Seed - Knowledge

40: 1286:(Lodoicea maldivica). This indicates a 25 Billion fold difference in seed weight. Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner, so autumn all blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least a few will end in a favorable place for growth. Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds; they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established seedlings after germination. 1661:). Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination, normally when the environment is at a suitable temperature with proper soil moisture. This true dormancy or innate dormancy is therefore caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination. Thus dormancy is a state of the seed, not of the environment. Induced dormancy, enforced dormancy or seed quiescence occurs when a seed fails to germinate because the external environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination, mostly in response to conditions being too dark or light, too cold or hot, or too dry. 1807:, in some plants, including a number of grasses and those from seasonally arid regions, is needed before they will germinate. The seeds are released, but need to have a lower moisture content before germination can begin. If the seeds remain moist after dispersal, germination can be delayed for many months or even years. Many herbaceous plants from temperate climate zones have physiological dormancy that disappears with drying of the seeds. Other species will germinate after dispersal only under very narrow temperature ranges, but as the seeds dry, they are able to germinate over a wider temperature range. 880: 1936:

plus the rate of germination. This is given as a percent of germination over a certain amount of time, 90% germination in 20 days, for example. 'Dormancy' is covered above; many plants produce seeds with varying degrees of dormancy, and different seeds from the same fruit can have different degrees of dormancy. It's possible to have seeds with no dormancy if they are dispersed right away and do not dry (if the seeds dry they go into physiological dormancy). There is great variation amongst plants and a dormant seed is still a viable seed even though the germination rate might be very low.

1726:, germination is prevented due to morphological characteristics of the embryo. In some species, the embryo is just a mass of cells when seeds are dispersed; it is not differentiated. Before germination can take place, both differentiation and growth of the embryo have to occur. In other species, the embryo is differentiated but not fully grown (underdeveloped) at dispersal, and embryo growth up to a species specific length is required before germination can occur. Examples of plant families where morphological dormancy occurs are 1406: 801: 475: 782: 266: 2634: 1954:. The rate of imbibition is dependent on the permeability of the seed coat, amount of water in the environment and the area of contact the seed has to the source of water. For some seeds, imbibing too much water too quickly can kill the seed. For some seeds, once water is imbibed the germination process cannot be stopped, and drying then becomes fatal. Other seeds can imbibe and lose water a few times without causing ill effects, but drying can cause secondary dormancy. 2133: 2021:

harvested while the seeds are still immature and the seed coat is not fully developed and sown right away before the seed coat become impermeable. Under natural conditions, seed coats are worn down by rodents chewing on the seed, the seeds rubbing against rocks (seeds are moved by the wind or water currents), by undergoing freezing and thawing of surface water, or passing through an animal's digestive tract. In the latter case, the seed coat protects the seed from

366: 6494: 2037:, also called moist-chilling, breaks down physiological dormancy, and involves the addition of moisture to the seeds so they absorb water, and they are then subjected to a period of moist chilling to after-ripen the embryo. Sowing in late summer and fall and allowing to overwinter under cool conditions is an effective way to stratify seeds; some seeds respond more favorably to periods of oscillating temperatures which are a part of the natural environment. 861: 1895: 1418: 1131: 2790: 1918:

while it is still in the fruit or after it is dispersed. Environmental conditions like flooding or heat can kill the seed before or during germination. The age of the seed affects its health and germination ability: since the seed has a living embryo, over time cells die and cannot be replaced. Some seeds can live for a long time before germination, while others can only survive for a short period after dispersal before they die.

