To aid them in this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a
969:
922:
891:
856:
836:
824:
792:
640:
522:
491:
409:
343:
258:
3548:, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
832:
610:
made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory.
4477:
4440:
4327:
4294:
4261:
4220:
4171:
4119:
4078:
4038:
3958:
3855:
3671:
The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914
2948:
2519:
2470:
2319:
2289:
2168:
2049:
1854:
1839:
1814:
1804:
1723:
1698:
1562:
1507:
1430:
1418:
1332:
1091:
1032:
937:
933:
926:
804:
598:
is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.
541:
377:
233:
177:
145:
3448:
4537:
3824:
3816:
by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun.
3714:
3545:
3423:
3013:
2704:
2591:
2581:
2556:
2279:
2173:
2074:
1874:
1864:
1849:
1738:
1668:
1618:
1597:
1577:
1547:
1522:
1337:
1261:
1257:
1123:
Whewell proposed the word again more seriously (and not anonymously) in his 1840
1080:
1072:
1064:
Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still referred to as "
973:
875:
828:
800:
583:
571:
526:
514:
464:
436:
417:
311:
289:
4372:
4629:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh Pennington (
4176:
4151:
3048:
2896:
2586:
2507:
2344:
2264:
2240:
2235:
2198:
2178:
2109:
1993:
1973:
1963:
1958:
1859:
1794:
1648:
1512:
1045:
1035:
was able to reproduce the results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.
1000:
953:
907:
903:
664:
636:
560:
530:
353:
306:
284:
222:
100:
3860:
3841:
1079:
in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of
783:
was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; the astronomer and physician
684:, became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries.
4640:
4526:
3033:
3008:
2935:
2908:
2514:
2349:
2158:
2129:
2023:
2008:
1983:
1978:
1900:
1869:
1768:
1753:
1708:
1673:
1608:
1472:
1200:
1049:
1020:
949:
930:
780:
764:
619:
578:
358:
53:
27:
4626:
3939:
The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2
3649:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12,
475:
4454:
4234:
4185:
4133:
4052:
3023:
2993:
2978:
2834:
2822:
2623:
2613:
2576:
2544:
2405:
2294:
2284:
2249:
2230:
2104:
2084:
2018:
1968:
1733:
1728:
1718:
1688:
1678:
1613:
1557:
1482:
1425:, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study
1406:
1249:
1004:
883:
796:
768:
677:
632:
595:
45:
3018:
2840:
2618:
2371:
2359:
2274:
2225:
2210:
2143:
2114:
1953:
1943:
1824:
1789:
1693:
1623:
1426:
1344:
1285:
1211:
957:
941:
816:
669:
460:
428:
57:
49:
40:
4589:. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.
4481:
4332:
4315:
4299:
4283:"Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects"
4282:
4266:
4249:
4083:
4066:
3708:
4502:
3764:
2973:
2766:
2549:
2376:
2314:
2309:
2259:
2148:
2099:
2079:
2069:
2003:
1988:
1890:
1763:
1758:
1743:
1713:
1683:
1658:
1653:
1638:
1633:
1517:
1375:
1312:
852:
712:
607:
590:
499:
456:
96:
84:
1171:. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use
217:
3601:
3428:
3246:
3003:
2963:
2868:
2748:
2477:
2381:
2254:
2215:
2163:
2138:
2119:
1948:
1938:
1933:
1905:
1784:
1779:
1748:
1703:
1663:
1356:
1308:
1265:
1233:
1225:
1110:
860:
844:
772:
693:
689:
685:
673:
518:
495:
480:
4445:
4420:
4225:
4200:
4124:
4099:
4043:
4018:
537:
487:
2968:
2772:
2760:
2754:
2694:
2529:
2188:
2089:
1643:
1409:
project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of
1348:
1343:
Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The
984:
977:
961:
918:
887:
820:
760:
744:
732:
427:, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead,
165:
735:, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern
552:, is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.
3043:
3038:
2874:
2742:
2324:
2059:
1467:
1441:
1398:
1352:
1300:
1296:
1245:
1116:
1053:
988:
748:
556:
549:
503:
185:
141:
127:
1244:
In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an
614:
2914:
2890:
2862:
2856:
2800:
2013:
1410:
1390:
1304:
871:
840:
740:
440:
4606:, a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine
3505:
The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation
956:, all mathematicians, made major contributions to science and
3741:(in Italian). Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani. Archived from
2934:, 4.7 million people with science degrees worked in the
2902:
2880:
2850:
2828:
2806:
2794:
2788:
2782:
1438:
996:
992:
899:
879:
776:
756:
602:
4349:"How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth?"
4016:
3471:
Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks
3226:. Chicago: University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press. p. 39.
991:, such as the development of ideas about the circulation of
4403:"The Last Frontier - Carnegie Mellon University | CMU"
1434:
1195:. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later;
911:
3948:. In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560.
3673:. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.
3517:
510:
19:
This article is about the profession. For other uses, see
4505:
Women's Science: Learning and Succeeding from the Margins
3358:
498:
its modern name. Generally referred to as the father of
4314:
Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007).
4199:
Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007).
1378:
who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and
1147:, are applied to words of all origins: thus we have to
4547:
Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia.
3473:. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10.
1191:
at the same time, as a counterpart to the French word
807:
have been considered the most recognizable polymaths.
3394:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367.
