1506:
1706:
1276:
scheme of extraordinary ambition which hinges on two untenable assumptions: that the
Muslims had concluded that a direct assault against Byzantium was without prospects of success, and that they had more detailed geographical knowledge than can be demonstrated for the time in question. Mako agrees that such a grand strategic plan is not borne out by the rather limited nature of the Arab–Khazar conflict until the 720s. It is more likely that the northward expansion of the Arabs beyond the Caucasus was, at least initially, the result of the onward momentum of the early Muslim conquests. Local Arab commanders of the period often exploited opportunities haphazardly and without an overall plan, sometimes pursuing expansion even against direct caliphal orders. From a strategic perspective, it is more probable that the Byzantines encouraged the Khazars to attack the Caliphate to relieve mounting pressure on their eastern frontier in the early eighth century. Byzantium profited from the diversion of Muslim armies northwards during the 720s and 730s, and the Byzantine–Khazar entente resulted in another marriage alliance between future emperor
1622:
2209:, but the process is not well documented and was apparently gradual; it was certainly underway in the last decades of the eighth century, according to historical sources, and numismatic evidence indicates that it was probably complete by the 830s. The conversion was primarily confined to the Khazar elites, and Christianity, Islam, and Tengrism and local pagan beliefs remained widespread among the Khazar subjects, and even members of the royal house are known to have professed Islam—and thus been barred from ascending the throne. Many modern scholars believe that the Khazar elites' conversion to Judaism was a means of stressing their own identity as separate from (and avoiding assimilation by) the Christian Byzantine and Muslim Arab empires with which they were in contact and was a direct result of the 737 events.
2252:
slowly and was likely superficial at first. For a period of some four centuries, while their power lasted, the
Khazars remained an obstacle to the further northward expansion of Islam. Blankinship considers the Caliphate's limited gains in the second war as disproportionate to the resources expended; effective Arab control was limited to the lowlands and coast, and the land was too poor to replenish the Umayyad treasury. In addition, the large garrison at Derbent further depleted the already-overstretched Syro-Jaziran army, the main pillar of the Umayyad regime, whose dispersion across the Caliphate's far-flung fronts was eventually the major factor in the fall of the Umayyad dynasty during the civil wars of the 740s and the subsequent Abbasid Revolution.
1174:
1074:. After the Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries, their perceptions incorporated many of the cultural concepts of their new subjects. This was reflected in early Muslim geographic works, where the Caucasus was seen as part of a great continuous mountain chain that spanned the earth, and divided the civilized lands of the south from the 'Land of Darkness' beyond, an idea deriving from Persian and possibly ancient Babylonian traditions. Consequently, according to Mako, the caliphs soon adopted the notion that it was their duty "to protect the settled, i.e. the civilized world from the northern barbarian". This imperative was reinforced by the Muslim division of the world into the House of Islam (
50:
1985:
1197:, not aimed at conquest. Rather, Golden writes, they were "typical of nomads testing the defenses of their sedentary neighbors" and a means of gathering booty, the acquisition and distribution of which was fundamental to tribal coalitions. According to Golden, for the Khazars the strategic stake of the conflict was control of the Caucasus passes. According to historian Boris Zhivkov, on the other hand, the Khazars contested the extension of Arab rule over Albania. Zhivkov considers that the Khazars laid special claim to the province, based on the ephemeral control exercised there by the Western Turks after the last Byzantine–Sasanian war.
2066:
1310:
783:
2295:
2510:. The Khazar realm contracted to its core around the lower Volga, removed from the reach of the Muslim principalities of the Caucasus; Ibn al-Athir's reports of a war between the Shaddadids with the "Khazars" in 1030 probably refers, instead, to the Georgians. The last Khazars found refuge among their former enemies; Münejjim Bashi records that in 1064, "the remnants of the Khazars, consisting of three thousand households, arrived in Qahtan from the Khazar territory. They rebuilt it and settled in it".
1698:, capitulated in exchange for tribute. Al-Jarrah intended to advance to Samandar, the next major Khazar settlement, but cut his campaign short when he learned that the Khazars were gathering large forces there. The Arabs had not yet defeated the main Khazar army, which (like all nomad forces) did not depend on cities for supplies. The presence of this force near Samandar and reports of rebellions among the mountain tribes in their rear forced the Arabs to retreat to
1149:, but relied primarily on their infantry. Arab cavalry was often limited to skirmishing early in a battle before dismounting and fighting on foot. The Arab armies resisted cavalry charges by digging trenches and forming a spear wall behind them. This tactic indicates the discipline of the Arab armies, particularly the elite Syrian troops, which in the Umayyad period served continuously rather than being called up for specific campaigns, and were a
1702:, south of the Caucasus. On his return, al-Jarrah reported on his campaign to the caliph and requested additional troops to defeat the Khazars. This is an indication of the severity of the fighting and, according to Blankinship, that the campaign was not necessarily the resounding success portrayed in Muslim sources. As Noonan comments, "though the sent his best wishes, no further forces were dispatched" to the Caucasus front.
1497:, on the other hand, the "cautious nature of Khazar policy in the Southern Caucasus" made them avoid direct confrontation with the Umayyads and intervene only during times of civil war. Noonan writes that this caution was because the Khazars were themselves preoccupied with consolidating their rule of the Pontic–Caspian steppe and were satisfied with the "limited goal of bringing Albania into the Khazar sphere of influence".
6772:
1690:. Al-Jarrah is said to have ransomed the wife and children of Balanjar's governor, and the governor began informing him about Khazar movements. Muslim sources also say that the governor accepted an offer to recover all his belongings (and Balanjar) if he submitted to Muslim rule, but this is probably false. At that time, so many Khazar prisoners were taken that al-Jarrah ordered some of them drowned in the Balanjar River.
1395:—about 800 kilometres (500 mi)—north, as far as al-Bayda on the Volga, the future Khazar capital. This dating, and the improbable claim that the Arabs suffered no casualties, have been disputed by modern scholars. Based at Derbent, Abd al-Rahman launched frequent raids against the Khazars and local tribes over the following years, but they were of small scale and no details about them are recorded in the sources.
2218:
Dagestan. Blankinship says that these campaigns more closely resembled raids, designed to seize plunder and extract tribute to ensure the upkeep of the Arab army, than attempts at permanent conquest. Dunlop on the other hand writes that Marwan came "within an ace of succeeding" in his conquest of
Khazaria, and suggests that the Arab commander "apparently intended to resume operations against the
1762:. Maslama's appointment is considered by modern historians to attest to the importance placed by the caliph on the Khazar front, since he was not only a member of the rulingy dynasty, but also one of the most distinguished generals of the Umayyad empire. Nevertheless, Maslama remained in the Jazira for the time being, more concerned with operations against the Byzantines. In his stead, he sent
2474:(whom the Khazars permitted to cross their lands unhindered) at about the same time. For the Khazars, peace on the southern border became more important as new threats to their hegemony emerged in the steppes. Caliphal authority also receded over the 9th and 10th centuries, allowing the re-emergence of native Christian states, initially as caliphal vassals, but de facto independent: Alania,
2552:, modern scholars have often overestimated the significance of this marriage. Noonan argues that Byzantium was more hard-pressed by the Arab attacks than the Khazars, both sides could provide little tangible help to one another, and there is no evidence of further Byzantine–Khazar relations for half a century. Noonan calls the marriage "purely symbolic, a gesture of solidarity and no more".
2307:
hold on its empire was too tenuous for a resumption of the ambitious
Umayyad offensives. In Noonan's judgment, "he Khazar-Arab Wars ended in a stalemate", followed by a gradual rapprochement that encouraged the growth of trade between the two empires: large, stashed quantities of Arab coins in Eastern Europe suggest that the second half of the 8th century marks the start of the
1823:. Ardabil was the capital of Adharbayjan, and most of the Muslim settlers and their families (about 30,000) lived within its walls. Informed of Arab movements by the prince of Iberia, the Khazars moved around al-Jarrah and attacked Warthan. Al-Jarrah rushed to assist the town; he is next recorded as being at Ardabil again, however, confronting the main Khazar army.
1005:, around 630, the extension of Turkic control into the South Caucasus was abandoned, and the region returned to Sasanian influence by 632. The collapse of the West Turkic khaganate led to the independence of the Khazars, then living in the Middle Volga region, and their emergence as an imperial power in their own right between the 660s and 680s, when they defeated
2248:. According to Golden, during the long conflict the Arabs "had been able to maintain their hold over much of Transcaucasia"; despite occasional Khazar raids, this "had never really been seriously threatened". In their failure to push the border north of Derbent, however, the Arabs were clearly "reaching the outer limits of their imperial drive".
1427:
and their resistance (encouraged by
Byzantium) could not be overcome. For several decades after the initial Arab conquest, considerable autonomy was left to local rulers; Arab governors worked with them, and they had small forces of their own. The Khazars refrained from large-scale interventions in the south; pleas for assistance by
1941:
of its soldiers in the
Caliphate's armies. According to Blankinship, this unique concession indicates the Caliphate's worsening manpower crisis. Around this time, the Khazars and Byzantines strengthened their ties and formalized their alliance against the Arabs with the marriage of Constantine V to the Khazar princess Tzitzak.
1110:, which in political terms entailed "the struggle to establish God's rule in the earth through a continuous military effort against the non-Muslims". The early Muslim state was geared toward expansion, with all able-bodied adult male Muslims subject to conscription. Its manpower pool was accordingly enormous, with historian
1883:
was released (and rewarded) only after the caliph intervened on his behalf. Noonan points out that the jealousies between the Arab commanders, and their rapid turnover, adversely impacted their war effort, as it "inhibited the development and execution of a long-term strategy for dealing with the Khazar problem".
856:. According to historian Gerald Mako, the latter were stereotypical "northern barbarians" as conceived by the settled civilizations of Eurasia: "uncivilized savages who drank blood, who ate children, and whose greed and bestiality knew no limits". If Alexander's barrier failed and Gog and Magog broke through, the
1997:
year against
Wartanis, another local prince, whose castle was sacked, and its defenders killed despite their surrender; Wartanis tried to flee but was captured and executed by the inhabitants of Khamzin. Marwan also subdued the Armenian factions who were hostile to the Arabs and Ashot III, their client. He then
1898:. Leaving their campfires burning, the Arabs withdrew in the middle of the night and quickly reached Derbent in a series of forced marches. The Khazars shadowed Maslama's march south and attacked him near Derbent, but the Arab army (augmented by local levies) resisted until a small, elite force attacked the
934:. After the latter's collapse, they emerged as an independent, dominant power in the northern Caucasus by the seventh century. As the most recent steppe power in the region, early medieval writers came to identify the Khazars with Gog and Magog and the Sasanian fortifications at Derbent as Alexander's wall.
1205:, they practised a mobile form of warfare and relied on skilled, hardy cavalry. The rapid movements and sudden attacks and counterattacks of the Khazar cavalry are emphasized in the medieval sources. In the few detailed descriptions of pitched battles, the Khazar cavalry launch the opening attacks. Heavy (
1331:, the Arabs had reached Armenia. Arabic and Armenian sources differ considerably on the details and chronology of the Arab conquest of Armenia, but by 655, the Armenian princes had capitulated, and both the Byzantine and Persian halves of Armenia had been subjugated. Arab rule was overthrown during the
2251:
Arab control in most of the territories under their nominal rule remained thin on the ground, being exercised mostly through local princes who had submitted to Muslim rule. This submission was often only nominal, unless it could be enforced by Arab governors by force. Likewise, Islamization proceeded
2227:
Despite the
Umayyad establishment of a more-or-less stable frontier anchored at Derbent, they could not advance any further (despite repeated efforts) in the face of Khazar resistance. Dunlop drew parallels between the Umayyad–Khazar confrontation in the Caucasus and that between the Umayyads and the
1996:
In the meantime, Marwan consolidated his rear. In 735, the
Umayyad general captured three fortresses in Alania (near the Darial Pass). The Arabs also seized Tuman Shah, the ruler of a North Caucasian principality who was restored to his lands by the caliph as a client. Marwan campaigned the following
1726:
via the Darial Pass. Sources say that he marched "beyond
Balanjar", conquering several fortresses and capturing much loot, but offer few details. However, modern scholars consider this to probably be an echo (or, possibly, the actual date) of the 722 Balanjar campaign. The Khazars raided south of the
937:
The Khazars are mentioned in medieval histories as being present in the Caucasus since the first centuries CE, but these are rejected as anachronistic by modern scholars. Some scholars have argued that the Khazars are to be identified with Turks who raided Sasanian Persia in the late 6th century, but
2306:
succession in 750, reaching deep into the South Caucasus. Although the Khazars had re-consolidated control of Dagestan almost to the gates of Derbent by the ninth century, they never seriously attempted to challenge Muslim control of the southern Caucasus. At the same time, the new Abbasid dynasty's
1940:
reports that Marwan led a far more limited campaign on the region just north of Derbent, retiring there for the winter. Marwan was more active in the south, appointing Ashot III Bagratuni as the presiding prince of Armenia; this effectively gave the country broad autonomy in exchange for the service
1750:
and the lands of the Alans under Muslim suzerainty. These campaigns made al-Jarrah the first Muslim commander to cross the Darial Pass, secured the Muslim flank against a possible Khazar attack through the pass, and gave the Arabs a second invasion route into Khazar territory. AL-Jarrah was also the
1685:
of 300 wagons tied together with ropes, a common tactic among nomads. The Arabs broke through, storming the city on 21 August 722. Most of Balanjar's inhabitants were killed or enslaved, but a few (including its governor) fled north. The booty seized by the Arabs was so large that each of the 30,000
1516:
Relations between the two powers remained relatively quiet until the early eighth century, when the stage for a new and more intense round of conflict was set. At the turn of the century, Byzantine political authority was marginalized in the Caucasus: the civil war in the Caliphate ended in 693, and
1426:
Due to the First Muslim Civil War and priorities on other fronts, the Arabs did not again attack the Khazars until the early eighth century. Despite the re-establishment of Arab suzerainty after the end of the civil war, the tributary South Caucasus principalities were not yet firmly under Arab rule
2106:
and who were Khazar subjects, taking 20,000 families (40,000 people in other accounts) captive. The Khazars avoided battle, and Marwan sent a detachment of 40,000 troops across the Volga under al-Kawthar ibn al-Aswad al-Anbari. The Khazars were surprised in a swamp; ten thousand Khazars were killed
1949:
After Marwan's 732 expedition, a period of quiet began. Sa'id al-Harashi replaced Marwan as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan in spring 733, but undertook no campaigns during the two years of his governorship. Blankinship attributes this inactivity to the exhaustion of the Arab armies and draws a
1891:
Maslama took command of a large army, and immediately took the offensive. He restored the provinces of Albania to Muslim allegiance (after punishing the inhabitants of Khaydhan who resisted him) and reached Derbent, where he found a Khazar garrison of 1,000 men and their families. Leaving al-Harith
1874:
and defeated it in a surprise night attack, killing most of the Khazars and rescuing their 5,000 Muslim prisoners (who included al-Jarrah's daughter). The surviving Khazars fled north, with Sa'id in pursuit. Muslim sources record a number of other, heavily embellished attacks by Sa'id on improbably
1784:
himself, as both sides escalated the conflict. Maslama took the offensive, probably reinforced with Syrian and Jaziran troops. He recovered the Darial Pass (which had been apparently lost after al-Jarrah's 724 expedition) and pushed into Khazar territory, campaigning there until the onset of winter
1573:
says that it was defended by 3,000 Khazars, and Maslama captured it only after a resident showed him a secret underground passage. Łewond also says that the Arabs, realizing that they could not hold the fortress, razed its walls. Maslama then drove deeper into Khazar territory, trying to subdue the
1449:
The only recorded hostilities in the second half of the 7th century were a few Khazar raids into the South Caucasus principalities that were loosely under Muslim dominion. These raids were primarily in search of plunder rather than attempts at conquest. In one such raid into Albania in 661–62, they
1882:
Sa'id's unexpected success angered Maslama; Łewond writes that Sa'id had won the war and received what glory (and booty) there was to be had. Sa'id was relieved of his command in early 731 by Maslama and imprisoned at Qabala and Bardha'a, charged with endangering the army by disobeying orders, and
1275:
suggested that the Arab expansion in the Caucasus was motivated by a desire to outflank the Byzantine defences from the north and envelop the Byzantine Empire in a pincer movement, but this idea is rejected as far-fetched by more recent scholars. Wasserstein objects to Obolensky's proposition as a
746:
The 737 campaign marked the end of large-scale warfare between the two powers, establishing Derbent as the northernmost outpost of the Muslim world and securing Muslim dominance of the South Caucasus, but leaving the North Caucasus in Khazar hands. At the same time, continuing warfare weakened the
2043:
advanced north along the Caspian coast, and Marwan crossed the Darial Pass with the bulk of his forces. The invasion met little resistance; Arab sources report that Marwan had detained the Khazar envoy and only released him (with a declaration of war) when he was deep in Khazar territory. The two
1859:. The forces he could muster immediately were apparently small, but he set out to meet the Khazars (possibly disobeying orders to maintain a defensive stance). Sa'id encountered refugees from Ardabil along the way and enlisted them into his army, paying each recruit ten gold dinars as inducement.