1000:, and the inner endosperm layer as vitellus. Although misleading, the term began to be applied to all the nutrient matter. This terminology persists in referring to endospermic seeds as "albuminous". The nature of this material is used in both describing and classifying seeds, in addition to the embryo to endosperm size ratio. The endosperm may be considered to be farinaceous (or mealy) in which the cells are filled with 1263: 2804: 1608:). Elaiosomes are soft, fleshy structures that contain nutrients for animals that eat them. The ants carry such seeds back to their nest, where the elaiosomes are eaten. The remainder of the seed, which is hard and inedible to the ants, then germinates either within the nest or at a removal site where the seed has been discarded by the ants. This dispersal relationship is an example of 1822:* is caused by conditions after the seed has been dispersed and occurs in some seeds when nondormant seed is exposed to conditions that are not favorable to germination, very often high temperatures. The mechanisms of secondary dormancy are not yet fully understood, but might involve the loss of sensitivity in receptors in the plasma membrane. 1170:. Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer integument and a tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds have only one integument. Usually, parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of 2149: 634:

and the other sperm is not used. Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and one zygote is then aborted or absorbed during early development. The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants such as

1789:

species, have multiple types of dormancy, one affects radicle (root) growth, while the other affects plumule (shoot) growth. The terms "double dormancy" and "two-year seeds" are used for species whose seeds need two years to complete germination or at least two winters and one summer. Dormancy of the

1713:

considers species that lack physiological dormancy, but where a chemical prevents germination. This chemical can be leached out of the seed by rainwater or snow melt or be deactivated somehow. Leaching of chemical inhibitors from the seed by rain water is often cited as an important cause of dormancy

148:

which contains the seed and serves to disseminate it. Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants

611:

described here) both inner and outer integuments contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells enlarge in the outer integument. While the inner epidermis may remain a single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and accumulates starch, and is referred

2051:

naturally accomplish this task. For seeds planted in gardens, running water is best – if soaked in a container, 12 to 24 hours of soaking is sufficient. Soaking longer, especially in stagnant water, can result in oxygen starvation and seed death. Seeds with hard seed coats can be soaked in hot

1935:

is the length of time it takes for the seeds to germinate. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and environmental effects that impact on the seed and seedling. In agriculture and horticulture quality seeds have high viability, measured by germination percentage

1906:

Seed germination is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic pathways that lead to growth and the emergence of the radicle or seed root and plumule or shoot. The emergence of the seedling above the soil surface is the next phase of the

751:

seeds are striped with parallel, longitudinal lines or ridges. The most common colours are brown and black, with other colours appearing less frequently. The surface texture varies from highly polished to considerably roughened. The surface may also have a variety of appendages (see Seed coat), and

580:

The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments, generally a reduction and disorganization but occasionally a thickening. The seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument forms the

564:

roots form the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle, coleoptile, and coleorhiza – these last

338:(flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with 323:

Angiosperm seeds are "enclosed seeds", produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses them for protection. Some fruits have layers of both hard and fleshy material. In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, which begin their development "naked" on the

1917:

Seed viability is the ability of the embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions. Some plants do not produce seeds that have functional complete embryos, or the seed may have no embryo at all, often called empty seeds. Predators and pathogens can damage or kill the seed

633:

In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature – naked seeded plants. Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus

2759:

And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after its kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in

1848:

is seed sensitivity to heat or cold. Some seeds, including cocklebur and amaranth, germinate only at high temperatures (30 °C or 86 °F); many plants that have seeds that germinate in early to midsummer have thermodormancy, so germinate only when the soil temperature is warm. Other seeds

852:

Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types (Martin 1946). These are based on a number of criteria, of which the dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and thus

619:

As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while the cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells

2020:

allows water and gases to penetrate into the seed; it includes methods to physically break the hard seed coats or soften them by chemicals, such as soaking in hot water or poking holes in the seed with a pin or rubbing them on sandpaper or cracking with a press or hammer. Sometimes fruits are

1857:

are viviparous; they begin to germinate while still attached to the parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls. Many garden plant seeds will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough; though their wild ancestors may have had

510:). The cotyledons are also the source of nutrients in the non-endospermic dicotyledons, in which case they replace the endosperm, and are thick and leathery. In endospermic seeds, the cotyledons are thin and papery. Dicotyledons have the point of attachment opposite one another on the axis. 2060:, sodium hypochlorite, and others. Some seeds germinate best after a fire. For some seeds, fire cracks hard seed coats, while in others, chemical dormancy is broken in reaction to the presence of smoke. Liquid smoke is often used by gardeners to assist in the germination of these species. 1752:

includes seeds with underdeveloped embryos, and also have physiological components to dormancy. These seeds, therefore, require a dormancy-breaking treatments, as well as a period of time to develop fully grown embryos. Plant families where morphophysiological dormancy occurs include

1279:

for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling. Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend the first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves. At up to 55 pounds (25 kilograms) the largest seed is the

856:

Six types occur amongst the monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate). This classification is based on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the position of the embryo relative to the endosperm.