3342:
Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain
3275:
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
2735:
Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries
972:. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including
3613:, The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from
739:. Many of these early polymaths were also religious
431:
engaged in the philosophical study of nature called
4586:
The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research
4570:
The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession
3562:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6.
3463:
3451:. University of California - Museum of Paleontology
3959:"William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science"
3392:Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science
3369:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
3224:Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science
1097:British Association for the Advancement of Science
4610:Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists
4313:
4198:
3930:The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Volume 1
3155:
3081:List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1260:. Upon completion, they would normally attain an
1175:for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a
455:came into regular use after it was coined by the
4638:
4503:Margaret A. Eisenhart, Elizabeth Finkel (1998).
4012:
4010:
4001:"Everyone is a Scientist – Scientific Scribbles"
3706:
3304:The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography
4553:. The Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.
3713:(2nd ed.). G. Routledge and Sons. p.
3637:
3417:Science and religion: a historical introduction
3295:
4414:
4412:
4274:
4250:"Flexible working: Science in the gig economy"
3765:"Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science"
3762:Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science.
3575:"Christianity and the rise of western science"
3327:A Short History of Science to the 19th century
3190:
894:). He provided a comprehensive formulation of
886:extended Descartes's mathematics by inventing
4152:"Why it is not a 'failure' to leave academia"
4145:
4143:
4059:
4007:
3557:
1284:of interest, publishing research findings in
1071:English philosopher and historian of science
661:Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity
385:
4340:
4307:
3839:
3523:
3383:
517:, one of the founders and fathers of modern
4418:
4409:
4316:"Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship"
3835:
3833:
2629:Operations research and management analysts
1393:often look to the frontiers. These include
823:made substantial contributions in science.
574:, for whom the word "scientist" was coined.
4600:For best results, add a little inspiration
4507:. University of Chicago Press. p. 18.
4140:
3942:. New York, Johnson Reprint Corp. p.
3923:
3921:
2456:Industrial and organizational psychologist
1003:. Some scholars and historians attributes
392:
378:
39:
4444:
4331:
4298:
4281:Woolston, Chris (2007). Editorial (ed.).
4265:
4224:
4175:
4123:
4091:
4082:
4042:
3859:
3700:
1086:On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences
1007:to having contributed to the rise of the
4346:
4280:
4241:
3866:To be exact, the person coined the term
3830:
3572:
3389:
3168:. E.O. Wilson Foundation. Archived from
3091:List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists
1125:The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences
1120:—but this was not generally palatable".
847:and advanced ideas about the origins of
613:
601:
589:
577:
566:
555:
536:
509:
486:
474:
52:demonstrating an apparatus that detects
4562:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
4192:
3935:
3918:
3662:
3538:Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science
3339:
1444:, much of which still remains unknown.
1014:
700:system, knowledge was divided into the
663:was pursued by many kinds of scholars.
16:Person who conducts scientific research
4639:
4377:. National Academies Press (US). 1992.
4149:
4067:"STEM education: To build a scientist"
3899:
3893:
3668:
3558:Peter Damerow (2004). "Introduction".
3507:. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
3493:. German Patent and Trade Mark Office.
3324:
3221:
906:founded a new branch of mathematics —
655:
4100:"What's the point of the PhD thesis?"
4097:
3904:. London: Harper Press. p. 449.
3364:
3264:
3215:
1369:
983:There are many compelling stories in
4515:
4247:
3697:University of Chicago Press. p. 204.
3441:
3290:Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato
3076:List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry
2643:
1447:
3927:
3880:
3580:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1457:
13:
3491:"Johannes Kepler´s 450th birthday"
3252:
3071:List of Nobel laureates in Physics
1452:
1264:, with the highest degree being a
14:
4663:
4347:Stockton, Nick (7 October 2014),
3739:"Spallanzani - Uomo e scienziato"
3695:The Beginnings of Western Science
2487:
2334:
1019:During the age of Enlightenment,
964:, and some of the foundations of
4389:"The Brain: The Final Frontier?"
3842:"Scientist: The story of a word"
3600:
3258:
2925:
216:
197:
4496:
4461:
4395:
4381:
4365:
3993:
3976:
3965:from the original on 2007-06-25
3951:
3889:(March & June 1834): 54–68.
3874:
3807:
3791:
3782:
3771:from the original on 2008-03-09
3756:
3731:
3687:
3631:
3594:
3566:
3551:
3529:
3497:
3483:
3408:
3333:
3318:
3198:"Our definition of a scientist"
2984:Hippocratic Oath for Scientists
1917:
1389:Those considering science as a
1206:
1059:
3573:Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012).
3282:
3240:
3129:
3103:
2688:
1528:Chemical laboratory technician
810:
719:
1:
4531:"Finding Our Inner Scientist"
4468:"Employment: Male majority".
4419:van Noorden, Richard (2015).
3329:. Streeter Press. p. 35.
3096:
2725:
2720:
1218:
960:, including the ideas behind
647:Some historians point to the
444:
4201:"Nature's guide for mentors"
4019:"Education: The PhD factory"
3710:A popular history of science
3249:, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
3143:. Cambridge University Press
3117:. Cambridge University Press
2942:
2705:Industrial/applied scientist
1239:
7:
3932:. Cambridge. p. cxiii.
2957:
2932:National Science Foundation
506:as a scientific discipline.
463:, and historian of science
412:to advance knowledge in an
10:
4668:
4177:10.1038/d41586-018-05838-y
3469:Rafferty, John P. (2012).