1846:
The defeat at Ardabil—news of which spread even to Byzantium—was a shock to the Muslims, who faced an army penetrating deep into the Caliphate for the first time. Caliph Hisham again appointed Maslama to fight the Khazars as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan. Until Maslama could assemble enough
1209:) cavalry is not recorded, but archaeological evidence attests to the use of heavy armour for riders and (possibly) horses. The presence of Khazar infantry must be assumed (especially during siege operations), although it is not explicitly mentioned. Modern historians point to the use of advanced
1800:
In 729/30, al-Jarrah returned to the offensive through Tiflis and the Darial Pass. Ibn al-Athir reports that he reached the Khazar capital, al-Bayda on the lower Volga, but no other source mentions this; modern historians generally consider this improbable, possibly resulting from confusion with
1791:
on 17 September 728. The impact of their victory is questionable, however, as Maslama was ambushed by the Khazars upon his return, and the Arabs abandoned their baggage train and fled through the Darial Pass to safety. After this campaign, Maslama was replaced yet again by al-Jarrah. Despite his
1659:
chief was in contact with the Khazars, al-Jarrah set up camp on the river Rubas and announced that the army would remain there for several days. Instead, he arrived at Derbent in a night march and entered it without resistance. From there, al-Jarrah launched raiding columns into Khazar territory
1217:
The Khazar army was composed of Khazar troops and those of vassal princes and allies. Its overall size is unclear, and references to 300,000 men in the invasion of 730 are clearly exaggerated. Historian Igor Semyonov observes that the Khazars "never entered into battle without having a numerical
1097:
While their Byzantine and Sasanian predecessors simply sought to contain the steppe peoples through fortifications and political alliances, historian David Wasserstein writes that the leaders of the Arab caliphate were "expansionists interested in conquest"; their northward thrust threatened the
1200:
The sources do not provide details of the composition or tactics of Khazar armies, and the names of Khazar commanders are rarely recorded. Although the Khazars adopted elements of the civilizations to their south and possessed towns, they remained a tribal, semi-nomadic power. Like other steppe
759:. Relations between the Muslims of the Caucasus and the Khazars remained largely peaceful thereafter and the Caucasus became an avenue of trade linking the Middle East to Eastern Europe; peace was interrupted by two Khazar raids in the 760s and in 799 resulting from failed efforts to secure an
1962:(another Turkic steppe power). Marwan reportedly criticised the policy followed in the Caucasus to Caliph Hisham, recommending that he be sent to deal with the Khazars with an army of 120,000 men. When Sa'id asked to be relieved due to failing eyesight, Hisham appointed Marwan to replace him.
1910:
Taking advantage of his victory, Maslama poisoned the water supply of Derbent to drive the Khazar garrison out. He re-established the city as an Arab military colony, restoring its fortifications and garrisoning it with 24,000 troops, mostly from Syria, divided into quarters by their district
1213:
to indicate that Khazar military sophistication was equal to that of other contemporary armies. The less-rigidly organized, semi-nomadic nature of the Khazar state also worked to their advantage against the Arabs, as they lacked a permanent administrative centre, whose loss would paralyze the
721:, the Arabs recaptured Derbent and the southern Khazar capital of Balanjar; these successes had little impact on the nomadic Khazars, however, who continued to launch devastating raids deep into the South Caucasus. In a major 730 invasion, the Khazars decisively defeated Umayyad forces at the
2217:
Whatever the real events of Marwan's campaigns, warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737. Arab military activity in the Caucasus continued until 741, with Marwan launching repeated expeditions against minor principalities in the area of present-day
1133:
proved loath to answer summons if the prospects for an easy victory and plunder were low, but on the other hand, these numbers could be supplemented by unregistered Arab volunteers. This put the Arabs at a distinct advantage over their enemies: the entire nominal strength of the contemporary
1218:
advantage" over their Arab opponents, which often forced the latter to withdraw. According to Semyonov, this attests to the Khazars' skill in logistics and their ability to gather accurate information about their opponents' movements, the layout of the country, and the condition of roads.
2038:
volunteers, Armenian troops under Ashot III, and armed camp followers and servants. Whatever the size of Marwan's army, it was the largest ever sent against the Khazars. He attacked simultaneously from two directions. Thirty thousand men (including most of the levies from the Caucasian
1042:. Their locations have yet to be established with certainty by modern researchers, but both cities are referred to as Khazar capitals by Arab writers and may have been winter and summer capitals, respectively. Due to Arab attacks, the Khazars later moved their capital further north to
1892:
ibn Amr al-Ta'i at Derbent, Maslama advanced north. Although details of this campaign may be conflated in the sources with the 728 campaign, he apparently took Khamzin, Balanjar, and Samandar before being forced to retreat after a confrontation with the main Khazar army under the
2044:
Arab armies converged on Samandar, where a review was held; according to Ibn A'tham, the troops were issued new white clothing—the Umayyad dynastic colour—and new spears. Marwan then advanced, according to some Arab sources, to the Khazar capital of al-Bayda on the Volga. The
1261:. This did not materialize; Armenia was left largely quiet, with the Umayyads granting it wide-ranging autonomy and the Byzantines refraining from actively campaigning there. Given the common threat of the Khazar raids, the Umayyads found the Armenians (and the neighbouring
1785:
forced him to return to Adharbayjan. His second invasion, the following year, was less successful; Blankinship calls it a "near disaster". Arab sources report that the Umayyad troops fought for thirty or forty days in the mud, with continuous rain, before defeating the
1477:
also launched attacks on Albania in 664 and 680. In the first incursion, Prince Juansher was obliged to marry the daughter of the Hunnic king. Modern scholars debate whether the Huns acted independently or as Khazar proxies, but several historians consider Hunnic ruler
1529:, in 717–718. In the same period, the Caliphate tightened its grip on the Christian principalities of Transacaucasia. After the suppression of a large-scale Armenian rebellion in 705, Armenia, Iberia and Albania finally came under direct Arab rule as the province of
1935:
records that he reached Balanjar and returned to Derbent with much captured livestock, but the campaign also experienced heavy rain and mud. Highly reminiscent of descriptions of Maslama's 728 and 731 expeditions, the veracity of Ibn A'tham's account is doubtful.
1156:
In the 8th century, Arab armies were often accompanied by local forces provided by the various local potentates, who not only were under Arab suzerainty, but often enough had suffered themselves by Khazar raids. Thus in 732 the presiding prince of Armenia,
1792:
energy, Maslama's campaigns failed to produce the desired results; by 729, the Arabs had lost control of the northeastern parts of the South Caucasus and were again on the defensive, with al-Jarrah having to defend Adharbayjan against a Khazar invasion.
1927:
contingents) south of the Caucasus for the winter; the Khazars returned to their abandoned towns. Maslama's record (despite the capture of Derbent) was apparently unsatisfactory to Hisham, who replaced his brother in March 732 with Marwan ibn Muhammad.
1879:, they may be contemporary, but imaginative, retellings of Sa'id's campaign. According to Blankinship, "The various battles fought and rescues of Muslim prisoners achieved by Sa'id in these sources seem to all go back to a single battle near Bajarwan".
1636:
In 721/22, the main phase of the war began. Thirty thousand Khazars invaded Armenia that winter, and decisively defeated the mostly Syrian army of local governor Ma'laq ibn Saffar al-Bahrani at Marj al-Hijara (Rocky Meadow) in February and March 722.
2442:
s daughters, who died on the journey south. A completely different story is reported by al-Tabari; the Khazars were invited to attack by a local Arab magnate in retaliation for the execution of his father, the governor of Derbent, by the general
1598:, the Khazars invaded and raided Albania with an army claimed to be 80,000 strong. In 717, the Khazars raided Adharbayjan in force. With the bulk of the Umayyad army, under the command of Maslama, occupied at the siege of Constantinople, Caliph
725:, killing al-Jarrah; in turn, they were defeated the following year and pushed back north. Maslama then recovered Derbent, which became a major Arab military outpost and colony, before he was replaced by Marwan ibn Muhammad (the future caliph
1830:
from 7 to 9 December 730, al-Jarrah's 25,000-man army was all but annihilated by the Khazars. Al-Jarrah was among the fallen; command passed to his brother, al-Hajjaj, who could not prevent the sacking of Ardabil. The 10th-century historian
769:. Occasional warfare between the Khazars and the Muslim principalities of the Caucasus continued until the collapse of the Khazar state in the late 10th century, but it never matched again the intensity and scale of the eighth-century war.
973:) invaded Persia proper in the next year, 40,000 Turks joined him. Their contribution was decisive for ending the war in a Byzantine victory. For a short while afterwards, as Sasanian power collapsed, the Turks exercised some control over
897:), this stretched over 45 kilometres (28 mi) from the eastern foothills of the Caucasus to the Caspian Sea. The fortress of Derbent was the strategically crucial centre point of this fortification complex, as seen in its Persian name
2574:
The task of facing the Khazars during the Second Arab–Khazar War fell on the Umayyad governors of Arminiya and Adharbayjan, the two provinces being governed in tandem at the time and usually combined with the governorship of the Jazira
2147:
Marwan's 737 expedition was the climax of the Arab–Khazar wars, but its results were meagre. Although the Arab campaigns after Ardabil may have discouraged the Khazars from further warfare, recognition of Islam or Arab supremacy by the
1368:, written in the early 10th century, reports that Shahrbaraz, the Persian governor of Derbent, offered to surrender the fortress to the Arabs and aid them against the Caucasian peoples if he and his followers were relieved of the
2383:
Peace reigned in the Caucasus between the Arabs and Khazars until 799, and the last major Khazar attack into the South Caucasus. Chroniclers again attribute the attack to a failed marriage alliance. Georgian sources say that the
1655:, one of his most celebrated generals, north with 25,000 Syrian troops in response. The Khazars retreated to the area of Derbent (whose Muslim garrison was still holding out) at the news of his approach. Learning that the local
1674:'s sons), reportedly numbered 40,000. The Arabs were victorious, losing 4,000 men to the Khazars' 7,000. Advancing north, the Arab army captured the settlements of Khamzin and Targhu and resettled their inhabitants elsewhere.
2265:
1295:
by the Caliphate has been suggested as a further motive for the conflict. Mako disputes this claim, pointing out that warfare declined precisely at the time of greatest Silk Road expansion, after the mid-eighth century.
1980:
record that the Arabs and Khazars concluded a peace during this period, which Muslim sources ignore or explain as a short-lived ruse by Marwan to buy time for preparations and mislead the Khazars about his intentions.
1804:
It is unclear whether the Khazar invasion was through the Darial Pass, the Caspian Gates, or both. Different commanders are mentioned for the Khazar forces; Arab sources say that the invasion was led by Barjik (the
2618:
Artamonov notes that most Arabic sources about the campaign are vague, with little detail, and that Armenian historians only mention Arab attacks on the lands of the North Caucasus Huns and the capture of Barachan
2458:
Arabs and Khazars continued to clash sporadically in the North Caucasus during the ninth and tenth centuries, but the warfare was localized and far less intense than the eighth-century wars. The Ottoman historian
1536:
The first Arab advance came as early a 692/93, with an expedition to secure the pass of Derbent; but the Arab forces were soon forced to withdraw. The conflict resumed in 707, with a campaign by Umayyad general
1438:), the last Sasanian shah, were unanswered. After the Arab attacks, the Khazars abandoned Balanjar and moved their capital further north in an attempt to evade the Arab armies. However, Khazar auxiliaries and
1770:
and Khasmadan, and was probably also preoccupied with supervising that year's census. The following year, Barjik launched a major invasion of Albania and Adharbayjan. The Khazars laid siege to Warthan with
1972:, determined to launch a decisive blow against the Khazars, but was apparently unable to launch anything but local expeditions for some time. He established a new base of operations at Kasak, about twenty
2670:
According to Semyonov, these events are mis-dated and should be attributed to the 730 Khazar invasion; Semyonov also suggests that Juansher's seven-year captivity coincides with the end of the second war.
1693:
Al-Jarrah's army also reduced the neighbouring fortresses and continued their march north. The strongly garrisoned fortress city of Wabandar, with 40,000 households reported by the 13th-century historian
2362:, the Khazars devastated Albania, Armenia and Iberia, and captured Tiflis. Yazid escaped capture, but the Khazars returned north with thousands of captives and much booty. When the deposed Iberian ruler
2240:; according to Dunlop, like the Franks in the west, the Khazars played a crucial role in stemming the tide of early Muslim conquest. This view was also shared by the Soviet historian and Khazar expert
1505:
1406:) his brother Salman led a large army north in 652, aiming to take Balanjar. The town was besieged for several days, with both sides using catapults, until the arrival of a Khazar relief force and a
1391:). Al-Tabari reports that the first Arab advance into Khazar lands occurred after the capture of Derbent. Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a reached Balanjar with no losses, and his cavalry advanced up to 200
2140:
is especially noted. Marwan also brought a large number of Slav and Khazar captives south, whom he resettled in the eastern Caucasus; al-Baladhuri reports that about 20,000 Slavs were settled at
2609:
Later Arabic accounts of Maslama's fortification activity have deliberate echoes of the similar endeavours under Khosrow I, as well as the legendary Wall of Alexander against the Gog and Magog.
1677:
Finally, the Arab army reached Balanjar. The city had had strong fortifications during the first Muslim attacks in the mid-seventh century, but apparently, they had been neglected; the Khazars
1976:(roughly 120 km or 75 mi) from Tiflis and forty from Bardha'a, and his initial expeditions were against minor local potentates. Agapius of Hierapolis and the 12th-century historian
2641:
The Arabic sources list expeditions to extract tribute (a levy of slaves and annual grain supplies for Derbent) and impose obligations of military assistance against the principalities of
2054:, but left a considerable force to protect the capital. This was a "spectacularly deep penetration", according to Blankinship, but of little strategic value; the 10th-century travellers
1875:
large Khazar armies; in one, Barjik was reportedly killed in single combat with the Umayyad general. Generally considered "romance rather than history", according to British orientalist
1801:
other events. Al-Jarrah's attacks were followed by a massive Khazar invasion (reportedly 300,000 men), which forced the Arabs to again retreat south of the Caucasus and defend Albania.
1862:
Sa'id was fortunate. The Khazars had dispersed in small detachments after their victory at Ardabil, plundering the countryside, and the Arabs defeated them one by one. Sa'id recovered
1533:. Only the western South Caucasus (present-day Georgia) remained free from direct control by either of the two rival powers, who now confronted each other for control of the Caucasus.