4945: 1910:

Three fundamental conditions must exist before germination can occur. (1) The embryo must be alive, called seed viability. (2) Any dormancy requirements that prevent germination must be overcome. (3) The proper environmental conditions must exist for germination.

461:

In the majority of flowering plants, the zygote's first division is transversely oriented in regards to the long axis, and this establishes the polarity of the embryo. The upper or chalazal pole becomes the main area of growth of the embryo, while the lower or

2055:

Other methods used to assist in the germination of seeds that have dormancy include prechilling, predrying, daily alternation of temperature, light exposure, potassium nitrate, the use of plant growth regulators, such as gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene,

1652:

Seed dormancy has two main functions: the first is synchronizing germination with the optimal conditions for survival of the resulting seedling; the second is spreading germination of a batch of seeds over time so a catastrophe (e.g. late frosts, drought,

1200:. If the exotesta is also the mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if the mechanical layer is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g. 1686:

to water. At dormancy break, a specialized structure, the 'water gap', is disrupted in response to environmental cues, especially temperature, so water can enter the seed and germination can occur. Plant families where physical dormancy occurs include

1667:

Often, seed dormancy is divided into four major categories: exogenous; endogenous; combinational; and secondary. A more recent system distinguishes five classes: morphological, physiological, morphophysiological, physical, and combinational dormancy.

1270:

Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are

1079:

dicotyledons the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are also referred to as

2123:

Also called growing true, refers to plants whose seed will yield the same type of plant as the original plant. Open pollinated plants, which include heirlooms, will almost always grow true to seed if another variety does not cross-pollinate them.

624:

cells. In the inner epidermis, the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15–20 layers, while the innermost layer is known as the fringe layer.

346:

and the zygote. Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after

2186:

Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year to year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, and internal cycles within the plants themselves. Over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of

1949:

In order for the seed coat to split, the embryo must imbibe (soak up water), which causes it to swell, splitting the seed coat. However, the nature of the seed coat determines how rapidly water can penetrate and subsequently initiate

593:.) The testae of both monocots and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also called the testa, though not all such testae are 2776:

Who causeth the seed-grain and the date-stone to split and sprout. He causeth the living to issue from the dead, and He is the one to cause the dead to issue from the living. That is Allah: then how are ye deluded away from the

1330:

Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo.

1796:

means the embryo, due to physiological causes, cannot generate enough power to break through the seed coat, endosperm or other covering structures. Dormancy is typically broken at cool wet, warm wet, or warm dry conditions.

1841:

may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process, inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in the

2288:

grasses. Particularly in developing countries, a major constraint faced is the inadequacy of the marketing channels to get the seed to poor farmers. Thus the use of farmer-retained seed remains quite common.

4993: 2029:

are often effective in breaking down hard seed coats and are sometimes used by people as a treatment; the seeds are stored in a moist warm sandy medium for several months under nonsterile conditions.

1816:, the seed or fruit coat is impermeable to water and the embryo has physiological dormancy. Depending on the species, physical dormancy can be broken before or after physiological dormancy is broken. 1612:, since the plants depend upon the ants to disperse seeds, while the ants depend upon the plants seeds for food. As a result, a drop in numbers of one partner can reduce success of the other. In 929:. The scutellum is pressed closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food and passes it to the growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved, and curled. 2195:

produced from 0 to nearly 5.5 million sound pine seeds per hectare. Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, when evaluated for production of adequate

1826:

The following types of seed dormancy do not involve seed dormancy, strictly speaking, as lack of germination is prevented by the environment, not by characteristics of the seed itself (see

698:– rounded at both ends, or egg shaped (ovate or obovate, broader at one end), being rounded but either symmetrical about the middle, or broader below the middle, or broader above the middle 2025:, while often weakening the seed coat such that the embryo is ready to sprout when it is deposited, along with a bit of fecal matter that acts as fertilizer, far from the parent plant. 1180:

The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented zone of two to five layers containing

1849:

need cool soils to germinate, while others, such as celery, are inhibited when soil temperatures are too warm. Often, thermodormancy requirements disappear as the seed ages or dries.