3414:Gary B. Ferngren (2002). "
3365:Cahan, David, ed. (2003).
3344:. Loose Leaf. p. 75.
3086:List of Russian scientists
2946:
2738:
2566:
2426:Developmental psychologist
2125:Human behavioral ecologist
1921:
1830:Condensed-matter physicist
1256:), mostly at the level of
1228:) and some scientists are
1187:He also proposed the term
835:was not only a pioneer of
622:launched the 20th century
470:
25:
21:Scientist (disambiguation)
18:
4476:(7642): 509. 2017-02-22.
3936:Whewell, William (1847).
3861:10.1080/00033796200202722
3707:Robert Routledge (1881).
3669:Gilley, Sheridan (2006).
3292:, University of Virginia
2441:Experimental psychologist
2436:Evolutionary psychologist
2360:Linguistic anthropologist
1999:Biological anthropologist
1322:
908:infinite, periodic series
787:was a priest. During the
725:Science in medieval Islam
159:
133:
121:
111:
106:
90:
78:
70:
65:
56:. They received the 1903
38:
4150:Kruger, Philipp (2018).
3693:Lindberg, David. (1992)
3645:(1986), "Introduction",
2679:Mathematical sociologist
2431:Educational psychologist
1317:postdoctoral researchers
1305:thesis (or dissertation)
26:Not to be confused with
4077:(7560): 371–373. 2015.
3524:Einstein (1954, p. 271)
3340:Needham, C. W. (1978).
2609:Environmental scientist
2503:Computational scientist
2367:Communication scientist
2355:Cultural anthropologist
2055:Developmental biologist
2034:Computational biologist
1820:Computational physicist
1291:and presenting them at
1068:" or "men of science".
706:—philosophy, including
4602:– The Telegraph about
4550:Science and the Church
4421:"India by the numbers"
4248:Kwok, Roberta (2017).
3066:List of mathematicians
2674:Mathematical physicist
2669:Mathematical economist
2659:Mathematical biologist
2421:Cognitive psychologist
2095:Evolutionary biologist
2045:Conservation biologist
1588:Supramolecular chemist
1553:Organometallic chemist
1338:sectors of the economy
1293:scientific conferences
1230:independent scientists
1185:
1031:, Galvani's colleague
737:scientific disciplines
682:spread of Christianity
627:
624:environmental movement
611:
599:
587:
575:
564:
553:
544:, the inventor of the
534:
507:
484:
4568:Arthur Jack Meadows.
4098:Gould, Julie (2016).
3840:Ross, Sydney (1962).
2999:Independent scientist
2700:Independent scientist
2604:Engineering scientist
2446:Forensic psychologist
2416:Clinical psychologist
2411:Behavioral geneticist
2305:Theoretical biologist
2154:Integrative biologist
1924:List of life sciences
1880:Theoretical physicist
1835:Engineering physicist
1800:Atmospheric physicist
1503:Computational chemist
1129:
1009:Scientific Revolution
966:statistical mechanics
921:, and discovered the
890:(at the same time as
696:. By the time of the
649:Scientific Revolution
617:
605:
593:
581:
570:
559:
540:
513:
490:
478:
3883:The Quarterly Review
3141:Cambridge Dictionary
3115:Cambridge Dictionary
2817:United Arab Emirates
2715:Government scientist
2664:Mathematical chemist
2599:Biomedical scientist
2461:Medical psychologist
2387:Management scientist
2300:Structural biologist
2270:Population biologist
2194:Neuroendocrinologist
1810:Biological physicist
1415:elementary particles
1364:industrial scientist
1270:Doctor of Philosophy
1066:natural philosophers
1015:Age of Enlightenment
4652:Science occupations
4482:10.1038/nj7642-509b
4437:2015Natur.521..142V
4333:10.1038/nj7677-549a
4300:10.1038/nj7677-549a
4267:10.1038/nj7677-549a
4217:2007Natur.447..791L
4168:2018Natur.560..133K
4116:2016Natur.535...26G
4084:10.1038/nj7560-371a
4035:2011Natur.472..276C
3449:"Georgius Agricola"
3325:Singer, C. (2008).
3163:"Eusocial climbers"
2736:
2654:Materials scientist
2634:Physician scientist
2466:Social psychologist
2451:Health psychologist
2397:Political scientist
2392:Political economist
2221:Paleoanthropologist
2184:Molecular biologist
2065:Electrophysiologist
2029:Cognitive biologist
1845:Molecular physicist
1629:Dendroarchaeologist
1593:Theoretical chemist
1573:Solid-state chemist
1493:Biophysical chemist
1488:Atmospheric chemist
1419:high-energy physics
1382:who mainly develop
1374:Scientists include
1289:scientific journals
1254:research institutes
1104:, they might form
1039:Lazzaro Spallanzani
1029:University of Pavia
1025:bioelectromagnetics
896:classical mechanics
870:, who also studied
789:Italian Renaissance
785:Nicolaus Copernicus
698:medieval university
656:Classical antiquity
502:and the founder of
425:classical antiquity
116:Scientific research
35:
4604:What Inspired You?
4536:2016-04-12 at the
3928:Whewell, William.
3900:Holmes, R (2008).
3823:2017-03-02 at the
3643:Numbers, Ronald L.
3639:Lindberg, David C.