2561:
Nothing else is known about Suraqa ibn Amr other than his overall command of the 642 Derbent campaign and that he shared the nickname 'Dhu al-Nur' (after his sword) with his deputy,
2482:. The final disintegration of the Abbasid empire during the early 10th century also led to the establishment of large Muslim principalities in the region, often ruled by non-native (
2260:
2084:
The subsequent course of the campaign is only chronicled by Ibn A'tham and other sources drawing from his work. According to this account, Marwan ignored al-Bayda and pursued the
1493:) tried to counter Khazar influence by inviting Juansher to Damascus twice, and the 683/685 Khazar raid may have been a reaction to those invitations. According to the historian
2259:—probably descendants of the original tribe which gave the town its name and resettled there as a result of the wars. Soviet and Russian archaeologists and historians such as
1763:
637:
to 799 CE. Smaller native principalities were also involved in the conflict as vassals of the two empires. Historians usually distinguish two major periods of conflict, the
1835:
reports that the Khazars took as many as 40,000 prisoners from the city, al-Jarrah's army, and the surrounding countryside. The Khazars raided the province at will, sacking
406:
2144:, and the Khazars were resettled at al-Lakz, where they embraced Islam. The Slavs soon killed their appointed governor and fled north, and Marwan pursued and killed them.
1705:
1153:
professional, standing army. According to Kennedy, the Arabs' higher degree of training and discipline gave them an advantage against nomadic peoples such as the Khazars.
2594:
as ruler over the Khazars. Consequently, Semyonov suggests that al-Jarrah's raid against al-Bayda may indeed have reached al-Bayda, or at least succeeded in killing the
1343:(on the Black Sea coast) remained under Byzantine influence. Neighbouring Adharbayjan was conquered in 639–643; raids were launched into Arran (Caucasian Albania) under
314:
682:, where the Khazars were already established since the late 6th century. The first Arab invasion began in 642 with the capture of the strategically important city of
1351:
during the early 640s, leading to the submission of its cities. As in Armenia, Arab rule was not securely established there until after the First Muslim Civil War.
1621:
1660:
ahead of the bulk of his army. His army met a Khazar army at the river al-Ran, one day's march north of Derbent, after joining the columns. According to the
2171:
conversion to Islam is disputed by modern scholars; al-Baladhuri's account, which is probably closest to the original sources, suggests that it was not the
938:
again the evidence is unreliable, being derived from much later Arabic sources. Modern scholarship generally holds that the Khazars first campaigned in the
2177:
but a minor lord who converted to Islam and was placed in charge of the Khazars at al-Lakz. Blankinship cites this as indicating the implausibility of the
1766:
to the Caucasus front. Al-Harith spent his first year consolidating Muslim rule in Caucasian Albania: he campaigned along the Cyrus against the regions of
5810:
The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXX: The ʿAbbāsid Caliphate in Equilibrium: The Caliphates of Mūsā al-Hādī and Hārūn al-Rashīd, A.D. 785–809/A.H. 169–192
2502:, to name the most prominent. The Khazar presence also diminished with the progressive collapse of their authority in the 10th century and defeats by the
1613:
nevertheless defeated and drove back the Khazars. Hatim returned to the caliph with fifty Khazar prisoners, the first such event recorded in the sources.
2154:
was evidently based on the presence of Arab troops deep in Khazar territory, which was unsustainable. The withdrawal of the Arab armies, followed by the
1907:
s tent and wounded him. The Muslims, encouraged, then defeated the Khazars. The Khazar commander Barjik may have been killed in this battle or campaign.
1327:
The Khazars and the Arabs came into conflict as a result of the first phase of Muslim expansion; by 640, following their conquest of Byzantine Syria and
373:
1923:(later the last Umayyad caliph, from 744 to 750) in command at Derbent, Maslama returned with the rest of his army (primarily the favoured Jaziran and
1871:
399:
6360:(1998). "Why dirhams first reached Russia: the role of Arab-Khazar relations in the development of the earliest Islamic trade with Eastern Europe".
6336:(1984). "Why Dirhams First Reached Russia: The Role of Arab-Khazar Relations in the Development of the Earliest Islamic Trade with Eastern Europe".
2062:
describe the Khazar capital as little more than a large encampment, and there is no evidence that it had been larger or more urbanized in the past.
6099:
The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium hosted by the Ben Zvi Institute
1161:, is known to have renewed an agreement for the employment of Armenian cavalry with the Arab army for three years, in exchange for 100,000 silver
478:
1569:
6483:
6442:
6076:
An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East
307:
6643:
1234:
pursued close relations with the Khazars which amounted to an alliance for most of the period in question, including the marriage of emperor
1998:
392:
6230:
The Byzantine Response to the Expansion of the Arabs. Studies on the structural change of the Byzantine state in the 7th and 8th centuries
1230:
of the Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire along the eastern fringes of Anatolia (a theatre of war which adjoined the Caucasus). The
729:) in 732. A period of relatively localized warfare followed until 737, when Marwan led a massive expedition north to the Khazar capital
1664:, al-Jarrah had 10,000 men (of whom 4,000 were vassal princes); al-Tabari cites the Arab strength as 25,000. The Khazars, commanded by
17:
7368:
1699:
1335:(656–661), but after its end the Armenian princes returned to their tributary status in the newly established Umayyad Caliphate. The
1091:
943:
300:
2628:
According to medieval Arab geographers, the land of the Burtas was 15–20 days' journey north of al-Bayda, putting it in present-day
1025:. The eastern Caucasus became the main theatre of the Arab–Khazar conflict, with the Arab armies aiming to gain control of Derbent (
6226:
Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd
594:
1560:, and the following year by Maslama, but the most likely date for Derbent's recovery by the Arabs is Maslama's 713/14 expedition.
7263:
2136:
s (experts in Islamic law) were sent to instruct him on the details of religious observance; the prohibition of wine, pork, and
1588:
forced Maslama to quickly abandon his campaign and retreat to Iberia, leaving his camp with all its equipment behind as a ruse.
1465:
in the Muslim world) was more successful, capturing much booty and many prisoners and killing the presiding princes of Iberia (
2255:
Balanjar was no longer mentioned after the Arab–Khazar wars, but a people known as "Baranjar" was later recorded as living in
1870:, then moved northeast to Bardha'a and south to relieve the siege of Warthan. He encountered a 10,000-strong Khazar army near
1077:
7268:
6542:
6521:
6502:
6467:
6426:
6106:
5925:
5839:
5818:
5739:
1522:
667:); the wars also involved sporadic raids and isolated clashes from the mid-seventh century to the end of the eighth century.
2286:
Rivers as resulting from the Arab–Khazar conflict, since Alans from the North Caucasus were resettled there by the Khazars.
1185:
The Khazars followed a strategy common to their nomadic predecessors; their raids might reach deep into the South Caucasus,
6083:
993:), while Armenia, the southwestern half of the South Caucasus, was in Byzantine hands. However, after the assassination of
958:. The Turks sacked Derbent in 627, broke through the local Sasanian defences, and joined the Byzantines in their siege of
1775:. Al-Harith defeated them on the Araxes and drove them north of the river, but the Arab position was clearly precarious.
6303:
5988:
5882:
5774:
5695:
6573:
6399:
2326:
1727:
Caucasus in response, but in February 724, al-Jarrah decisively defeated them in a days-long battle between the rivers
521:
497:
222:
1778:
Maslama assumed personal command of the Khazar front in 727. The Arab commander was faced for the first time with the
6369:
6211:
6061:
2539:
For comparison, a hundred dirhams was the standard monthly salary of the elite Syrian soldiery in the Umayyad period.
1364:
2372:
refused. This was probably the result of brief anti-Byzantine Khazar foreign policy resulting from disputes in the
483:
435:
2098:(a high-ranking dignitary in Turkic states), shadowed the Arab advance from the east bank. The Arabs attacked the
1584:, the two armies did not engage for several days. The imminent arrival of Khazar reinforcements under the general
536:
6286:
6246:
5971:
5865:
2186:
conversion, since those Khazars who actually converted to Islam had to be moved to safety in Umayyad territory.
1102:
agrees, emphasizing the highly ideological nature of the Muslim caliphate and its dedication to the doctrine of
7363:
7358:
6392:
Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-Fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990
1951:
589:
473:
2162:
certainly "left little political pressure to remain Muslim", according to Golden. Even the credibility of the
1178:
7353:
7189:
6454:[Military Tactics of the Khazar Army in the Period of the War Against the Arab Caliphate in 706–737]
6232:] (in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München.
5918:
The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries
5642:
2350:, suspecting the Muslims of poisoning his daughter, raided south of the Caucasus from 762 to 764. Led by the
2241:
1759:
1482:
a Khazar vassal; if so, Albania was under a form of indirect Khazar rule during the 680s. The Umayyad caliph
1064:
Like other Near Eastern peoples, the Arabs were familiar with the legend of Gog and Magog, who appear in the
454:
6514:
Non-Muslim Provinces under Early Islam: Islamic Rule and Iranian Legitimacy in Armenia and Caucasian Albania
2471:
2420:) was taken captive for several years. Shushan committed suicide rather than be captured, and the furious
2116:
This appears to have been the only fighting of the campaign between the Arabs and Khazars, and the Khazar
2562:
1848:
1815:
as the Khazar commander. Al-Jarrah apparently dispersed some of his forces, withdrawing his main army to
1355:
1021:, which had extended its power over the South Caucasus in the 640s, in the wake of the first wave of the
832:. Consequently, defence of the Caucasus frontier against destructive raids by steppe peoples such as the
804:
The Arab–Khazar wars were part of a long series of military conflicts between the nomadic peoples of the
698:
in 652. Large-scale hostilities then ceased for several decades, apart from raids by the Khazars and the
691:
531:
212:
181:
2366:
tried to induce the Khazars to campaign against the Abbasids and restore him to his throne in 780, the
2314:
The first conflict between the Khazars and the Abbasids resulted from a diplomatic manoeuvre by Caliph
1521:. The Arabs began a sustained offensive against Byzantium that would eventually culminate in the great
1231:
548:
464:
6771:
1746:), promised to send reinforcements but failed to do so. In 724, al-Jarrah captured Tiflis and brought
5757:
5678:
2460:
1509:
1354:
According to Arab chroniclers, the first attack on Derbent was launched in 642 under Suraqa ibn Amr;
883:
805:
526:
516:
504:
493:
363:
2426:
had Bulchan executed. Arab chroniclers attribute the conflict to plans by the Abbasid governor, the
1931:
That summer, Marwan led 40,000 men north into Khazar lands. Accounts of this campaign are confused.
6410:
6282:
5967:
5861:
5725:
2645:, Ghumik, Khiraj (or Khizaj), Tuman, Sirikaran, Khamzin, Sindan (also known as Sughdan or Masdar),
2040:
1678:
1538:
1518:
1411:
1099:
947:
718:
599:
583:
343:
338:
194:
5731:
The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads
2325:). Attempting to strengthen the Caliphate's ties with the Khazars, he ordered governor of Armenia
1414:
for the Arabs. Abd al-Rahman and 4,000 of his troops were killed, and the rest fled to Derbent or
690:, and continued with a series of minor raids, ending with the defeat of a large Arab force led by
2479:
1736:
1542:
1398:
Disregarding the caliph's instructions for caution and restraint, Abd al-Rahman or (according to
1227:
579:
553:
447:
575:
7007:
6566:
2447:. According to the Arab sources, the Khazars raided as far as the Araxes against troops led by
1836:
1652:
1610:
1336:
1332:
1022:
986:
955:
931:
844:. This is reflected in the popular belief in ancient and medieval Middle Eastern cultures that
714:
459:
440:
416:
348:
199:
98:
41:
1686:
horsemen—clearly an exaggeration by later historians—in the Arab army reportedly received 300
1517:
the Umayyads were able to inflict significant defeats on the Byzantines, who descended into a
7250:
7209:
7199:
6922:
6653:
6497:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
5813:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
2032:
says that his army numbered 150,000 men, including regular forces from Syria and the Jazira,
1832:
1466:
511:
2198:
conversion is also contradicted by the fact that the Khazar court is known to have embraced
7133:
7093:
6861:
6856:
6706:
6221:
6094:
6054:
Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars, Volume 1
2137:
1567:
reports that Derbent was in the hands of the Huns at that time; the 16th-century chronicle
1474:
1344:
1246:
786:
699:
558:
468:
1556:
and up to Derbent. Further attacks on Derbent are reported by different sources in 708 by
8:
6460:
Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual International Conference on Jewish Studies, Vol. II
6452:"Военная тактика хазарской армии в период войны против Арабского халифата в 706—737 годы"
2452:
2410:
2377:
2344:. The marriage took place, but she and her child died in childbirth two years later. The
2024:
Marwan prepared a massive campaign for 737, aiming to end the war. He apparently went to
2010:
1984:
1758:
In 725, the caliph replaced al-Jarrah with his own half-brother Maslama, governor of the
1557:
1470:
1173:
1158:
845:
829:
1609:) reportedly could only spare 4,000 men to confront 20,000 invaders. The Arab commander
1580:
confronted the Arabs at the city of Tarku but, apart from a series of single combats by
7307:
7229:
6932:
6871:
6681:
6598:
6477:
6436:
2271:
2159:
1977:
1138:
is estimated at 120,000 men, though revisionist historians put it at as low as 30,000.
1006:
994:
990:
849:
752:
710:
671:
429:
353:
141:
102:
6419:
Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual International Conference on Jewish Studies, Part 2
5288:
1958:, where the Arabs had also experienced a series of costly defeats at the hands of the
7219:
6826:
6741:
6726:
6696:
6638:
6603:
6559:
6538:
6517:
6498:
6463:
6422:
6395:
6365:
6345:
6321:
6317:
6270:
6258:
6233:
6207:
6185:
6177:
6168:
6102:
6079:
6057:
6037:
6029:
6020:
6006:
6002:
5943:
5935:
5921:
5913:
5900:
5896:
5835:
5814:
5792:
5788:
5735:
5713:
5709:
5654:
5630:
5622:
5613:
2475:
2444:
2430:
2391:
2308:
2303:
1876:
1827:
1747:
1630:
1348:
1328:
1314:
1272:
1269:
1254:
982:
978:
760:
756:
722:
706:
155:
148:
1127:. Kennedy stresses that this force was spread throughout the empire and many of the
7330:
7317:
7273:
7224:
7168:
6836:
6816:
6736:
6716:
6691:
6593:
6494:
The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XIV: The Conquest of Iran, A.D. 641–643/A.H. 21–23
6383:
6379:
6357:
6333:
6313:
6274:
6134:
5998:
5959:
5892:
5853:
5784:
5753:
5705:
5674:
5666:
2658:
2650:
2549:
2448:
2229:
1494:
1446:
troops are recorded as fighting alongside the Byzantines against the Arabs in 655.
1250:
974:
951:
488:
268:
250:
237:
203:
185:
6173:
6025:
5618:
1855:
as a standard for his army and with 100,000 dirhams to recruit men, Sa'id went to
1380:
imposed on non-Muslims. Shahrbaraz's proposal was accepted and ratified by Caliph
7283:
7255:
7234:
7017:
6972:
6846:
6751:
6532:
6492:
6201:
6197:
6071:
6049:
5955:
5829:
5808:
5729:
5670:
2363:
2237:
1253:
was a grave threat to the Caliphate, especially given Armenia's proximity to the
1194:
1111:
1039:
879:
790:
748:
702:
on the autonomous principalities of the South Caucasus during the 660s and 680s.
7290:
7194:
7173:
6967:
6821:
6756:
6711:
6686:
6671:
6661:
6633:
6451:
6387:
6298:
6290:
5983:
5975:
5877:
5869:
5804:
5769:
5765:
5749:
5690:
5686:
5430:
2503:
2406:
2275:
2256:
2245:
2051:
1924:
1852:
1526:
1210:
1135:
939:
920:
679:
675:
116:
94:
86:
6155:
Zuckerman, Constantine. "The Khazars and Byzantium — The First Encounter". In
6116:
Golden, Peter B. (2007a). "Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives". In
2311:
linking the Baltic and Eastern Europe, with the Caucasus and the Middle East.