1664:

Seed dormancy is not the same as seed persistence in the soil or on the plant, though even in scientific publications dormancy and persistence are often confused or used as synonyms.

1353:). A seed must somehow "arrive" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called 466:

pole produces the stalk-like suspensor that attaches to the micropyle. The suspensor absorbs and manufactures nutrients from the endosperm that are used during the embryo's growth.

6324: 5174: 205:

period (359 to 299 million years ago); they had ovules that were borne in a cupule, which consisted of groups of enclosing branches likely used to protect the developing seed.

3260: 5243: 1924:

is a measure of the quality of seed, and involves the viability of the seed, the germination percentage, germination rate, and the strength of the seedlings produced.

945:

that will grow from the embryo. The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the

438:

The shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds. Plants generally produce ovules of four shapes: the most common shape is called

1837:

or light sensitivity affects germination of some seeds. These photoblastic seeds need a period of darkness or light to germinate. In species with thin seed coats,

6329: 4894: 4701: 1196:

is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument, and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer integument is referred to as the

1116:. According to Bewley and Black (1978), Brazil nut storage is in hypocotyl and this place of storage is uncommon among seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous. 5001: 318:

1. Endosperm 2. Zygote 3. Embryo 4. Suspensor 5. Cotyledons 6. Shoot Apical Meristem 7. Root Apical Meristem 8. Radicle 9. Hypocotyl 10. Epicotyl 11. Seed Coat

3431:

6 – Seed and fruit – University Publishing Online – Paula J. Rudall. Anatomy of Flowering Plants: An Introduction to Structure and Development. Third edition

2738: 2349:. Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds, though only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by animals. 1865:, seeds are a way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks. 526:, the tip of the epicotyl, and has a feathery appearance due to the presence of young leaf primordia at the apex, and will become the shoot upon germination. 3217:

Filonova LH; Bozhkov PV; von Arnold S (February 2000). "Developmental pathway of somatic embryogenesis in Picea abies as revealed by time-lapse tracking".

1858:

dormancy, these cultivated plants lack it. After many generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners, dormancy has been selected out.

227:

1846 viability studies by Augustin de Candolle, published in "Sur la durée relative de la faculté de germer des graines appartenant à diverses familles" (

39: 5208: 3475:

Blackmore, Stephen; See-Chung Chin; Lindsay Chong Seng; Frieda Christie; Fiona Inches; Putri Winda Utami; Neil Watherston; Alexandra H. Wortley (2012).

1345:

Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to

6462: 4972: 3385: 535:, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s), connecting the epicotyl and the radicle, being the stem-root transition zone. 4191:

Koppen G; Verschaeve L (2001). "The alkaline single-cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a way to study DNA repair in radicle cells of germinating

3602:

Matsumoto H, Fan X, Wang Y, Kusstatscher P, Duan J, Wu S, et al. (January 2021). "Bacterial seed endophyte shapes disease resistance in rice".

2092:

is an indication of that ancient origin of seed-plants. As with modern ferns, most land plants before this time reproduced by sending into the air

1162:. The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators, and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either 2000:

appear to be a problem for seed survival, and the enzymatic repair of DNA damages during germination appears to be important for seed viability.

597:

from one species to the next. The funiculus abscisses (detaches at fixed point – abscission zone), the scar forming an oval depression, the

4876: 1988:

that is involved in repair of single- and double-strand breaks during seed germination is an important determinant of seed longevity. Also, in

62:

and food reserve enclosed in a protective outer covering called a seed coat (testa). More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be

589:. (The seed coats of some monocotyledon plants, such as the grasses, are not distinct structures, but are fused with the fruit wall to form a 1790:

radicle (seedling root) is broken during the first winter after dispersal while dormancy of the shoot bud is broken during the second winter.