3544:2012-03-24 at the
3422:2015-03-16 at the
3308:, Routledge, 2003
2989:History of science
2734:
2498:Computer scientist
2471:Sport psychologist
2320:Wildlife biologist
2290:Sclerochronologist
2050:Dendrochronologist
1855:Particle physicist
1840:Material physicist
1815:Chemical physicist
1724:Paleoclimatologist
1699:Hydrometeorologist
1583:Structural chemist
1478:Analytical chemist
1370:Research interests
1329:scientific journal
1303:, and defending a
1274:graduate education
958:probability theory
919:infrared radiation
729:Islamic Golden Age
708:natural philosophy
628:
612:
600:
588:
576:
565:
554:
548:and discoverer of
546:electrical battery
535:
508:
485:
433:natural philosophy
223:Science portal
123:Education required
33:
4516:External articles
4431:(7551): 142–143.
4326:(7677): 549–552.
4211:(7146): 791–797.
4162:(7716): 133–134.
4029:(7343): 276–279.
3911:978-0-00-714953-7
3847:Annals of Science
3656:978-0-520-05538-4
3535:Stephen Hawking,
3351:978-0-398-03754-3
3301:Frank N. Magill,
3200:. Science Council
3061:List of engineers
3029:Normative science
2930:According to the
2923:
2922:
2710:Citizen scientist
2686:
2685:
2644:Interdisciplinary
2641:
2640:
2592:Medical physicist
2564:
2563:
2557:Systems scientist
2485:
2484:
2332:
2331:
2280:Quantum biologist
2204:Neuropsychologist
2174:Medical biologist
1915:
1914:
1896:Planetary science
1875:Quantum physicist
1865:Polymer physicist
1850:Nuclear physicist
1739:Paleoseismologist
1669:Geomicrobiologist
1538:Medicinal chemist
1533:Inorganic chemist
1448:By specialization
1431:neurotransmitters
1423:materials science
1403:molecular biology
1131:The terminations
1089:published in the
1023:, the pioneer of
970:quantum mechanics
923:greenhouse effect
898:and investigated
839:but formulated a
837:analytic geometry
825:Leonardo da Vinci
793:Leonardo da Vinci
641:epistemic virtues
618:Marine Biologist
606:Atomic physicist
523:scientific method
492:Georgius Agricola
435:, a precursor of
402:
401:
171:
170:
4659:
4633:, Oct. 24, 2002)
4509:
4508:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4448:
4416:
4407:
4406:
4399:
4393:
4392:
4391:. November 2014.
4385:
4379:
4378:
4369:
4363:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4335:
4311:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4245:
4239:
4238:
4228:
4196:
4190:
4189:
4179:
4147:
4138:
4137:
4127:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4046:
4014:
4005:
4004:
3997:
3991:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3955:
3949:
3947:
3933:
3925:
3916:
3915:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3878:
3872:
3865:
3863:
3837:
3828:
3811:
3805:
3795:
3789:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3776:
3760:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3750:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3704:
3698:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3625:
3620:on 22 March 2015
3619:
3612:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3555:
3549:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3501:
3495:
3494:
3487:
3481:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3445:
3439:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3322:
3316:
3299:
3293:
3288:Michael Fowler,
3286:
3280:
3279:
3262:
3261:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3180:
3175:on 27 April 2019
3174:
3167:
3159:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3148:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3107:
2949:Women in science
2737:
2733:
2648:
2647:
2587:Health physicist
2571:
2570:
2492:
2491:
2339:
2338:
2265:Phytopathologist
2241:Paleopathologist
2169:Marine biologist
2110:Herbchronologist
1974:Bioinformatician
1964:Bioclimatologist
1928:
1927:
1860:Plasma physicist
1805:Atomic physicist
1649:Geoarchaeologist
1563:Physical chemist
1498:Clinical chemist
1462:
1461:
1458:Physical science
1417:as described by
1413:at the scale of
1376:experimentalists
1309:oral examination
1272:(PhD). Although
1258:graduate schools
1246:academic setting
1092:Quarterly Review
1075:coined the term
1048:discovered that
1033:Alessandro Volta
934:Pierre de Fermat
927:Girolamo Cardano
805:Gerolamo Cardano
791:scientists like
767:; the physician
759:; the physician
542:Alessandro Volta
446:
418:natural sciences
408:is a person who
394:
387:
380:
225:
221:
220:
201:
173:
172:
92:Activity sectors
43:
36:
32:
4667:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4658:
4657:
4656:
4637:
4636:
4627:"The Scientist"
4538:Wayback Machine
4521:Further reading
4518:
4513:
4512:
4501:
4497:
4467:
4466:
4462:
4446:10.1038/521142a
4417:
4410:
4401:
4400:
4396:
4387:
4386:
4382:
4371:
4370:
4366:
4357:
4355:
4345:
4341:
4312:
4308:
4279:
4275:
4246:
4242:
4226:10.1038/447791a
4197:
4193:
4148:
4141:
4125:10.1038/535026a
4110:(7610): 26–28.
4096:
4092:
4065:
4064:
4060:
4044:10.1038/472276a
4015:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3981:
3977:
3968:
3966:
3957:
3956:
3952:
3926:
3919:
3912:
3898:
3894:
3879:
3875:
3838:
3831:
3825:Wayback Machine
3812:
3808:
3796:
3792:
3787:
3783:
3774:
3772:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3748:
3746:
3737:
3736:
3732:
3725:
3705:
3701:
3692:
3688:
3681:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3636:
3632:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3610:
3599:
3595:
3585:
3583:
3571:
3567:
3556:
3552:
3546:Wayback Machine
3534:
3530:
3522:
3518:
3502:
3498:
3489:
3488:
3484:
3468:
3464:
3454:
3452:
3447:
3446:
3442:
3424:Wayback Machine
3413:
3409:
3402:
3388:
3384:
3377:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3338:
3334:
3323:
3319:
3300:
3296:
3287:
3283:
3278:. p. 1016.