2122:
soon requested peace. Marwan reportedly offered "Islam or the sword", and the
1461:). A large-scale raid across the South Caucasus in 683 or 685 (also a time of
886:
to protect the vulnerable frontier on the Caspian shore. When completed under
713:, intensifying after 721 into a full-scale war. Led by the prominent generals
49:
7347:
7302:
7098:
7078:
7068:
6811:
6761:
6623:
6349:
6325:
6294:
6278:
6262:
6237:
6189:
6041:
6010:
5979:
5963:
5947:
5904:
5873:
5857:
5849:
5796:
5761:
5717:
5682:
5658:
5634:
2103:
1932:
1728:
1483:
1428:
1277:
1258:
1146:
1142:
1114:
estimating that 250,000 to 300,000 men were inscribed as potential soldiers (
853:
821:
794:
763:
between the Arab governors (or local princes) of the Caucasus and the Khazar
368:
264:
2065:
1141:
Arab armies of the early Muslim conquests contained sizeable contingents of
7158:
6927:
6786:
6362:
The Islamic World, Russia and the Vikings, 750–900: The Numismatic Evidence
2600:, and that the subsequent invasion was launched as a campaign of vengeance.
2491:
2013:. Marwan besieged Anakopia, but was forced to retire due to an outbreak of
1732:
1695:
1479:
1462:
1249:
in 705. The possibility of the Khazars linking with the Byzantines through
1235:
1202:
6203:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
1851:
was sent to stem the Khazar invasion. With a lance reportedly used at the
840:
came to be regarded as one of the chief duties of imperial regimes of the
7214:
7204:
7143:
7118:
6907:
6841:
6791:
6721:
6125:
Golden, Peter B. (2007b). "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism". In
2584:Łewond reports that the Khazar invasion was preceded by the death of the
2507:
2359:
2279:
2155:
1955:
1937:
1816:
1812:
1710:
1585:
1553:
1186:
1085:
1053:
857:
825:
813:
734:
687:
384:
358:
277:
259:
233:
27:
Series of wars between the Arabs and Khazars over control of the Caucasus
6917:
5406:
5192:
2298:
Political map of Europe and the Mediterranean in the early ninth century
7278:
7123:
7088:
7038:
7022:
6992:
6701:
5653:] (in Russian). Leningrad: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа.
2499:
2070:
2055:
2029:
1687:
1682:
1403:
1206:
2017:
in his army. His cruelty during the invasion of Iberia earned him the
1959:
930:
in the second half of the sixth century, initially as subjects of the
7153:
7053:
6796:
6628:
6618:
5577:
4573:
2495:
2483:
2427:
2315:
2014:
2006:
1920:
1843:
in the northern Jazira, adjacent to the Umayyad heartlands in Syria.
1767:
1751:
first Arab commander to settle Khazar prisoners as colonists, around
1581:
1399:
1359:
1292:
1262:
1018:
1017:
In the Caucasus, the Khazars came into contact with the nascent Arab
963:
887:
841:
833:
726:
623:
619:
217:
166:
120:
5553:
5384:
5382:
4182:
4180:
4178:
2955:
1564:
782:
709:) resumed after 707 with occasional raids back and forth across the
7312:
7138:
7108:
7063:
6977:
6952:
6912:
6897:
6831:
6746:
6613:
2629:
2451:(the new governor of the South Caucasus) and reserve forces led by
2351:
2335:
2233:
2090:
north along the west bank of the Volga; the Khazar army, under the
2059:
2025:
2002:
1989:
1944:
1867:
1772:
1641:
1530:
1451:
1392:
1377:
1309:
1190:
1035:
927:
852:
the Caucasus with divine assistance against the mythical hordes of
809:
695:
627:
292:
90:
55:
4895:
4893:
4494:
4492:
4153:
4151:
1421:
1181:, showing an early medieval armoured steppe warrior with a captive
7148:
7128:
7058:
7048:
6987:
6962:
6937:
6902:
6866:
6851:
6806:
6731:
6676:
6582:
6382:(1992). "Byzantium and the Khazars: a special relationship?". In
5379:
4175:
2654:
2591:
2402:
2283:
2199:
2141:
2093:
2074:
2018:
1973:
1820:
1656:
1599:
1439:
1288:
923:
864:
817:
798:
683:
616:
282:
163:
124:
4981:
4979:
4942:
4940:
4551:
4549:
4402:
4400:
4284:
3873:
1094:
pagan Turkic steppe peoples such as the Khazars were consigned.
7296:
7113:
7083:
7073:
7002:
6997:
6957:
6947:
6801:
6146:
Wasserstein, David J. "The Khazars and the World of Islam". In
5589:
5418:
5276:
5240:
4991:
4890:
4851:
4827:
4771:
4703:
4660:
4489:
4424:
4272:
4221:
4148:
3885:
2646:
2373:
2099:
1863:
1752:
1723:
1665:
1626:
1407:
1340:
1162:
1026:
1000:
959:
246:
5321:
5319:
5317:
5315:
5146:
5144:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5020:
5018:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4868:
4866:
4693:
4691:
4689:
4687:
4614:
4612:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4328:
3932:
3930:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3355:
3343:
3319:
3268:
2991:
2931:
2302:
The Khazars resumed their raids on Muslim territory after the
1221:
777:
705:
The conflict between the Khazars and the Arabs (now under the
7163:
7103:
7043:
7012:
6942:
6666:
6413:[Biographical Episodes of the Khazar Prince Barsbek]
5300:
5078:
5036:
4976:
4937:
4672:
4546:
4465:
4397:
4373:
4070:
3990:
3954:
3744:
3705:
3478:
3309:
3307:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3213:
3164:
3162:
2902:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2642:
2487:
2294:
2131:
1856:
1840:
1443:
1415:
1371:
1105:
1065:
5541:
5529:
5507:
5505:
5343:
5264:
5053:
5051:
4761:
4759:
4757:
4524:
4522:
4344:
4303:
4301:
4299:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4046:
4036:
4034:
3909:
3813:
3565:
3418:
3234:
3232:
3063:
3015:
2879:
2843:
2807:
2690:
2688:
2686:
1098:
survival of the Khazars as an independent polity. Historian
6982:
6892:
6887:
6551:
5920:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 226–268.
5312:
5252:
5228:
5216:
5141:
5015:
4920:
4863:
4800:
4732:
4730:
4684:
4609:
4436:
4325:
4192:
3921:
3543:
3541:
2078:
1914:
1574:
North Caucasian Huns (who were Khazar vassals). The Khazar
1381:
1226:
To an extent, the Arab–Khazar wars were also linked to the
1043:
875:
837:
730:
686:
that guarded the eastern passage of the Caucasus along the
5565:
5478:
5466:
4124:
3628:
3304:
3292:
3210:
3159:
3051:
2891:
2717:
2715:
2390:
wanted to marry Shushan, the beautiful daughter of Prince
1839:
and attacking other settlements. Some detachments reached
6156:
6147:
6138:
6126:
6117:
6092:
5912:
Cobb, Paul M. (2010). "The Empire in Syria, 705–763". In
5517:
5502:
5490:
5204:
5168:
5156:
5048:
4839:
4754:
4742:
4585:
4519:
4296:
4099:
4031:
3966:
3756:
3717:
3652:
3502:
3442:
3430:
3229:
3174:
3123:
3099:
3003:
2867:
2819:
2683:
2158:
and the subsequent collapse of the Umayyad regime in the
2073:
in 2002, a site identified by some archaeologists as the
737:. After securing the submission of the Khazar ruler, the
5734:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
5331:
5090:
5068:
5066:
4964:
4952:
4910:
4908:
4878:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4727:
4648:
4636:
4597:
4561:
4534:
4509:
4507:
4477:
4412:
4385:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4313:
4262:
4260:
4245:
4233:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4136:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4058:
4021:
4019:
4017:
4002:
3978:
3942:
3897:
3849:
3801:
3693:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3618:
3616:
3538:
3384:
3382:
3367:
3244:
3147:
3075:
3027:
2855:
2831:
2595:
2585:
2434:
2421:
2385:
2367:
2354:
2345:
2330:
2219:
2190:
2178:
2172:
2163:
2149:
2123:
2117:
2108:
2091:
2085:
2045:
1899:
1893:
1806:
1786:
1779:
1669:
1575:
998:
764:
738:
5180:
4817:
4815:
4715:
3837:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3640:
3553:
3526:
3514:
3490:
3454:
2795:
2732:
2730:
2712:
2700:
1722:
In 723, al-Jarrah reportedly led another campaign into
5454:
5442:
5394:
5367:
5355:
4624:
4163:
3734:
3732:
3256:
3186:
2028:
to ask Hisham for support; the 10th-century historian
2001:, driving its ruler to seek refuge in the fortress of
1795:
1291:
in 733. Gaining control of the northern branch of the
5942:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
5102:
5063:
4905:
4783:
4504:
4453:
4356:
4257:
4204:
4082:
4014:
3861:
3825:
3676:
3664:
3613:
3601:
3406:
3394:
3379:
3331:
3198:
3135:
3111:
3087:
3039:
2967:
1317:
and its provinces (in green) at its greatest extent,
898:
5003:
4812:
3780:
3768:
3589:
3280:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2742:
2727:
2129:
2033:
1912:
1369:
1339:
concluded a similar treaty with the Arabs, and only
1128:
1115:
1103:
1083:
1075:
1069:
1047:
1029:
6394:. Aldershot, England: Variorium. pp. 109–132.
3729:
3466:
2783:
2754:
6167:
6019:
5612:
3577:
2979:
2943:
2405:to invade Iberia and capture her. Most of central
670:The wars were a result of attempts by the nascent
5748:
5583:
5388:
4186:
2961:
2766:
812:. The two primary routes over the mountains, the
65:, following the end of the Second Arab–Khazar War
7345:
1945:Marwan's invasion of Khazaria and end of the war
747:Umayyad army and contributed to the fall of the
6247:"The Possible Reasons for the Arab–Khazar Wars"
1422:Khazar and Hunnic raids into the South Caucasus
6411:"Эпизоды биографии хазарского принца Барсбека"
6017:
5854:"Armīniya. 2. — Armenia under Arab domination"
5665:
5595:
5559:
5135:
2925:
2906:
615:were a series of conflicts fought between the
6567:
6537:. Translated by Daria Manova. Leiden: Brill.
6364:(1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 151–282.
2274:consider the eighth-century emergence of the
2202:as its faith. Dunlop placed this as early as
1616:
400:
308:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5125:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5117:
1034:, 'Gate of Gates') and the Khazar cities of
6145:
5724:
5704:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1172–1181.
5412:
5325:
5294:
5282:
5246:
5150:
5030:
4997:
4931:
4899:
4872:
4857:
4833:
4806:
4777:
4697:
4666:
4618:
4579:
4498:
4447:
4430:
4338:
4290:
4278:
4227:
4198:
4157:
3936:
3891:
3879:
3723:
3634:
3361:
3349:
3325:
3313:
3298:
3274:
3223:
3168:
3057:
3021:
3009:
2997:
2921:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2694:
2224:at a later date" which never materialized.
1222:Connection with the Arab–Byzantine conflict
904:
816:(Alan Gates) in the centre and the Pass of
778:The Caucasus as a frontier of civilizations
123:. Northward Muslim expansion is stopped at
6574:
6560:
6482:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6441:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6304:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
6137:"The Economy of the Khazar Khaganate". In
5989:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
5883:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
5775:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
5696:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
5297:, pp. 174–175, 331–332 (notes 36–47).
2102:, whose territory extended to that of the
1299:
828:, have been used as invasion routes since
808:and the more settled regions south of the
414:
407:
393:
315:
301:
6534:Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries
6312:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 188–191.
6157:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007)
6154:
6148:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007)
6139:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007)
6127:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007)
6118:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007)
5997:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 660–661.
5891:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 635–638.
5783:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 341–351.
5641:
5306:
5174:
5114:
5084:
5057:
5042:
4985:
4946:
4765:
4748:
4678:
4591:
4555:
4528:
4471:
4406:
4379:
4307:
4118:
4076:
4040:
3996:
3972:
3960:
3855:
3819:
3807:
3750:
3699:
3571:
3547:
3424:
2885:
2849:
2813:
2801:
2278:culture in the steppe region between the
1886:
772:
6516:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
6449:
6421:(in Russian). Moscow. pp. 282–297.
6408:
6269:
5803:
5610:
5547:
5535:
4391:
4350:
4239:
4052:
3915:
3867:
3460:
3262:
3250:
3238:
3204:
3192:
3180:
3153:
2912:
2527:
2293:
2064:
1983:
1704:
1620:
1504:
1308:
1214:government and force them to surrender.
1193:, but they were, according to historian
1172:
781:
6530:
6196:
6124:
6115:
6093:Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai;
5439:, pp. 186 (esp. note 71), 221–222.
5436:
5373:
5361:
5258:
5234:
5222:
5198:
5186:
3141:
3117:
3093:
3081:
3069:
3045:
3033:
2212:
2039:principalities) under Derbent governor
2009:coast in the Byzantine protectorate of
1629:, minted 707/8, possibly in Arab-ruled
1304:
14:
7346:
6378:
6356:
6332:
6165:
6133:
6070:
6048:
5934:
5848:
5834:. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield.
5571:
5484:
5472:
5460:
5448:
5424:
5400:
5349:
5337:
5270:
5108:
5096:
5072:
4970:
4958:
4914:
4884:
4794:
4736:
4709:
4654:
4642:
4630:
4603:
4567:
4540:
4513:
4483:
4418:
4367:
4319:
4266:
4251:
4215:
4169:
4142:
4130:
4093:
4064:
4025:
4008:
3984:
3948:
3903:
3843:
3831:
3774:
3762:
3687:
3670:
3658:
3646:
3622:
3607:
3595:
3559:
3532:
3520:
3508:
3496:
3448:
3436:
3400:
3388:
3129:
3105:
2937:
2873:
2825:
2777:
2706:
1563:The eighth-century Armenian historian
1265:) willing allies against the Khazars.
1009:and expanded into the North Caucasus.
6555:
6511:
6490:
6462:(in Russian). Moscow. pp. 7–15.
6220:
5827:
5523:
5511:
5496:
5210:
5162:
5009:
4845:
4721:
4459:
3795:
3711:
3484:
3373:
3286:
2861:
2837:
2789:
2760:
2721:
2107:in the ensuing battle (including the
1512:, the Sasanian-era citadel in Derbent
388:
296:
6244:
5954:
5911:
5831:The Jews of Khazaria, Second Edition
4821:
3738:
3583:
3472:
3412:
3337:
2985:
2973:
2949:
2748:
2736:
2530:and the literature referenced there.
2506:and other Turkic nomads such as the
2232:at roughly the same time across the
926:appeared in the area of present-day
322:
2376:; at this time, the Khazars helped
1796:Battle of Ardabil and Arab reaction
1450:were defeated by the local prince,
1120:) in the provincial army registers
24:
6206:. London and New York: Routledge.
2289:
1919:) of origin. Leaving his relative
1681:by surrounding the citadel with a
1410:by the besieged forces ended in a
1012:
25:
7380:
5940:The History of the Jewish Khazars
2463:records a period of warfare from
1365:History of the Prophets and Kings
944:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
7369:Medieval history of the Caucasus
6770:
6318:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0016
6176:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;
6078:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
6028:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;
6003:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0736
5897:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0064
5789:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0405
5710:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4267
5621:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;
5201:, pp. 139–151–157, 158–159.
2664:
2635:
2622:
2612:
2603:
2578:
2128:agreed to convert to Islam. Two
1965:Marwan returned to the Caucasus
1847:forces, veteran military leader
48:
5752:& MacKenzie, D. N. (1978).
2568:
2555:
2542:
2533:
2520:
2415:
2396:
2320:
1811:'s son), and Łewond identifies
1741:
1646:
1604:
1547:
1488:
1456:
1433:
1386:
1282:
1240:
968:
892:
869:
119:falls under the control of the
6184:(3rd ed.). Brill Online.
6036:(3rd ed.). Brill Online.
5629:(3rd ed.). Brill Online.
5614:"Dār al-Islām and dār al-ḥarb"
2470:to 912, perhaps linked to the
2021:"the Deaf" from the Iberians.