4570: 4222:

Bray CM; West CE (December 2005). "DNA repair mechanisms in plants: crucial sensors and effectors for the maintenance of genome integrity".

208:

Published literature about seed storage, viability and its hygrometric dependence began in the early 19th century, influential works being:

6380: 4912:"Effect of Cooking on Firmness, Trypsin Inhibitors, Lectins and Cystine/Cysteine content of Navy and Red Kidney Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)" 3559:

Shannon DA; Isaac L; Brockman FE (February 1996). "Assessment of hedgerow species for seed size, stand establishment and seedling height".

4753: 1974:

seeds, the reduction of DNA integrity due to damage is associated with loss of seed viability during storage. Upon germination, seeds of

3415: 2068:

Seeds may be sterile for few reasons: they may have been irradiated, unpollinated, cells lived past expectancy, or bred for the purpose.

899:

In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The

1254:, where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore, representing the micropyle of the ovule. 224:(1832, v. 2, pp. 618–626, Paris); (translated title, "Plant physiology, or Exposition of the vital forces and functions of plants") 4803: 3953:

Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998) Seeds: Ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination.San Diego, Academic Press.

234:, 1846, III 6: 373–382); (translated title, "On the relative duration of the ability to germinate seeds belonging to various families") 3976:

The biology of seeds recent research advances : proceedings of the Seventh International Workshop on Seeds, Salamanca, Spain 2002

3930:

Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998) Seeds: Ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination.San Diego, Academic Press

3720: 603:. Anatropous ovules have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and which forms a longitudinal ridge, or 4911: 3053: 2140:

Seeds harbor a diverse microbial community. Most of these microorganisms are transmitted from the seed to the developing seedlings.

186: 6196: 4598:"Twenty years of natural loblolly and shortleaf pine seed production on the Crossett Experimental Forest in southeastern Arkansas" 3252: 3024: 1008:, or not (non-farinaceous). The endosperm may also be referred to as "fleshy" or "cartilaginous" with thicker soft cells such as 98:. The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth is halted. 5175:

A.C. Martin. The Comparative Internal Morphology of Seeds. American Midland Naturalist Vol. 36, No. 3 (Nov., 1946), pp. 513–660

5023: 3029:(Agriculture Handbook No. 506 ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture. p. 252. Archived from 1377:. When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion, they are called indehiscent, which include the fruits 4856: 4721: 2076:

The issue of the origin of seed plants remains unsolved. However, more and more data tends to place this origin in the middle

5165: 5083: 4053: 3669: 3446: 3334: 3279: 3201: 3163: 3120: 3004: 2977: 2925: 2099:

Taxonomists have described early "true" seeds from the upper Devonian, which probably became the theater of their true first

4681: 4097: 1495:, produce buoyant seeds termed sea-beans or drift seeds because they float in rivers to the oceans and wash up on beaches. 5232: 3326:

Carol C. Baskin, Jerry M. Baskin. Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Elsevier, 2001

189:

evolved around 468 million years ago, and reproduced using spores. The earliest seed bearing plants to appear were the

5052: 3302: 6386: 5198: 5186: 5136: 4396:"Experimental evidence of microbial inheritance in plants and transmission routes from seed to phyllosphere and root" 4341: 4079: 3742: 1575:); the seeds are stored some distance from the parent plant, and some escape being eaten if the animal forgets them. 5281: 3793:

Eira MTS, Caldas LS (2000) Seed dormancy and germination as concurrent processes. Rev Bras Fisiol Vegetal 12:85–104

2833: 1294:

Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them. Key among these functions are nourishment of the

5720: 5251:: collecting, storing, sowing, germinating, and exchanging seeds, with pictures of seeds, seedpods and seedlings. 1628:

and displaced native species of ants. Unlike the native ant species, Argentine ants do not collect the seeds of

1306:

during unfavorable conditions. Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of

229: 1931:

is simply the proportion of seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to the right conditions for growth. The

6201: 121:, do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological 4891: 4698: 3965:

Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2004) A classification system for seed dormancy. Seed Science Research 14:1–16.