3259:
3257:
3253:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3220:
3216:
3203:
3201:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3161:
3160:
3156:
3146:
3144:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3120:
3118:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3099:
3014:Natural science
2960:
2951:
2945:
2928:
2728:
2723:
2691:
2646:
2582:Applied physics
2569:
2490:
2337:
2130:Human biologist
2075:Endocrinologist
2024:Chronobiologist
2009:Biostatistician
1984:Bioarcheologist
1979:Biotechnologist
1926:
1920:
1870:Psychophysicist
1754:Sedimentologist
1674:Geomorphologist
1609:Earth scientist
1568:Quantum chemist
1548:Organic chemist
1543:Nuclear chemist
1460:
1455:
1453:Natural science
1450:
1372:
1325:
1262:academic degree
1242:
1221:
1209:
1081:Mary Somerville
1073:William Whewell
1062:
1017:
859:interested the
849:animal movement
829:Galileo Galilei
813:
801:Galileo Galilei
779:; the botanist
747:: for example,
731:are considered
722:
658:
584:Albert Einstein
572:Mary Somerville
515:Johannes Kepler
473:
465:William Whewell
437:natural science
398:
369:
368:
329:
328:
317:
316:
280:
279:
268:
239:Article indexes
215:
214:
206:
205:
204:
203:
202:
162:
138:
136:
124:
93:
81:
80:Occupation type
61:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4665:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4635:
4634:
4623:
4622:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4607:
4596:
4595:
4591:
4590:
4581:
4566:
4554:
4545:
4544:, Winter 2004.
4523:
4522:
4517:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4495:
4460:
4408:
4394:
4380:
4364:
4339:
4306:
4273:
4240:
4191:
4139:
4090:
4058:
4006:
3992:
3975:
3950:
3917:
3910:
3892:
3873:
3829:
3806:
3790:
3781:
3755:
3730:
3723:
3699:
3686:
3679:
3661:
3655:
3630:
3593:
3565:
3550:
3528:
3516:
3496:
3482:
3462:
3440:
3407:
3401:978-0226317830
3400:
3382:
3375:
3357:
3350:
3332:
3317:
3294:
3281:
3268:, ed. (1870).
3266:Smith, William
3251:
3239:
3233:978-0226317830
3232:
3214:
3189:
3154:
3128:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3057:
3056:
3052:
3051:
3049:Social science
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2944:
2941:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2897:United Kingdom
2894:
2886:
2885:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2860:
2854:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2838:
2832:
2826:
2820:
2812:
2811:
2810:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2778:
2777:
2776:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2614:Food scientist
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2579:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2553:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2508:Data scientist
2505:
2489:
2488:Formal science
2486:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2345:Anthropologist
2336:
2335:Social science
2333:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2295:Sociobiologist
2292:
2287:
2285:Radiobiologist
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2250:Parasitologist
2245:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2236:Paleontologist
2233:
2231:Paleobiologist
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2199:Neuroscientist
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2179:Microbiologist
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2085:Epidemiologist
2082:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2019:Cell biologist
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1959:Bacteriologist
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1922:Main article:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1886:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1795:Astrophysicist
1792:
1787:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1766:
1761:
1756:
1751:
1746:
1741:
1736:
1734:Paleogeologist
1731:
1729:Paleoecologist
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1689:Hydrogeologist
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1614:Astrogeologist
1604:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1560:
1558:Pharmacologist
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
1508:Electrochemist
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1371:
1368:
1324:
1321:
1241:
1238:
1236:requirements.