1418:in northern present-day Iran.
13:
1:
6056:. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
6018:Gocheleishvili, Iago (2014).
5584:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978
5389:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978
4187:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978
2962:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978
2677:
2464:
2338:
2203:
2156:Muslim civil wars of the 740s
2113:), and 7,000 were captured.
1966:
1713:
1592:
1500:
1318:
1121:
962:. When the Byzantine emperor
657:
642:
631:
59:
6581:
6338:Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi
6251:Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi
6101:. Leiden and Boston: Brill.
5415:, pp. 223–225, 230–236.
2596:
2586:
2435:
2422:
2386:
2368:
2355:
2346:
2331:
2220:
2191:
2179:
2173:
2164:
2150:
2124:
2118:
2109:
2092:
2086:
2046:
1900:
1894:
1807:
1787:
1780:
1670:
1576:
1257:'s metropolitan province of
1243: 685–695, 705–711
999:
884:line of stone fortifications
765:
739:
7:
6491:Smith, G. Rex, ed. (1994).
2329:to marry a daughter of the
2244:, as well as by Golden and
2130:
2034:
1913:
1370:
1179:Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós
1129:
1116:
1104:
1084:
1076:
1070:
1048:
1030:
977:(approximately present-day
899:
751:in 750, as a result of the
694:outside the Khazar town of
10:
7385:
6450:Semyonov, Igor G. (2010).
6409:Semyonov, Igor G. (2008).
5828:Brook, Kevin Alan (2006).
5604:
5596:Barthold & Golden 1978
5560:Barthold & Golden 1978
5136:Barthold & Golden 1978
2926:Barthold & Golden 1978
2380:throw off Byzantine rule.
1617:Escalation of the conflict
1525:on the Byzantine capital,
1168:
989:) and Adharbayjan (modern
7326:
7243:
7182:
7031:
6880:
6779:
6768:
6652:
6589:
6265:– via Academia.edu.
5726:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya
2490:) dynasties, such as the
2472:Caspian raids of the Rus'
2409:was occupied, and Prince
1764:al-Harith ibn Amr al-Ta'i
1473:). At the same time, the
1245:) to the Khazar princess
1201:societies originating in
761:alliance through marriage
674:to secure control of the
426:
334:
172:
135:
69:
47:
39:
34:
6166:Kemper, Michael (2013).
6021:"Caucasus, pre-900/1500"
5611:Albrecht, Sarah (2016).
5427:, pp. 144, 221–222.
4582:, p. 324 (note 34).
3714:, pp. 107–125, 140.
2940:, pp. 221–222, 225.
2563:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a
2513:
2041:Asid ibn Zafir al-Sulami
1988:The medieval citadel of
1849:Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi
1358:commanded his vanguard.
1356:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a
1100:Khalid Yahya Blankinship
1082:) and the House of War (
1068:in the Arabicized form
1059:
948:Western Turkic Khaganate
824:) in the east along the
719:Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik
692:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a
213:Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi
195:Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik
182:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a
7260:Khazar ancestry claims
6531:Zhivkov, Boris (2015).
4712:, p. 79 (note 96).
3487:, p. 34, note 175.
2401:) and sent his general
2236:, which ended with the
1952:the 732–734 quiet phase
1737:Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
1591:In response, in 709 or
1300:First war and aftermath
7008:Semikarakorsk Fortress
6512:Vacca, Alison (2017).
6182:Encyclopaedia of Islam
6034:Encyclopaedia of Islam
5651:History of the Khazars
5627:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2526:For more details, see
2433:, to marry one of the
2299:
2081:
1993:
1887:Garrisoning of Derbent
1719:
1679:defended their capital
1653:al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah
1633:
1519:long period of turmoil
1513:
1337:Principality of Iberia
1333:First Muslim Civil War
1324:
1287:) and Khazar princess
1182:
1023:early Muslim conquests
987:Republic of Azerbaijan
956:Third Perso-Turkic War
950:, who allied with the
932:First Turkic Khaganate
801:
793:fortifications of the
773:Background and motives
743:, the Arabs withdrew.
715:al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah
654:Second Arab–Khazar War
418:Early Muslim conquests
200:al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah
173:Commanders and leaders
99:Republic of Azerbaijan
42:Early Muslim conquests
18:Second Arab–Khazar War
7364:8th-century conflicts
7359:7th-century conflicts
7251:Khazar Correspondence
6245:Mako, Gerald (2010).
6222:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes
5562:, pp. 1175–1176.
5352:, pp. 46–47, 87.
5273:, pp. 85, 86–87.
3882:, pp. 40, 52–53.
3072:, pp. 23–25, 29.
2297:
2068:
2050:withdrew towards the
1987:
1833:Agapius of Hierapolis
1708:
1624:
1508:
1312:
1228:long-lasting struggle
1176:
997:, the Western Turkic
946:, as subjects of the
806:Pontic–Caspian steppe
785:
755:that established the
639:First Arab–Khazar War
4293:, pp. 125, 149.
3753:, pp. 192, 203.
2590:, leaving his widow
2213:Aftermath and impact
1475:North Caucasian Huns
1305:First Arab invasions
787:Roderich von Erckert
700:North Caucasian Huns
678:(Transcaucasia) and
622:and successive Arab
6644:Dnieper trade route
6159:, pp. 399–432.
6150:, pp. 373–386.
6141:, pp. 207–244.
6129:, pp. 123–162.
5586:, pp. 345–347.
5574:, pp. 125–126.
5550:, pp. 170–171.
5538:, pp. 287–288.
5526:, pp. 130–131.
5514:, pp. 131–132.
5499:, pp. 129–130.
5487:, pp. 233–234.
5475:, pp. 170–172.
5309:, pp. 229–231.
5285:, pp. 174–175.
5261:, pp. 152–153.
5249:, pp. 173–174.
5237:, pp. 137–138.
5225:, pp. 135–150.
5213:, pp. 106–114.
5165:, pp. 179–180.
5087:, pp. 220–221.
5045:, pp. 221–222.
5000:, pp. 172–173.
4988:, pp. 219–220.
4949:, pp. 218–219.
4902:, pp. 171–172.
4860:, pp. 170–171.
4848:, pp. 157–158.
4836:, pp. 153–154.
4780:, pp. 152–153.
4681:, pp. 216–217.
4669:, pp. 151–152.
4558:, pp. 214–215.
4501:, pp. 150–151.
4474:, pp. 213–214.
4433:, pp. 149–150.
4409:, pp. 212–213.
4382:, pp. 211–212.
4353:, pp. 286–293.
4281:, pp. 124–125.
4230:, pp. 123–124.
4160:, pp. 122–123.
4133:, pp. 184–185.
4079:, pp. 207–209.
4055:, pp. 284–285.
3999:, pp. 206–207.
3963:, pp. 205–206.
3918:, pp. 282–283.
3894:, pp. 121–122.
3822:, pp. 203–205.
3765:, pp. 182–183.
3661:, pp. 180–181.
3574:, pp. 178–179.
3511:, pp. 176–177.
3451:, pp. 636–637.
3439:, pp. 635–636.
3427:, pp. 176–177.
3376:, pp. 157–160.
3364:, pp. 149–154.
3352:, pp. 378–379.
3328:, pp. 377–378.
3277:, pp. 108–109.
3132:, pp. 237–238.
3108:, pp. 185–186.
3000:, pp. 374–375.
2964:, pp. 341–342.
2907:Gocheleishvili 2014
2888:, pp. 417–431.
2876:, pp. 174–176.
2864:, pp. 134–135.
2852:, pp. 403–417.
2840:, pp. 133–134.
2828:, pp. 173–174.
2816:, pp. 401–403.
2724:, pp. 126–127.
2453:Khuzayma ibn Khazim
2378:Leon II of Abkhazia
1921:Marwan ibn Muhammad
1668:(one of the Khazar
1611:Hatim ibn al-Nu'man
1558:Muhammad ibn Marwan
1471:Grigor I Mamikonian
1159:Ashot III Bagratuni
846:Alexander the Great
830:classical antiquity
789:'s 1887 map of the
595:Visigothic Hispania
218:Marwan ibn Muhammad
7308:Mandgelis Document
7291:Khazars in fiction
7230:Svetlana Pletnyova
6872:Yitzhak ha-Sangari
6287:Lévi-Provençal, E.
6172:. In Fleet, Kate;
6024:. In Fleet, Kate;
5972:Lévi-Provençal, E.
5936:Dunlop, Douglas M.
5914:Robinson, Chase F.
5866:Lévi-Provençal, E.
5617:. In Fleet, Kate;
2709:, pp. 41, 58.
2300:
2272:Svetlana Pletnyova
2160:Abbasid Revolution
2082:
1999:pushed into Iberia
1994:
1978:Michael the Syrian
1735:. The new caliph,
1720:
1634:
1541:, a son of Caliph
1514:
1325:
1232:Byzantine emperors
1183:
1007:Old Great Bulgaria
991:Iranian Azerbaijan
802:
753:Abbasid Revolution
711:Caucasus Mountains
672:Rashidun Caliphate
142:Rashidun Caliphate
103:Iranian Azerbaijan
7339:
7338:
7220:Alexander Harkavy
7190:Mikhail Artamonov
6639:Volga trade route
6544:978-90-04-29307-6
6523:978-1-107-18851-8
6504:978-0-7914-1293-0
6469:978-5-9860-4253-4
6428:978-5-8125-1212-5
6384:Shepard, Jonathan
6380:Noonan, Thomas S.
6358:Noonan, Thomas S.
6334:Noonan, Thomas S.
6275:"Ad̲h̲arbayd̲jān"
6135:Noonan, Thomas S.
6108:978-90-04-16042-2
5927:978-0-521-83823-8
5841:978-0-7425-4982-1
5820:978-0-88706-564-4
5741:978-0-7914-1827-7
5340:, pp. 86–87.
5099:, pp. 83–84.
4973:, pp. 82–83.
4961:, pp. 81–82.
4887:, pp. 80–81.
4739:, pp. 79–80.
4724:, pp. 97–98.
4657:, pp. 77–79.
4645:, pp. 76–77.
4606:, pp. 74–76.
4570:, pp. 73–74.
4543:, pp. 71–73.
4486:, pp. 70–71.
4421:, pp. 69–70.
4322:, pp. 68–69.
4254:, pp. 67–68.
4145:, pp. 66–67.
4067:, pp. 65–66.
4011:, pp. 64–65.
3987:, pp. 63–64.
3951:, pp. 62–63.
3906:, pp. 61–62.
3846:, pp. 60–61.
3649:, pp. 59–60.
3562:, pp. 55–57.
3535:, pp. 51–54.
3523:, pp. 49–51.
3499:, pp. 47–49.
3415:, pp. 48–49.
3340:, pp. 49–50.
3241:, pp. 12–13.
3183:, pp. 9, 13.
3084:, pp. 25–27.
3036:, pp. 19–21.
3024:, pp. 11–18.
2976:, pp. 52–53.
2751:, pp. 50–51.
2739:, pp. 50–53.
2476:Bagratuni Armenia
2431:al-Fadl ibn Yahya
2392:Archil of Kakheti
2242:Mikhail Artamonov
1877:Douglas M. Dunlop
1631:Caucasian Albania
1349:Habib ibn Maslama
1345:Salman ibn Rabi'a
1329:Upper Mesopotamia
1315:Umayyad Caliphate
1273:Dimitri Obolensky
1268:The 20th-century
1255:Umayyad Caliphate
983:Caucasian Albania
914:Knot of the Gates
757:Abbasid Caliphate
723:Battle of Ardabil
707:Umayyad Caliphate
608:
607:
554:Caucasian Albania
382:
381:
291:
290:
156:Abbasid Caliphate
149:Umayyad Caliphate
131:
130:
16:(Redirected from
7376:
7354:Arab–Khazar wars
7318:Schechter Letter
7274:Crimean Karaites
7225:Thomas S. Noonan
6774:
6609:Arab–Khazar wars
6576:
6569:
6562:
6553:
6552:
6548:
6527:
6508:
6487:
6481:
6473:
6457:
6446:
6440:
6432:
6416:
6405:
6375:
6353:
6329:
6266:
6241:
6217:
6193:
6171:
6160:
6151:
6142:
6130:
6121:
6120:, pp. 7–58.
6112:
6095:Róna-Tas, András
6089:
6085:978-3-44703274-2
6072:Golden, Peter B.
6067:
6050:Golden, Peter B.
6045:
6023:
6014:
5951:
5931:
5908:
5845:
5824:
5800:
5745:
5721:
5662:
5643:Artamonov, M. I.
5638:
5616:
5599:
5593:
5587:
5581:
5575:
5569:
5563:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5539:
5533:
5527:
5521:
5515:
5509:
5500:
5494:
5488:
5482:
5476:
5470:
5464:
5458:
5452:
5446:
5440:
5434:
5428:
5422:
5416:
5413:Blankinship 1994
5410:
5404:
5398:
5392:
5386:
5377:
5371:
5365:
5359:
5353:
5347:
5341:
5335:
5329:
5326:Blankinship 1994
5323:
5310:
5304:
5298:
5295:Blankinship 1994
5292:
5286:
5283:Blankinship 1994
5280:
5274:
5268:
5262:
5256:
5250:
5247:Blankinship 1994
5244:
5238:
5232:
5226:
5220:
5214:
5208:
5202:
5196:
5190:
5184:
5178:
5172:
5166:
5160:
5154:
5151:Blankinship 1994
5148:
5139:
5133:
5112:
5106:
5100:
5094:
5088:
5082:
5076:
5070:
5061:
5055:
5046:
5040:
5034:
5031:Blankinship 1994
5028:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4998:Blankinship 1994
4995:
4989:
4983:
4974:
4968:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4944:
4935:
4932:Blankinship 1994
4929:
4918:
4912:
4903:
4900:Blankinship 1994
4897:
4888:
4882:
4876:
4873:Blankinship 1994
4870:
4861:
4858:Blankinship 1994
4855:
4849:
4843:
4837:
4834:Blankinship 1994
4831:
4825:
4819:
4810:
4807:Blankinship 1994
4804:
4798:
4792:
4781:
4778:Blankinship 1994
4775:
4769:
4763:
4752:
4746:
4740:
4734:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4698:Blankinship 1994
4695:
4682:
4676:
4670:
4667:Blankinship 1994
4664:
4658:
4652:
4646:
4640:
4634:
4628:
4622:
4619:Blankinship 1994
4616:
4607:
4601:
4595:
4589:
4583:
4580:Blankinship 1994
4577:
4571:
4565:
4559:
4553:
4544:
4538:
4532:
4526:
4517:
4511:
4502:
4499:Blankinship 1994
4496:
4487:
4481:
4475:
4469:
4463:
4457:
4451:
4448:Blankinship 1994
4445:
4434:
4431:Blankinship 1994
4428:
4422:
4416:
4410:
4404:
4395:
4389:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4365:
4354:
4348:
4342:
4339:Blankinship 1994
4336:
4323:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4294:
4291:Blankinship 1994
4288:
4282:
4279:Blankinship 1994
4276:
4270:
4264:
4255:
4249:
4243:
4237:
4231:
4228:Blankinship 1994
4225:
4219:
4213:
4202:
4199:Blankinship 1994
4196:
4190:
4184:
4173:
4167:
4161:
4158:Blankinship 1994
4155:
4146:
4140:
4134:
4128:
4122:
4116:
4097:
4091:
4080:
4074:
4068:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4044:
4038:
4029:
4023:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3937:Blankinship 1994
3934:
3919:
3913:
3907:
3901:
3895:
3892:Blankinship 1994
3889:
3883:
3880:Blankinship 1994
3877:
3871:
3865:
3859:
3853:
3847:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3778:
3772:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3727:
3724:Blankinship 1994
3721:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3691:
3685:
3674:
3668:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3635:Wasserstein 2007
3632:
3626:
3620:
3611:
3605:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3488:
3482:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3392:
3386:
3377:
3371:
3365:
3362:Blankinship 1994
3359:
3353:
3350:Wasserstein 2007
3347:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3326:Wasserstein 2007
3323:
3317:
3314:Blankinship 1994
3311:
3302:
3299:Blankinship 1994
3296:
3290:
3284:
3278:
3275:Blankinship 1994
3272:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3253:, pp. 9–10.