1220:
1217:
1208:
1205:
1061:
1058:
1050:microorganisms
1046:Francesco Redi
1016:
1013:
812:
809:
721:
718:
680:and, with the
657:
654:
637:ethical values
561:Francesco Redi
531:modern science
472:
469:
451:that the term
400:
399:
397:
396:
389:
382:
374:
371:
370:
367:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
330:
324:
323:
322:
319:
318:
315:
314:
309:
304:
303:
302:
297:
287:
281:
275:
274:
273:
270:
269:
267:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
211:
208:
207:
196:
195:
194:
193:
192:
189:
188:
182:
181:
169:
168:
163:
160:
157:
156:
139:
134:
131:
130:
125:
122:
119:
118:
113:
109:
108:
104:
103:
101:field research
94:
91:
88:
87:
82:
79:
76:
75:
72:
68:
67:
63:
62:
44:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4664:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4644:
4642:
4632:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4620:
4619:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4605:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4593:
4592:
4588:
4587:
4582:
4579:
4578:0-7123-0894-6
4575:
4571:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4546:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4532:
4528:
4527:Alison Gopnik
4525:
4524:
4520:
4519:
4506:
4499:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4464:
4456:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4415:
4413:
4404:
4398:
4390:
4384:
4376:
4375:
4368:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4268:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4236:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4195:
4187:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4146:
4144:
4135:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4094:
4085:
4080:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4062:
4054:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4013:
4011:
4002:
3996:
3989:
3988:0-300-07338-0
3985:
3979:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3945:
3941:
3940:
3931:
3924:
3922:
3913:
3907:
3903:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3877:
3869:
3862:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3836:
3834:
3826:
3822:
3819:
3815:
3810:
3804:
3803:0-231-13428-2
3800:
3794:
3785:
3770:
3766:
3759:
3745:on 2010-06-03
3744:
3740:
3734:
3726:
3724:0-415-38381-1
3720:
3716:
3712:
3711:
3703:
3696:
3690:
3682:
3680:0-521-81456-1
3676:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3616:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3597:
3582:
3581:
3576:
3569:
3561:
3554:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3532:
3525:
3520:
3514:
3513:0-226-75024-8
3510:
3506:
3500:
3492:
3486:
3480:
3479:9781615305445
3476:
3472:
3466:
3450:
3444:
3438:
3437:0-8018-7038-0
3434:
3430:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3411:
3403:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3376:0-226-08928-2
3372:
3368:
3361:
3353:
3347:
3343:
3336:
3328:
3321:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3305:
3298:
3291:
3285:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3267:
3255:
3248:
3243:
3235:
3229:
3225:
3218:
3211:
3199:
3193:
3186:
3171:
3164:
3158:
3142:
3138:
3132:
3116:
3112:
3106:
3102:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3055:Related lists
3054:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3034:Pseudoscience
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3009:Mad scientist
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2955:
2950:
2940:
2937:
2936:United States
2933:
2926:United States
2916:
2913:
2910:
2909:United States
2907:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2849:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2805:
2802:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2774:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2732:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2692:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2650:
2649:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2619:Kinesiologist
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2577:Agriculturist
2575:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2558:
2555:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2517:
2516:
2515:Mathematician
2513:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2404:
2403:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2372:Criminologist
2370:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2350:Archaeologist
2348:
2347:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Primatologist
2273:
2271:
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2226:Paleobotanist
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2211:Ornithologist
2209:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2159:Lepidopterist
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2144:Ichthyologist
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2115:Herpetologist
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:Biogeographer
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1954:Arachnologist
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1944:Aerobiologist
1942:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1901:Space science
1899:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1790:Agrophysicist
1788:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1776:
1770:
1769:Volcanologist
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1719:Oceanographer
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1709:Meteorologist
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1624:Climatologist
1622:
1620:
1619:Biogeochemist
1617:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1606:
1605:
1599:
1598:Thermochemist
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1578:Stereochemist
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1523:Green chemist
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1463:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1429:function and
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1401:, especially
1400:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1385:
1381:
1380:theoreticians
1377:
1367:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1286:peer-reviewed
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1216:
1213:
1204:
1202:
1201:Great Britain
1198:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1135:(rather than
1134:
1128:
1126:
1121:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1067:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1040:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1021:Luigi Galvani
1012:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
932:
931:Blaise Pascal
928:
924:
920:
916:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
808:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
781:Otto Brunfels
778:
774:
771:was a hafiz,
770:
766:
762:
758:
757:mutakallimiin
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
717:
715:
714:
709:
705:
704:
699:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
666:
662:
653:
650:
645:
642:
638:
634:
625:
621:
620:Rachel Carson
616:
609:
604:
597:
592:
585:
580:
573:
569:
562:
558:
551:
547:
543:
539:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
482:
477:
468:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
419:
415:
411:
407:
395:
390:
388:
383:
381:
376:
375:
373:
372:
365:
362:
360:
359:Pseudoscience
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
334:Communication
332:
331:
327:
321:
320:
313:
310:
308:
305:
301:
298:
296:
293:
292:
291:
288:
286:
283:
282:
278:
272:
271:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
224:
219:
213:
212:
210:
209:
200:
191:
190:
187:
184:
183:
179:
175:
174:
167:
164:
158:
155:
151:
147:
143:
140:
132:
129:
126:
120:
117:
114:
110:
105:
102:
98:
95:
89:
86:
83:
77:
73:
69:
64:
59:
55:
54:radioactivity
51:
47:
42:
37:
29:
28:Scientologist
22:
4630:
4621:Audio-Visual
4603:
4584:
4569:
4560:
4548:
4504:
4498:
4473:
4469:
4463:
4428:
4424:
4397:
4383:
4373:
4367:
4356:, retrieved
4352:
4342:
4323:
4319:
4309:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4257:
4253:
4243:
4208:
4204:
4194:
4159:
4155:
4107:
4103:
4093:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4026:
4022:
3995:
3978:
3967:. Retrieved
3953:
3938:
3929:
3901:
3895:
3886:
3882:
3876:
3867:
3854:(2): 65–85.