3248:
3242:
3236:
3227:
3224:Blankinship 1994
3221:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3178:
3172:
3169:Blankinship 1994
3166:
3157:
3156:, pp. 8–10.
3151:
3145:
3139:
3133:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3109:
3103:
3097:
3091:
3085:
3079:
3073:
3067:
3061:
3058:Blankinship 1994
3055:
3049:
3043:
3037:
3031:
3025:
3022:Blankinship 1994
3019:
3013:
3010:Blankinship 1994
3007:
3001:
2998:Wasserstein 2007
2995:
2989:
2983:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2910:
2904:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2835:
2829:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2781:
2775:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2725:
2719:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2695:Blankinship 1994
2692:
2671:
2668:
2662:
2639:
2633:
2626:
2620:
2616:
2610:
2607:
2601:
2599:
2589:
2582:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2559:
2553:
2550:Thomas S. Noonan
2546:
2540:
2537:
2531:
2524:
2469:
2466:
2449:Yazid ibn Mazyad
2441:
2438:
2425:
2419:
2417:
2400:
2398:
2389:
2371:
2358:
2349:
2343:
2340:
2334:
2324:
2322:
2269:
2223:
2208:
2205:
2197:
2194:
2185:
2182:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2153:
2135:
2127:
2121:
2112:
2097:
2089:
2049:
2037:
1971:
1968:
1918:
1906:
1903:
1897:
1828:three-day battle
1810:
1790:
1783:
1748:Caucasian Iberia
1745:
1743:
1718:
1715:
1673:
1650:
1648:
1608:
1606:
1597:
1594:
1579:
1551:
1549:
1495:Thomas S. Noonan
1492:
1490:
1460:
1458:
1437:
1435:
1390:
1388:
1375:
1323:
1320:
1286:
1284:
1244:
1242:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1109:
1090:), to which the
1089:
1081:
1073:
1071:Yaʾjuj wa-Maʾjuj
1051:
1033:
1004:
975:Caucasian Iberia
972:
970:
952:Byzantine Empire
918:
915:
912:
909:
906:
902:
896:
894:
873:
871:
768:
742:
666:
662:
659:
651:
647:
644:
636:
633:
613:Arab–Khazar wars
564:Khazar Khaganate
559:Caucasian Iberia
448:Byzantine Empire
421:
419:
409:
402:
395:
386:
385:
329:
327:
326:Arab–Khazar wars
317:
310:
303:
294:
293:
273:
255:
242:
208:
190:
160:
153:
146:
71:
70:
64:
61:
52:
35:Arab–Khazar wars
32:
31:
21:
7384:
7383:
7379:
7378:
7377:
7375:
7374:
7373:
7344:
7343:
7340:
7335:
7322:
7284:Jewish Cossacks
7256:Khazar language
7239:
7235:Omeljan Pritsak
7210:Peter B. Golden
7178:
7027:
6876:
6775:
6766:
6648:
6585:
6580:
6545:
6524:
6505:
6475:
6474:
6470:
6455:
6434:
6433:
6429:
6414:
6402:
6388:Franklin, Simon
6372:
6214:
6178:Rowson, Everett
6109:
6097:, eds. (2007).
6086:
6064:
6030:Rowson, Everett
5928:
5842:
5821:
5805:Bosworth, C. E.
5770:Bosworth, C. E.
5750:Bosworth, C. E.
5742:
5691:Bosworth, C. E.
5623:Rowson, Everett
5607:
5602:
5598:, p. 1176.
5594:
5590:
5582:
5578:
5570:
5566:
5558:
5554:
5546:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5522:
5518:
5510:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5483:
5479:
5471:
5467:
5459:
5455:
5447:
5443:
5435:
5431:
5423:
5419:
5411:
5407:
5399:
5395:
5387:
5380:
5372:
5368:
5360:
5356:
5348:
5344:
5336:
5332:
5324:
5313:
5305:
5301:
5293:
5289:
5281:
5277:
5269:
5265:
5257:
5253:
5245:
5241:
5233:
5229:
5221:
5217:
5209:
5205:
5197:
5193:
5185:
5181:
5173:
5169:
5161:
5157:
5149:
5142:
5138:, p. 1174.
5134:
5115:
5107:
5103:
5095:
5091:
5083:
5079:
5071:
5064:
5056:
5049:
5041:
5037:
5029:
5016:
5008:
5004:
4996:
4992:
4984:
4977:
4969:
4965:
4957:
4953:
4945:
4938:
4930:
4921:
4913:
4906:
4898:
4891:
4883:
4879:
4871:
4864:
4856:
4852:
4844:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4820:
4813:
4805:
4801:
4793:
4784:
4776:
4772:
4764:
4755:
4747:
4743:
4735:
4728:
4720:
4716:
4708:
4704:
4696:
4685:
4677:
4673:
4665:
4661:
4653:
4649:
4641:
4637:
4629:
4625:
4617:
4610:
4602:
4598:
4590:
4586:
4578:
4574:
4566:
4562:
4554:
4547:
4539:
4535:
4527:
4520:
4512:
4505:
4497:
4490:
4482:
4478:
4470:
4466:
4458:
4454:
4446:
4437:
4429:
4425:
4417:
4413:
4405:
4398:
4390:
4386:
4378:
4374:
4366:
4357:
4349:
4345:
4337:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4306:
4297:
4289:
4285:
4277:
4273:
4265:
4258:
4250:
4246:
4238:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4214:
4205:
4197:
4193:
4185:
4176:
4168:
4164:
4156:
4149:
4141:
4137:
4129:
4125:
4117:
4100:
4092:
4083:
4075:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4051:
4047:
4039:
4032:
4024:
4015:
4007:
4003:
3995:
3991:
3983:
3979:
3971:
3967:
3959:
3955:
3947:
3943:
3935:
3922:
3914:
3910:
3902:
3898:
3890:
3886:
3878:
3874:
3866:
3862:
3854:
3850:
3842:
3838:
3830:
3826:
3818:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3794:
3781:
3773:
3769:
3761:
3757:
3749:
3745:
3737:
3730:
3722:
3718:
3710:
3706:
3698:
3694:
3686:
3677:
3669:
3665:
3657:
3653:
3645:
3641:
3633:
3629:
3621:
3614:
3606:
3602:
3594:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3570:
3566:
3558:
3554:
3546:
3539:
3531:
3527:
3519:
3515:
3507:
3503:
3495:
3491:
3483:
3479:
3471:
3467:
3459:
3455:
3447:
3443:
3435:
3431:
3423:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3399:
3395:
3387:
3380:
3372:
3368:
3360:
3356:
3348:
3344:
3336:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3312:
3305:
3297:
3293:
3285:
3281:
3273:
3269:
3261:
3257:
3249:
3245:
3237:
3230:
3222:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3191:
3187:
3179:
3175:
3167:
3160:
3152:
3148:
3140:
3136:
3128:
3124:
3116:
3112:
3104:
3100:
3092:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3068:
3064:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3040:
3032:
3028:
3020:
3016:
3008:
3004:
2996:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2972:
2968:
2960:
2956:
2948:
2944:
2936:
2932:
2928:, p. 1173.
2924:
2913:
2905:
2892:
2884:
2880:
2872:
2868:
2860:
2856:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2832:
2824:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2800:
2796:
2792:, pp. 7–8.
2788:
2784:
2776:
2767:
2759:
2755:
2747:
2743:
2735:
2728:
2720:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2640:
2636:
2627:
2623:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2569:
2560:
2556:
2547:
2543:
2538:
2534:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2467:
2439:
2414:
2395:
2341:
2327:Yazid al-Sulami
2319:
2292:
2290:Later conflicts
2263:
2261:Murad Magomedov
2238:Battle of Tours
2215:
2206:
2195:
2183:
2168:
2079:al-Bayda (Atil)
2069:Excavations at
1969:
1947:
1904:
1889:
1798:
1740:
1716:
1645:
1619:
1603:
1595:
1546:
1503:
1487:
1469:) and Armenia (
1455:
1432:
1424:
1412:decisive defeat
1385:
1321:
1307:
1302:
1281:
1239:
1224:
1195:Peter B. Golden
1171:
1124:
1112:Hugh N. Kennedy
1062:
1015:
1013:Opposing armies
967:
916:
913:
910:
907:
891:
880:Sasanian Empire
868:
791:Sasanin Persoan
780:
775:
749:Umayyad dynasty
664:
660:
649:
645:
634:
609:
604:
522:Northern Persia
505:Sassanid Persia
422:
417:
415:
413:
383:
378:
330:
325:
323:
321:
287:
269:
251:
238:
227:
223:Yazid al-Sulami
204:
186:
158:
154:
151:
147:
144:
112:
106:
62:
53:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7382:
7372:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7333:
7327:
7324:
7323:
7321:
7320:
7315:
7310:
7305:
7300:
7293:
7288:
7287:
7286:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7258:
7253:
7247:
7245:
7241:
7240:
7238:
7237:
7232:
7227:
7222:
7217:
7212:
7207:
7202:
7197:
7195:Vasily Bartold
7192:
7186:
7184:
7180:
7179:
7177:
7176:
7174:Volga Bulgaria
7171:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7141:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7061:
7056:
7051:
7046:
7041:
7035:
7033:
7029:
7028:
7026:
7025:
7020:
7015:
7010:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6980:
6975:
6970:
6968:Saltovo-Mayaki
6965:
6960:
6955:
6950:
6945:
6940:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6920:
6915:
6910:
6905:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6884:
6882:
6878:
6877:
6875:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6859:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6834:
6829:
6824:
6822:John of Gothia
6819:
6814:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6794:
6789:
6783:
6781:
6777:
6776:
6769:
6767:
6765:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6684:
6679:
6674:
6669:
6664:
6658:
6656:
6650:
6649:
6647:
6646:
6641:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6579:
6578:
6571:
6564:
6556:
6550:
6549:
6543:
6528:
6522:
6509:
6503:
6488:
6468:
6447:
6427:
6406:
6401:978-0860783381
6400:
6376:
6370:
6354:
6330:
6283:Kramers, J. H.
6279:Gibb, H. A. R.
6267:
6242:
6218:
6212:
6194:
6174:Krämer, Gudrun
6163:
6162:
6161:
6152:
6143:
6131:
6122:
6107:
6090:
6084:
6068:
6062:
6046:
6026:Krämer, Gudrun
6015:
5968:Kramers, J. H.
5964:Gibb, H. A. R.
5952:
5932:
5926:
5909:
5862:Kramers, J. H.
5858:Gibb, H. A. R.
5846:
5840:
5825:
5819:
5807:, ed. (1989).
5801:
5758:van Donzel, E.
5746:
5740:
5722:
5679:van Donzel, E.
5663:
5639:
5619:Krämer, Gudrun
5606:
5603:
5601:
5600:
5588:
5576:
5564:
5552:
5540:
5528:
5516:
5501:
5489:
5477:
5465:
5463:, p. 126.
5453:
5451:, p. 233.
5441:
5429:
5417:
5405:
5403:, p. 238.
5393:
5391:, p. 343.
5378:
5366:
5354:
5342:
5330:
5328:, p. 175.
5311:
5307:Artamonov 1962
5299:
5287:
5275:
5263:
5251:
5239:
5227:
5215:
5203:
5191:
5189:, p. 137.
5179:
5177:, p. 223.
5175:Artamonov 1962
5167:
5155:
5153:, p. 174.
5140:
5113:
5101:
5089:
5085:Artamonov 1962
5077:
5062:
5060:, p. 222.
5058:Artamonov 1962
5047:
5043:Artamonov 1962
5035:
5033:, p. 173.
5014:
5002:
4990:
4986:Artamonov 1962
4975:
4963:
4951:
4947:Artamonov 1962
4936:
4934:, p. 172.
4919:
4904:
4889:
4877:
4875:, p. 171.
4862:
4850:
4838:
4826:
4824:, p. 237.
4811:
4809:, p. 153.
4799:
4782:
4770:
4768:, p. 218.
4766:Artamonov 1962
4753:
4751:, p. 217.
4749:Artamonov 1962
4741:
4726:
4714:
4702:
4700:, p. 152.
4683:
4679:Artamonov 1962
4671:
4659:
4647:
4635:
4633:, p. 188.
4623:
4621:, p. 151.
4608:
4596:
4594:, p. 215.
4592:Artamonov 1962
4584:
4572:
4560:
4556:Artamonov 1962
4545:
4533:
4531:, p. 214.
4529:Artamonov 1962
4518:
4503:
4488:
4476:
4472:Artamonov 1962
4464:
4462:, p. 128.
4452:
4450:, p. 150.
4435:
4423:
4411:
4407:Artamonov 1962
4396:
4394:, p. 286.
4384:
4380:Artamonov 1962
4372:
4355:
4343:
4341:, p. 149.
4324:
4312:
4310:, p. 211.
4308:Artamonov 1962
4295:
4283:
4271:
4256:
4244:
4242:, p. 285.
4232:
4220:
4203:
4201:, p. 123.
4191:
4189:, p. 344.
4174:
4172:, p. 185.
4162:
4147:
4135:
4123:
4121:, p. 209.
4119:Artamonov 1962
4098:
4081:
4077:Artamonov 1962
4069:
4057:
4045:
4043:, p. 207.
4041:Artamonov 1962
4030:
4013:
4001:
3997:Artamonov 1962
3989:
3977:
3975:, p. 206.
3973:Artamonov 1962
3965:
3961:Artamonov 1962
3953:
3941:
3939:, p. 122.
3920:
3908:
3896:
3884:
3872:
3860:
3858:, p. 205.
3856:Artamonov 1962
3848:
3836:
3834:, p. 183.
3824:
3820:Artamonov 1962
3812:
3810:, p. 203.
3808:Artamonov 1962
3800:
3798:, p. 127.
3779:
3767:
3755:
3751:Artamonov 1962
3743:
3741:, p. 236.
3728:
3716:
3704:
3702:, p. 192.
3700:Artamonov 1962
3692:
3690:, p. 182.
3675:
3673:, p. 181.
3663:
3651:
3639:
3637:, p. 375.
3627:
3625:, p. 179.
3612:
3610:, p. 178.
3600:
3588:
3576:
3572:Artamonov 1962
3564:
3552:
3550:, p. 179.
3548:Artamonov 1962
3537:
3525:
3513:
3501:
3489:
3477:
3475:, p. 660.
3465:
3463:, p. 190.
3453:
3441:
3429:
3425:Artamonov 1962
3417:
3405:
3403:, p. 113.
3393:
3391:, p. 128.
3378:
3366:
3354:
3342:
3330:
3318:
3316:, p. 109.
3303:
3301:, p. 107.
3291:
3289:, p. 157.
3279:
3267:
3255:
3243:
3228:
3226:, p. 124.
3209:
3197:
3185:
3173:
3171:, p. 108.
3158:
3146:
3134:
3122:
3110:
3098:
3086:
3074:
3062:
3060:, p. 126.
3050:
3038:
3026:
3014:
3002:
2990:
2978:
2966:
2954:
2942:
2930:
2911:
2890:
2886:Zuckerman 2007
2878:
2866:
2854:
2850:Zuckerman 2007
2842:
2830:
2818:
2814:Zuckerman 2007
2806:
2804:, p. 401.
2802:Zuckerman 2007
2794:
2782:
2765:
2763:, p. 126.
2753:
2741:
2726:
2711:
2699:
2697:, p. 106.
2681:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2672:
2663:
2649:(or al-Lakz),
2634:
2621:
2611:
2602:
2577:
2567:
2554:
2541:
2532:
2518:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2461:Münejjim Bashi
2445:Sa'id ibn Salm
2418: 786–807
2399: 736–786
2323: 754–775
2291:
2288:
2276:Saltovo-Mayaki
2257:Volga Bulgaria
2246:C. E. Bosworth
2214:
2211:
2052:Ural Mountains
1950:parallel with
1946:
1943:
1888:
1885:
1853:Battle of Badr
1797:
1794:
1744: 724–743
1649: 720–724
1618:
1615:
1607: 717–720
1550: 685–705
1527:Constantinople
1502:
1499:
1491: 661–680
1459: 637–669
1436: 632–651
1423:
1420:
1389: 634–644
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1285: 741–775
1223:
1220:
1211:siege machines
1177:Ewer from the
1170:
1167:
1136:Byzantine army
1061:
1058:
1014:
1011:
971: 602–641
940:South Caucasus
895: 531–579
872: 457–484
863:Starting with
860:would follow.
779:
776:
774:
771:
680:North Caucasus
676:South Caucasus
606:
605:
603:
602:
597:
592:
587:
576:Makurian Nubia
567:
566:
561:
556:
551:
540:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
501:
500:
498:Southern Italy
491:
486:
484:Constantinople
481:
476:
471:
462:
457:
444:
443:
438:
427:
424:
423:
412:
411:
404:
397:
389:
380:
379:
377:
376:
371:
366:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
335:
332:
331:
320:
319:
312:
305:
297:
289:
288:
286:
285:
280:
275:
262:
257:
244:
230:
228:
226:
225:
220:
215:
210:
197:
192:
178:
175:
174:
170:
169:
161:
138:
137:
133:
132:
129:
128:
117:South Caucasus
114:
108:
107:
95:South Caucasus
87:North Caucasus
85:
83:
79:
78:
75:
67:
66:
45:
44:
37:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7381:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7351:
7349:
7342:
7332:
7329:
7328:
7325:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7309:
7306:
7304:
7303:Kievan Letter
7301:
7299:
7298:
7294:
7292:
7289:
7285:
7282:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7261:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7249:
7248:
7246:
7242:
7236:
7233:
7231:
7228:
7226:
7223:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7213:
7211:
7208:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7198:
7196:
7193:
7191:
7188:
7187:
7185:
7181:
7175:
7172:
7170:
7167:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7125:
7122:
7120:
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7080:
7079:Crimean Goths
7077:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7069:Black Klobuks
7067:
7065:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7050:
7047:
7045:
7042:
7040:
7037:
7036:
7034:
7030:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6966:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6939:
6936:
6934:
6931:
6929:
6926:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6909:
6906:
6904:
6901:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6891:
6889:
6886:
6885:
6883:
6879:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6833:
6830:
6828:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6812:Hazer Tarkhan
6810:
6808:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6790:
6788:
6785:
6784:
6782:
6780:Other figures
6778:
6773:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6685:
6683:
6680:
6678:
6675:
6673:
6670:
6668:
6665:
6663:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6654:Khazar rulers
6651:
6645:
6642:
6640:
6637:
6635:
6632:
6630:
6627:
6625:
6624:Pax Khazarica
6622:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6591:
6588:
6584:
6577:
6572:
6570:
6565:
6563:
6558:
6557:
6554:
6546:
6540:
6536:
6535:
6529:
6525:
6519:
6515:
6510:
6506:
6500:
6496:
6495:
6489:
6485:
6479:
6471:
6465:
6461:
6453:
6448:
6444:
6438:
6430:
6424:
6420:
6412:
6407:
6403:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6371:9780860786573
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6305:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6272:
6268:
6264:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6213:0-415-25093-5
6209:
6205:
6204:
6199:
6198:Kennedy, Hugh
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6170:
6164:
6158:
6153:
6149:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6123:
6119:
6114:
6113:
6110:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6091:
6087:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6063:963-05-1549-0
6059:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6043:
6039:
6035:
6031:
6027:
6022:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5990:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5884:
5879:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5837:
5833:
5832:
5826:
5822:
5816:
5812:
5811:
5806:
5802:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5776:
5771:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5737:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5697:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5647:История хазар
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5597:
5592:
5585:
5580:
5573:
5568:
5561:
5556:
5549:
5548:Bosworth 1989
5544:
5537:
5536:Semyonov 2008
5532:
5525:
5520:
5513:
5508:
5506:
5498:
5493:
5486:
5481:
5474:
5469:
5462:
5457:
5450:
5445:
5438:
5433:
5426:
5421:
5414:
5409:
5402:
5397:
5390:
5385:
5383:
5376:, p. 47.
5375:
5370:
5364:, p. 33.
5363:
5358:
5351:
5346:
5339:
5334:
5327:
5322:
5320:
5318:
5316:
5308:
5303:
5296:
5291:
5284:
5279:
5272:
5267:
5260:
5255:
5248:
5243:
5236:
5231:
5224:
5219:
5212:
5207:
5200:
5195:
5188:
5183:
5176:
5171:
5164:
5159:
5152:
5147:
5145:
5137:
5132:
5130:
5128:
5126:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5118:
5111:, p. 84.
5110:
5105:
5098:
5093:
5086:
5081:
5075:, p. 83.
5074:
5069:
5067:
5059:
5054:
5052:
5044:
5039:
5032:
5027:
5025:
5023:
5021:
5019:
5012:, p. 21.
5011:
5006:
4999:
4994:
4987:
4982:
4980:
4972:
4967:
4960:
4955:
4948:
4943:
4941:
4933:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4917:, p. 81.
4916:
4911:
4909:
4901:
4896:
4894:
4886:
4881:
4874:
4869:
4867:
4859:
4854:
4847:
4842:
4835:
4830:
4823:
4818:
4816:
4808:
4803:
4797:, p. 80.
4796:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4779:
4774:
4767:
4762:
4760:
4758:
4750:
4745:
4738:
4733:
4731:
4723:
4718:
4711:
4706:
4699:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4680:
4675:
4668:
4663:
4656:
4651:
4644:
4639:
4632:
4627:
4620:
4615:
4613:
4605:
4600:
4593:
4588:
4581:
4576:
4569:
4564:
4557:
4552:
4550:
4542:
4537:
4530:
4525:
4523:
4516:, p. 71.
4515:
4510:
4508:
4500:
4495:
4493:
4485:
4480:
4473:
4468:
4461:
4456:
4449:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4432:
4427:
4420:
4415:
4408:
4403:
4401:
4393:
4392:Semyonov 2008
4388:
4381:
4376:
4370:, p. 69.
4369:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4352:
4351:Semyonov 2008
4347:
4340:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4321:
4316:
4309:
4304:
4302:
4300:
4292:
4287:
4280:
4275:
4269:, p. 68.
4268:
4263:
4261:
4253:
4248:
4241:
4240:Semyonov 2008
4236:
4229:
4224:
4218:, p. 67.
4217:
4212:
4210:
4208:
4200:
4195:
4188:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4171:
4166:
4159:
4154:
4152:
4144:
4139:
4132:
4127:
4120:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4096:, p. 66.
4095:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4078:
4073:
4066:
4061:
4054:
4053:Semyonov 2008
4049:
4042:
4037:
4035:
4028:, p. 65.
4027:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4010:
4005:
3998:
3993:
3986:
3981:
3974:
3969:
3962:
3957:
3950:
3945:
3938:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3927:
3925:
3917:
3916:Semyonov 2008
3912:
3905:
3900:
3893:
3888:
3881:
3876:
3869:
3868:Semyonov 2010
3864:
3857:
3852:
3845:
3840:
3833:
3828:
3821:
3816:
3809:
3804:
3797:
3792:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3777:, p. 60.
3776:
3771:
3764:
3759:
3752:
3747:
3740:
3735:
3733:
3726:, p. 31.
3725:
3720:
3713:
3708:
3701:
3696:
3689:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3672:
3667:
3660:
3655:
3648:
3643:
3636:
3631:
3624:
3619:
3617:
3609:
3604:
3598:, p. 57.
3597:
3592:
3586:, p. 45.
3585:
3580:
3573:
3568:
3561:
3556:
3549:
3544:
3542:
3534:
3529:
3522:
3517:
3510:
3505:
3498:
3493:
3486:
3481:
3474:
3469:
3462:
3461:Minorsky 1960
3457:
3450:
3445:
3438:
3433:
3426:
3421:
3414:
3409:
3402:
3397:
3390:
3385:
3383:
3375:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3351:
3346:
3339:
3334:
3327:
3322:
3315:
3310:
3308:
3300:
3295:
3288:
3283:
3276:
3271:
3265:, p. 11.
3264:
3263:Semyonov 2010
3259:
3252:
3251:Semyonov 2010
3247:
3240:
3239:Semyonov 2010
3235:
3233:
3225:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3206:
3205:Semyonov 2010
3201:
3195:, p. 10.
3194:
3193:Semyonov 2010
3189:
3182:
3181:Semyonov 2010
3177:
3170:
3165:
3163:
3155:
3154:Semyonov 2010
3150:
3144:, p. 44.
3143:
3138:
3131:
3126:
3120:, p. 77.
3119:
3114:
3107:
3102:
3096:, p. 26.
3095:
3090:
3083:
3078:
3071:
3066:
3059:
3054:
3048:, p. 21.
3047:
3042:
3035:
3030:
3023:
3018:
3012:, p. 11.
3011:
3006:
2999:
2994:
2988:, p. 53.
2987:
2982:
2975:
2970:
2963:
2958:
2952:, p. 52.
2951:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2922:
2920:
2918:
2916:
2908:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2887:
2882:
2875:
2870:
2863:
2858:
2851:
2846:
2839:
2834:
2827:
2822:
2815:
2810:
2803:
2798:
2791:
2786:
2779:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2757:
2750:
2745:
2738:
2733:
2731:
2723:
2718:
2716:
2708:
2703:
2696:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2682:
2667:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2638:
2631:
2625:
2615:
2606:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2581:
2571:
2564:
2558:
2551:
2548:According to
2545:
2536:
2529:
2528:Albrecht 2016
2523:
2519:
2511:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2462:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2437:
2432:
2429:
2424:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2393:
2388:
2381:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2337:
2333:
2328:
2317:
2312:
2310:
2305:
2296:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2210:
2201:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2166:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2133:
2126:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2105:
2104:Volga Bulgars
2101:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1908:
1902:
1896:
1884:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1802:
1793:
1789:
1782:
1776:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1689:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1662:Derbent-nameh
1658:
1654:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1614:
1612:
1601:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1570:Derbent-nameh
1566:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1507:
1498:
1496:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1430:
1429:Yazdegerd III
1419:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1316:
1311:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1279:
1278:Constantine V
1274:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1180:
1175:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1147:heavy cavalry
1144:
1139:
1137:
1131:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1088:
1087:
1080:
1079:
1072:
1067:
1057:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1010:
1008:
1003:
1002:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
935:
933:
929:
925:
922:
901:
889:
885:
881:
877:
866:
861:
859:
855:
854:Gog and Magog
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
822:Caspian Gates
819:
815:
811:
807:
800:
796:
795:Caspian Gates
792:
788:
784:
770:
767:
762:
758:
754:
750:
744:
741:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
703:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
655:
640:
629:
625:
621:
618:
614:
601:
600:Frankish Gaul
598:
596:
593:
591:
588:
585:
581:
577:
574:
573:
572:
571:
570:Other regions
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
546:
545:
544:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
509:
508:
507:
506:
499:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
452:
451:
450:
449:
442:
439:
437:
434:
433:
432:
431:
425:
420:
410:
405:
403:
398:
396:
391:
390:
387:
375:
372:
370:
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
336:
333:
328:
318:
313:
311:
306:
304:
299:
298:
295:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
272:
266:
265:Hazer Tarkhan
263:
261:
258:
256:
254:
248:
245:
243:
241:
235:
232:
231:
229:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
207:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
189:
183:
180:
179:
177:
176:
171:
168:
165:
162:
157:
150:
143:
140:
139:
134:
126:
122:
118:
115:
110:
109:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
81:
80:
76:
73:
72:
68:
57:
51:
46:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
7341:
7295:
6923:Golden Hills
6787:Alp Iluetuer
6608:
6533:
6513:
6493:
6459:
6418:
6391:
6361:
6341:
6337:
6309:
6302:
6271:Minorsky, V.
6254:
6250:
6229:
6225:
6202:
6181:
6098:
6075:
6053:
6033:
5994:
5987:
5939:
5917:
5888:
5881:
5830:
5809:
5780:
5773:
5730:
5701:
5694:
5667:Barthold, W.
5650:
5646:
5626:
5591:
5579:
5567:
5555:
5543:
5531:
5519:
5492:
5480:
5468:
5456:
5444:
5437:Zhivkov 2015
5432:
5420:
5408:
5396:
5374:Golden 2007a
5369:
5362:Golden 2007a
5357:
5345:
5333:
5302:
5290:
5278:
5266:
5259:Golden 2007b
5254:
5242:
5235:Golden 2007b
5230:
5223:Golden 2007b
5218:
5206:
5199:Golden 2007b
5194:
5187:Golden 2007b
5182:
5170:
5158:
5104:
5092:
5080:
5038:
5005:
4993:
4966:
4954:
4880:
4853:
4841:
4829:
4802:
4773:
4744:
4717:
4705:
4674:
4662:
4650:
4638:
4626:
4599:
4587:
4575:
4563:
4536:
4479:
4467:
4455:
4426:
4414:
4387:
4375:
4346:
4315:
4286:
4274:
4247:
4235:
4223:
4194:
4165:
4138:
4126:
4072:
4060:
4048:
4004:
3992:
3980:
3968:
3956:
3944:
3911:
3899:
3887:
3875:
3870:, p. 6.
3863:
3851:
3839:
3827:
3815:
3803:
3770:
3758:
3746:
3719:
3707:
3695:
3666:
3654:
3642:
3630:
3603:
3591:
3579:
3567:
3555:
3528:
3516:
3504:
3492:
3480:
3468:
3456:
3444:
3432:
3420:
3408:
3396:
3369:
3357:
3345:
3333:
3321:
3294:
3282:
3270:
3258:
3246:
3207:, p. 8.
3200:
3188:
3176:
3149:
3142:Zhivkov 2015
3137:
3125:
3118:Kennedy 2001
3113:
3101:
3094:Kennedy 2001
3089:
3082:Kennedy 2001
3077:
3070:Kennedy 2001
3065:
3053:
3046:Kennedy 2001
3041:
3034:Kennedy 2001
3029:
3017:
3005:
2993:
2981:
2969:
2957:
2945:
2933:
2881:
2869:
2857:
2845:
2833:
2821:
2809:
2797:
2785:
2756:
2744:
2702:
2666:
2637:
2624:
2614:
2605:
2580:
2570:
2557:
2544:
2535:
2522:
2492:Shirvanshahs
2457:
2382:
2313:
2309:trade routes
2301:
2254:
2250:
2226:
2216:
2188:
2146:
2138:unclean meat
2115:
2083:
2023:
1995:
1964:
1948:
1930:
1909:
1890:
1881:
1861:
1845:
1825:
1819:and then to
1803:
1799:
1777:
1757:
1721:
1696:Ibn al-Athir
1692:
1676:
1661:
1639:
1635:
1590:
1568:
1562:
1543:Abd al-Malik
1535:
1515:
1480:Alp Iluetuer
1448:
1425:
1397:
1363:
1353:
1326:
1267:
1236:Justinian II
1225:
1216:
1203:Central Asia
1199:
1184:
1155:
1150:
1140:
1096:
1078:Dar al-Islam
1063:
1031:Bab al-Abwab
1016:
985:(the modern
936:
862:
803:
745:
704:
669:
653:
638:
630:region from
612:
610:
569:
568:
563:
542:
541:
503:
502:
474:North Africa
446:
445:
428:
364:3rd Balanjar
349:Marj Ardabil
344:2nd Balanjar
339:1st Balanjar
324:
270:
252:
239:
205:
187:
136:Belligerents
40:Part of the
29:
7215:Lev Gumilev
7205:Norman Golb
7200:D.M. Dunlop
7032:Tributaries
6908:Chersonesus
6842:Ras Tarkhan
6792:Alp Tarkhan
6722:Manasseh II
6344:: 151–282.