3851:
3845:
3813:
3809:
3793:
3784:
3773:. Retrieved
3758:
3747:. Retrieved
3743:the original
3733:
3709:
3702:
3694:
3689:
3670:
3664:
3646:
3633:
3622:, retrieved
3615:the original
3606:
3596:
3584:. Retrieved
3578:
3568:
3559:
3553:
3537:
3531:
3519:
3504:
3499:
3485:
3470:
3465:
3453:. Retrieved
3443:
3415:
3410:
3391:
3385:
3366:
3360:
3341:
3335:
3326:
3320:
3303:
3297:
3284:
3273:
3254:
3242:
3223:
3217:
3209:
3202:. Retrieved
3192:
3184:
3177:. Retrieved
3170:the original
3157:
3147:27 September
3145:. Retrieved
3140:
3131:
3121:27 September
3119:. Retrieved
3114:
3105:
3024:Protoscience
2994:Intellectual
2979:Fields Medal
2952:
2929:
2835:South Africa
2823:Saudi Arabia
2729:
2624:Nutritionist
2545:Statistician
2406:Psychologist
2310:Toxicologist
2260:Physiologist
2149:Immunologist
2105:Hematologist
2080:Entomologist
2070:Embryologist
2004:Biophysicist
1918:Life science
1764:Speleologist
1759:Seismologist
1744:Palynologist
1714:Mineralogist
1684:Glaciologist
1679:Geophysicist
1654:Geobiologist
1639:Edaphologist
1634:Dendrologist
1513:Femtochemist
1483:Astrochemist
1407:human genome
1388:
1373:
1361:
1342:
1331:
1326:
1278:specializing
1250:universities
1243:
1222:
1210:
1207:20th century
1196:
1192:
1188:
1186:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1130:
1124:
1122:
1115:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1090:
1084:
1076:
1070:
1063:
1060:19th century
1044:
1037:
1018:
1005:Christianity
982:
976:, were also
902:and optics.
814:
797:Michelangelo
769:Ibn al-Nafis
723:
711:
701:
678:Roman Empire
670:philosophers
659:
646:
633:social norms
629:
596:Enrico Fermi
452:
449:19th century
429:philosophers
422:
405:
403:
363:
161:Related jobs
112:Competencies
46:Pierre Curie
4631:In Our Time
4557:Thomas Kuhn
4358:3 September
4293:: 549–552.
4260:: 419–421.
3204:7 September
3179:3 September
3111:"scientist"
3019:Nobel Prize
2841:New Zealand
2689:By employer
2540:Probabilist
2478:Sociologist
2377:Demographer
2255:Pathologist
2216:Osteologist
2164:Mammalogist
2139:Ichnologist
2120:Histologist
1994:Biolinguist
1939:Acarologist
1825:Cosmologist
1785:Acoustician
1749:Petrologist
1704:Limnologist
1694:Hydrologist
1473:Agrochemist
1345:Nobel Prize
1212:Marie Curie
1169:Tobacconist
938:Von Neumann
817:Renaissance
815:During the
811:Renaissance
745:theologians
720:Middle Ages
461:philosopher
107:Description
58:Nobel Prize
50:Marie Curie
4647:Scientists
4641:Categories
3969:2007-05-19
3775:2008-01-15
3749:2010-06-07
3624:14 January
3602:Noll, Mark
3314:1135457395
3306:, Volume 1
3097:References
2974:Researcher
2947:See also:
2767:Bangladesh
2726:By country
2721:Demography
2550:Topologist
2520:Algebraist
2315:Virologist
2189:Mycologist
2100:Geneticist
2090:Ethologist
1989:Biochemist
1891:Astronomer
1659:Geographer
1644:Gemologist
1518:Geochemist
1307:during an
1268:such as a
1219:Profession
1165:Journalist
1161:Heathenism
1052:can cause
910:— studied
861:physicists
853:perception
713:quadrivium
674:physicians
608:Niels Bohr
594:Physicist
582:Physicist
500:mineralogy
457:theologian
410:researches
326:In society
264:Philosophy
254:Literature
244:Glossaries
150:government
137:employment
97:Laboratory
85:Profession
66:Occupation
4583:Science,
4490:256770781
3868:scientist
3586:28 August
3429:JHU Press
3247:Aristotle
3137:"science"
3004:Licensure
2964:Engineers
2943:By gender
2869:Australia
2749:Indonesia
2382:Economist
2325:Zoologist
2060:Ecologist
1949:Anatomist
1934:Biologist
1906:Cosmology
1780:Physicist
1664:Geologist
1395:cosmology
1357:chemistry
1295:, giving
1266:doctorate
1240:Education
1234:licensure
1226:licensure
1197:scientist
1193:physicien
1189:physicist
1181:Scientist
1177:Physicist
1173:physician
1157:Witticism
1149:pulverize
1111:economist
1106:scientist
1077:scientist
978:musicians
962:computers
868:Helmholtz
845:mechanics
833:Descartes
773:muhaddith
753:al-Biruni
733:polymaths
710:—and the
694:patronage
690:astronomy
686:Astrology
519:astronomy
496:chemistry
481:Aristotle
467:in 1833.
453:scientist
439:. Though
406:scientist
364:Scientist
344:Education
339:Community
166:Engineers
154:nonprofit
135:Fields of
74:Scientist
34:Scientist
4594:Websites
4572:, 2004.
4542:Daedalus
4534:Archived
4455:25971491
4374:Foreword
4235:17568738
4186:30065341
4134:27383968
4053:21512548
3990:Page 36.
3963:Archived
3821:Archived
3818:Page 274
3769:Archived
3542:Archived
3455:April 4,
3431:. p.33.
3420:Archived
3270:"Thales"
2969:Inventor
2958:See also
2773:Pakistan
2761:Thailand
2755:Malaysia
2695:Academic
2535:Logician
2530:Geometer
2014:Botanist
1405:and the
1349:medicine
1301:teaching
1297:lectures
1153:colonize
985:medicine
946:Khinchin
888:calculus
821:Italians
761:Avicenna
295:Physical
277:Branches
234:Category
178:a series
176:Part of
146:industry
142:Academia
4565:, 1962.
4433:Bibcode
4213:Bibcode
4164:Bibcode
4112:Bibcode
4031:Bibcode
3814:Science
3044:Science
3039:Scholar
2875:Germany
2743:Nigeria
2567:Applied
2525:Analyst
1468:Chemist
1442:thought
1399:biology
1353:physics
1248:(e.g.,
1117:atheist
1054:disease
989:biology
974:Galileo
904:Fourier
892:Leibniz
876:hearing
749:Alhazen
741:priests
703:trivium
550:methane
527:natural
504:geology
471:History
416:of the
349:Funding
312:Applied
290:Natural
249:History
229:Outline
186:Science
128:Science
4576:
4488:
4470:Nature
4453:
4425:Nature
4320:Nature
4287:Nature
4254:Nature
4233:
4205:Nature
4184:
4156:Nature
4132:
4104:Nature
4071:Nature
4051:
4023:Nature
3986:
3908:
3801:
3721:
3677:
3653:
3511:
3477:
3435:
3398:
3373:
3348:
3312:
3263:
3230:
2915:Israel
2891:Canada
2863:France
2857:Russia
2801:Brazil
1421:, and
1411:matter
1391:career
1384:models
1355:, and
1333:Nature
1323:Career
1313:mentor
1280:in an
1143:, and
1114:, and
1102:artist
1001:Harvey
954:Wiener
950:Markov
942:Turing
884:Newton
872:optics
857:Vision
841:theory
763:was a
639:, and
521:, the
441:Thales
354:Policy
307:Social
285:Formal
259:Method
4486:S2CID
4353:Wired
3871:p.72.
3618:(PDF)
3611:(PDF)
3173:(PDF)
3166:(PDF)
2917:: 140
2903:Japan
2881:Italy
2851:Spain
2829:China
2807:Egypt
2795:Chile
2789:Kenya
2783:India
1439:human
1427:brain
1151:, to
997:Galen
995:from
993:blood
900:light
880:music
864:Young
777:ulema
765:hafiz
755:were
665:Greek
494:gave
71:Names
4574:ISBN
4451:PMID
4360:2018
4231:PMID
4182:PMID
4130:PMID
4049:PMID
3984:ISBN
3906:ISBN
3799:ISBN
3719:ISBN
3675:ISBN
3651:ISBN
3626:2015
3588:2014
3509:ISBN
3475:ISBN
3457:2019
3433:ISBN
3396:ISBN
3371:ISBN
3346:ISBN
3310:ISBN
3228:ISBN
3206:2018
3181:2018
3149:2023
3123:2023
2911:: 85
2905:: 83
2899:: 79
2893:: 73
2883:: 70
2877:: 70
2871:: 69
2865:: 68
2859:: 58
2853:: 54
2843:: 35
2837:: 20
2831:: 18
2825:: 15
2819:: 15
2809:: 14
2803:: 14
1437:and
1435:mind
1397:and
1282:area
1252:and
987:and
968:and
952:and
917:and
915:flow
912:heat
878:and
866:and
851:and
803:and
775:and
751:and
743:and
688:and
672:and
529:and
414:area
300:Life
48:and
4478:doi
4474:542
4441:doi
4429:521
4328:doi
4324:550
4295:doi
4291:550
4262:doi
4258:550
4221:doi
4209:447
4172:doi
4160:560
4120:doi
4108:535
4079:doi
4075:523
4039:doi
4027:472
3944:560
3934:or
3856:doi
3715:553
3427:".
2797:: 7
2791:: 6
2785:: 4
2775:: 3
2769:: 2
2763:: 2
2757:: 2
2751:: 1
2745:: 1
1299:or
1145:ist
1141:ism
1139:),
1137:ise
1133:ize
1083:'s
999:to
843:of
423:In
4643::
4559:,
4540:,
4529:,
4484:.
4472:.
4449:.
4439:.
4427:.
4423:.
4411:^
4351:,
4322:.
4318:.
4289:.
4285:.
4256:.
4252:.
4229:.
4219:.
4207:.
4203:.
4180:.
4170:.
4158:.
4154:.
4142:^
4128:.
4118:.
4106:.
4102:.
4073:.
4069:.
4047:.
4037:.
4025:.
4021:.
4009:^
3961:.
3920:^
3887:LI
3885:.
3852:18
3850:.
3844:.
3832:^
3767:.
3717:.
3641:;
3604:,
3577:.
3272:.
3208:.
3183:.
3139:.
3113:.
1359:.
1351:,
1319:.
1167:,
1163:,
1159:,
1155:,
1127::
1056:.
1011:.
980:.
948:,
944:,
940:,
936:,
929:,
925:.
882:.
874:,
855:.
819:,
799:,
795:,
635:,
525:,
459:,
445:c.
420:.
404:A
180:on
152:,
148:,
144:,
99:,
4580:.
4492:.
4480::
4457:.
4443::
4435::
4405:.
4336:.
4330::
4303:.
4297::
4270:.
4264::
4237:.
4223::
4215::
4188:.
4174::
4166::
4136:.
4122::
4114::
4087:.
4081::
4055:.
4041::
4033::
4003:.
3972:.
3946:.
3914:.
3864:.
3858::
3827:.
3778:.
3752:.
3727:.
3683:.
3590:.
3459:.
3404:.
3379:.
3354:.
3236:.
3151:.
3125:.
626:.
533:.
443:(
393:e
386:t
379:v
30:.
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