6299:Pellat, Ch.
6291:Schacht, J.
6169:"Daghestan"
5984:Pellat, Ch.
5976:Schacht, J.
5956:Frye, R. N.
5878:Pellat, Ch.
5870:Schacht, J.
5766:Pellat, Ch.
5687:Pellat, Ch.
5572:Noonan 1992
5485:Noonan 2007
5473:Noonan 1984
5461:Noonan 1992
5449:Noonan 2007
5425:Golden 1980
5401:Golden 1992
5350:Dunlop 1954
5338:Dunlop 1954
5271:Dunlop 1954
5109:Dunlop 1954
5097:Dunlop 1954
5073:Dunlop 1954
4971:Dunlop 1954
4959:Dunlop 1954
4915:Dunlop 1954
4885:Dunlop 1954
4795:Dunlop 1954
4737:Dunlop 1954
4710:Dunlop 1954
4655:Dunlop 1954
4643:Dunlop 1954
4631:Noonan 1984
4604:Dunlop 1954
4568:Dunlop 1954
4541:Dunlop 1954
4514:Dunlop 1954
4484:Dunlop 1954
4419:Dunlop 1954
4368:Dunlop 1954
4320:Dunlop 1954
4267:Dunlop 1954
4252:Dunlop 1954
4216:Dunlop 1954
4170:Noonan 1984
4143:Dunlop 1954
4131:Noonan 1984
4094:Dunlop 1954
4065:Dunlop 1954
4026:Dunlop 1954
4009:Dunlop 1954
3985:Dunlop 1954
3949:Dunlop 1954
3904:Dunlop 1954
3844:Dunlop 1954
3832:Noonan 1984
3775:Dunlop 1954
3763:Noonan 1984
3688:Noonan 1984
3671:Noonan 1984
3659:Noonan 1984
3647:Dunlop 1954
3623:Noonan 1984
3608:Noonan 1984
3596:Dunlop 1954
3560:Dunlop 1954
3533:Dunlop 1954
3521:Dunlop 1954
3509:Noonan 1984
3497:Dunlop 1954
3449:Canard 1960
3437:Canard 1960
3401:Noonan 1992
3389:Noonan 1992
3130:Golden 1992
3106:Noonan 1984
2938:Golden 1980
2874:Noonan 1984
2826:Noonan 1984
2778:Kemper 2013
2707:Dunlop 1954
2619:(Balanjar).
2508:Oghuz Turks
2352:Khwarezmian
2264: [
1956:Transoxiana
1938:Ibn Khayyat
1717: 1861
1711:Darial Pass
1688:gold dinars
1554:Adharbayjan
1467:Adarnase II
1270:Byzantinist
1187:Mesopotamia
1086:Dar al-Harb
1054:Volga Delta
995:Tong Yabghu
942:during the
826:Caspian Sea
814:Darial Pass
688:Caspian Sea
590:Transoxiana
537:Afghanistan
278:Ras Tarkhan
234:Alp Tarkhan
159:(after 750)
145:(until 661)
111:Territorial
54:Map of the
7348:Categories
7279:Subbotniks
7124:Laz people
7089:East Slavs
7039:Abkhazians
7023:Tamatarkha
6993:Samosdelka
6857:Sviatoslav
6702:Manasseh I
6629:Radhanites
5850:Canard, M.
5779:Volume IV:
5700:Volume IV:
5675:"K̲h̲azar"
5671:Golden, P.
5524:Brook 2006
5512:Brook 2006
5497:Brook 2006
5211:Brook 2006
5163:Brook 2006
5010:Brook 2006
4846:Lilie 1976
4722:Vacca 2017
4460:Brook 2006
3796:Brook 2006
3712:Lilie 1976
3485:Smith 1994
3374:Lilie 1976
3287:Lilie 1976
2862:Brook 2006
2838:Brook 2006
2790:Brook 2006
2761:Brook 2006
2722:Brook 2006
2678:References
2500:Shaddadids
2498:, and the
2468: 901
2342: 760
2207: 740
2071:Samosdelka
2056:Ibn Fadlan
1970: 735
1933:Ibn A'tham
1925:Qinnasrini
1683:wagon fort
1596: 715
1510:Naryn-Kala
1501:Second war
1484:Mu'awiya I
1322: 740
1207:cataphract
1165:per year.
1125: 700
858:Apocalypse
665: 737
663: – c.
661: 722
650: 652
648: – c.
646: 642
635: 642
624:caliphates
63: 740
7264:Ashkenazi
7154:Pechenegs
7054:Baranjars
6797:Balgitzin
6682:Zachariah
6619:Meshchera
6594:Byzantium
6478:cite book
6437:cite book
6350:0724-8822
6326:495469456
6308:Volume I:
6295:Lewis, B.
6263:0724-8822
6257:: 45–57.
6238:568754312
6190:1873-9830
6042:1873-9830
6011:495469456
5993:Volume I:
5980:Lewis, B.
5948:459245222
5905:495469456
5887:Volume I:
5874:Lewis, B.
5797:758278456
5762:Lewis, B.
5754:"al-Ḳabḳ"
5718:758278456
5683:Lewis, B.
5659:490020276
5635:1873-9830
4822:Cobb 2010
3739:Cobb 2010
3584:Mako 2010
3473:Frye 1960
3413:Mako 2010
3338:Mako 2010
2986:Mako 2010
2974:Mako 2010
2950:Mako 2010
2749:Mako 2010
2737:Mako 2010
2651:Tabasaran
2575:province.
2496:Sallarids
2484:Daylamite
2316:al-Mansur
2015:dysentery
2007:Black Sea
1773:mangonels
1582:champions
1463:civil war
1440:Abkhazian
1400:Baladhuri
1393:parasangs
1360:Al-Tabari
1293:Silk Road
1263:Georgians
1052:) in the
1019:caliphate
964:Heraclius
888:Khosrow I
842:Near East
834:Scythians
727:Marwan II
620:Khaganate
167:Khaganate
152:(661–750)
121:Caliphate
7331:Category
7313:Red Jews
7269:Cossacks
7183:Scholars
7139:Mordvins
7109:Kipchaks
7064:Bashkirs
6978:Sambalut
6973:Samandar
6953:Khazaran
6918:Güsliyev
6913:Dagestan
6898:Balanjar
6862:Theodora
6832:Papatzys
6747:Aaron II
6742:Benjamin
6707:Hanukkah
6697:Hezekiah
6614:Kipchaks
6604:Abbasids
6599:Bulgaria
6583:Khazaria
6390:(eds.).
6301:(eds.).
6273:(1960).
6224:(1976).
6200:(2001).
6180:(eds.).
6074:(1992).
6052:(1980).
6032:(eds.).
5986:(eds.).
5958:(1960).
5938:(1954).
5880:(eds.).
5852:(1960).
5781:Iran–Kha
5772:(eds.).
5728:(1994).
5702:Iran–Kha
5693:(eds.).
5673:(1978).
5645:(1962).
5625:(eds.).
2630:Mordovia
2428:Barmakid
2411:Juansher
2407:K'art'li
2336:Baghatur
2234:Pyrenees
2077:capital
2060:Istakhri
2026:Damascus
2011:Abkhazia
2003:Anakopia
1990:Anakopia
1974:parsangs
1872:Bajarwan
1868:Lake Van
1826:After a
1817:Bardha'a
1813:Tar'mach
1642:Yazid II
1531:Arminiya
1452:Juansher
1378:poll tax
1247:Theodora
1191:Anatolia
1151:de facto
1130:muqatila
1117:muqatila
1049:al-Bayda
1046:(Arabic
1040:Samandar
1036:Balanjar
928:Dagestan
900:Dar-band
882:built a
836:and the
810:Caucasus
696:Balanjar
628:Caucasus
543:Caucasus
532:Khorasan
354:Bajarwan
260:Tar'mach
91:Dagestan
82:Location
56:Caucasus
7169:Uralics
7149:Onogurs
7134:Magyars
7129:Lezgins
7119:Kassogs
7059:Barsils
7049:Arsiyah
6988:Samiran
6963:Levedia
6938:Kazarki
6867:Tzitzak
6852:Sfengus
6807:Bulchan
6737:Menahem
6732:Aaron I
6717:Zebulun
6692:Obadiah
6677:Parsbit
5960:"Arrān"
5916:(ed.).
5605:Sources
2655:Sharwan
2592:Parsbit
2488:Kurdish
2403:Bulchan
2356:tarkhan
2304:Abbasid
2284:Dnieper
2200:Judaism
2142:Kakheti
2110:tarkhan
2094:tarkhan
2030:Bal'ami
2019:epithet
2005:on the
1992:in 2014
1960:Türgesh
1821:Ardabil
1768:al-Lakz
1700:Warthan
1651:) sent
1640:Caliph
1625:Silver
1600:Umar II
1539:Maslama
1523:assault
1404:Ya'qubi
1289:Tzitzak
1251:Armenia
1169:Khazars
1163:dirhams
1092:Tengric
979:Georgia
954:in the
924:Khazars
919:). The
908:
878:of the
874:), the
865:Peroz I
818:Derbent
799:Derbent
733:on the
684:Derbent
626:in the
549:Armenia
469:Georgia
465:Armenia
441:Quraysh
374:Shirvan
359:Armenia
283:Bulchan
271:†
253:†
240:†
206:†
188:†
125:Derbent
113:changes
77:642–799
58:region
7297:Kuzari
7244:Legacy
7159:Sabirs
7114:Kumyks
7104:Kabars
7099:Juhuri
7084:Cumans
7074:Burtas
7003:Sarkel
6998:Saqsin
6983:Sambat
6958:Khumar
6933:Kavkaz
6881:Places
6847:Serach
6837:Pesakh
6827:Leo IV
6802:Barjik
6762:George
6752:Joseph
6541:
6520:
6501:
6466:
6425:
6398:
6368:
6348:
6324:
6297:&
6261:
6236:
6210:
6188:
6105:
6082:
6060:
6040:
6009:
5982:&
5946:
5924:
5903:
5876:&
5838:
5817:
5795:
5768:&
5738:
5716:
5689:&
5669:&
5657:
5633:
2657:, and
2647:Layzan
2597:khagan
2587:khagan
2494:, the
2480:Iberia
2436:khagan
2423:khagan
2387:khagan
2374:Crimea
2369:khagan
2347:khagan
2332:khagan
2230:Franks
2221:khagan
2196:'s
2192:khagan
2184:'s
2180:khagan
2174:khagan
2169:'s
2165:khagan
2151:khagan
2125:khagan
2119:khagan
2100:Burtas
2087:khagan
2075:Khazar
2047:khagan
1901:khagan
1895:khagan
1864:Akhlat
1808:khagan
1788:khagan
1781:khagan
1760:Jazira
1753:Qabala
1733:Araxes
1724:Alania
1671:khagan
1666:Barjik
1657:Lezgin
1627:dirham
1577:khagan
1565:Łewond
1552:), in
1408:sortie
1341:Lazica
1027:Arabic
1001:khagan
960:Tiflis
921:Turkic
850:barred
766:khagan
740:khagan
652:) and
617:Khazar
527:Sistan
517:Kerman
494:Sicily
479:Cyprus
430:Arabia
267:
249:
247:Barjik
236:
202:
184:
164:Khazar
97:(esp.
89:(esp.
7164:Sarir
7144:Oghuz
7044:Alans
7018:Taman
7013:Sudak
6948:Kerem
6943:Kerch
6928:Kaffa
6757:David
6712:Isaac
6687:Bulan
6672:Bihar
6667:Busir
6662:Irbis
6456:(PDF)
6415:(PDF)
6277:. In
6228:[
5962:. In
5856:. In
5756:. In
5677:. In
5649:[
2659:Filan
2643:Sarir
2514:Notes
2440:'
2364:Nerse
2268:]
2132:faqih
2035:jihad
1905:'
1857:Raqqa
1841:Mosul
1837:Ganza
1729:Cyrus
1416:Gilan
1372:jizya
1259:Syria
1143:light
1106:jihad
1066:Quran
1060:Arabs
876:shahs
735:Volga
489:Crete
460:Egypt
455:Syria
436:Mecca
7094:Huns
6893:Azaq
6888:Atil
6817:HLGW
6727:Nisi
6634:Rus'
6539:ISBN
6518:ISBN
6499:ISBN
6484:link
6464:ISBN
6443:link
6423:ISBN
6396:ISBN
6366:ISBN
6346:ISSN
6322:OCLC
6259:ISSN
6234:OCLC
6208:ISBN
6186:ISSN
6103:ISBN
6080:ISBN
6058:ISBN
6038:ISSN
6007:OCLC
5944:OCLC
5922:ISBN
5901:OCLC
5836:ISBN
5815:ISBN
5793:OCLC
5736:ISBN
5714:OCLC
5655:OCLC
5631:ISSN
2504:Rus'
2282:and
2270:and
2189:The
2058:and
1915:jund
1731:and
1709:The
1586:Alp'
1444:Alan
1442:and
1402:and
1382:Umar
1376:, a
1347:and
1313:The
1189:and
1145:and
1044:Atil
1038:and
905:lit.
848:had
838:Huns
731:Atil
717:and
611:The
582:and
512:Fars
496:and
467:and
369:Atil
74:Date
6903:Bar
6314:doi
6310:A–B
5999:doi
5995:A–B
5893:doi
5889:A–B
5785:doi
5706:doi
2486:or
2360:Ras
2280:Don
1954:in
1866:on
1362:'s
981:),
797:at
584:2nd
580:1st
93:),
7350::
6480:}}
6476:{{
6458:.
6439:}}
6435:{{
6417:.
6386:;
6340:.
6320:.
6306:.
6293:;
6289:;
6285:;
6281:;
6255:17
6253:.
6249:.
6005:.
5991:.
5978:;
5974:;
5970:;
5966:;
5899:.
5885:.
5872:;
5868:;
5864:;
5860:;
5791:.
5777:.
5764:;
5760:;
5712:.
5698:.
5685:;
5681:;
5504:^
5381:^
5314:^
5143:^
5116:^
5065:^
5050:^
5017:^
4978:^
4939:^
4922:^
4907:^
4892:^
4865:^
4814:^
4785:^
4756:^
4729:^
4686:^
4611:^
4548:^
4521:^
4506:^
4491:^
4438:^
4399:^
4358:^
4327:^
4298:^
4259:^
4206:^
4177:^
4150:^
4101:^
4084:^
4033:^
4016:^
3923:^
3782:^
3731:^
3678:^
3615:^
3540:^
3381:^
3306:^
3231:^
3212:^
3161:^
2914:^
2893:^
2768:^
2729:^
2714:^
2685:^
2653:,
2478:,
2465:c.
2455:.
2416:r.
2397:r.
2339:c.
2321:r.
2266:ru
2204:c.
1967:c.
1755:.
1742:r.
1714:c.
1647:r.
1605:r.
1593:c.
1548:r.
1489:r.
1457:r.
1434:r.
1387:r.
1319:c.
1283:r.
1241:r.
1122:c.
1056:.
969:r.
893:r.
870:r.
658:c.
643:c.
632:c.
101:,
60:c.
6575:e
6568:t
6561:v
6547:.
6526:.
6507:.
6486:)
6472:.
6445:)
6431:.
6404:.
6374:.
6352:.
6342:4
6328:.
6316::
6240:.
6216:.
6192:.
6111:.
6088:.
6066:.
6044:.
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6001::
5950:.
5930:.
5907:.
5895::
5844:.
5823:.
5799:.
5787::
5744:.
5720:.
5708::
5661:.
5637:.
2909:.
2780:.
2661:.
2632:.
2565:.
2413:(
2394:(
2318:(
1911:(
1739:(
1644:(
1602:(
1545:(
1486:(
1454:(
1431:(
1384:(
1280:(
1238:(
966:(
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911:'
903:(
890:(
867:(
820:(
656:(
641:(
586:)
578:(
408:e
401:t
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316:e
309:t
302:v
127:.
105:)
20:)
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