1322:

microorganisms that can perform various functions, the most important of which is protection against disease.

5651: 5147: 4137:

Cheah KS; Osborne DJ (April 1978). "DNA lesions occur with loss of viability in embryos of ageing rye seed".

4001:

Patten D.T. (1978). "Productivity and production efficiency of an Upper Sonoran Desert ephemeral community".

548:

Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of sheaths. The plumule is covered with a

450:

ovules have a curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight "C" shape. The last ovule shape is called

4969: 1245:(a soft spongy outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines, or tubercles. 6370: 5957: 5472: 3850:

Thompson K, Ceriani RM, Bakker JP, Bekker RM (2003). "Are seed dormancy and persistence in soil related?".

342:, which involves the fusion of two male gametes with the egg cell and the central cell to form the primary 213: 6528: 6452: 6206: 2760:

itself, after its kind: and God saw that it was good. And the evening and the morning were the third day.

2174:

account for 72 percent of corn and soybean seed sales in the U.S. with the average price of a bag of GMO

6186: 5248: 4354:

Jon E. Keeley and Fotheringham (1997-05-23). "Trace Gas Emissions and Smoke-Induced Seed Germination".

2828: 1993: 446:

ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row producing an uncurved seed.

5226: 4869: 4298:

Hunt L; Holdsworth MJ; Gray JE (August 2007). "Nicotinamidase activity is important for germination".

2318:

While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly. Plants and seeds often contain

590: 6336: 5244:

Canadian Grain Commission:Seed characters used in the identification of small oilseeds and weed seeds

5238: 3693: 3377: 2893: 1142:, originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. 565:

two structures are sheath-like and enclose the plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering.

17: 4512:"Seeds of native alpine plants host unique microbial communities embedded in cross-kingdom networks" 4510:

Wassermann, Birgit; Cernava, Tomislav; Müller, Henry; Berg, Christian; Berg, Gabriele (2019-07-24).

2166:

In the United States farmers spent $ 22 billion on seeds in 2018, a 35 percent increase since 2010.

844:

forms a supply of nutrients for the embryo in most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons.

6533: 6474: 6319: 5369: 3917:

Baskin JM, Baskin CC, Li X (2000) "Taxonomy, anatomy and evolution of physical dormancy in seeds".

1939:

Environmental conditions affecting seed germination include; water, oxygen, temperature and light.

4831: 4368: 5157: 3367:

Bewley & Black (1978) Physiology and Biochemistry of Seeds in Relation to Germination, pag.11

2033: 1350: 5131:(1st ed.). New York, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company (published 1980). p. 186. 4931: 4117: 879: 6304: 6228: 4745: 4575: 4363: 4045: 2338:. Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds. 2104: 2100: 2016: 1125: 707:

resembling a disc or plate, having both thickness and parallel faces and with a rounded margin)

6033: 3407: 3350: 3193: 3187: 2994: 1996:(PARP) are likely needed for successful germination. Thus DNA damages that accumulate during 1237:), or hairs (trichomes). In the latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop 6469: 3659: 2967: 2915: 2413: 2313: 2242: 1658: 454:, where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its stalk (the funicle or 399: 31: 5209:

Stuppy, W. Glossary of Seed and Fruit Morphological Terms. Royal botanical gardens, Kew 2004

4037: 3708: 3651: 2043:

or the soaking in water removes chemical inhibitors in some seeds that prevent germination.

6191: 6088: 6043: 5715: 5274: 4468: 4407: 4146: 3939:

Gutterman, Y. (1993) Seed germination in desert plants. Springer Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg.

3816: 3568: 3525: 2818: 2266: 2213:

Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds, especially from

2208: 1683: 1346: 1299: 1071:) the embryo is embedded in the endosperm (and nucellus), which the seedling will use upon 950: 339: 198: 5691: 8: 6361: 5906: 5180:

M.B. McDonald, Francis Y. Kwong (eds.). Flower Seeds: Biology and Technology. CABI, 2005.

4459:

Nelson, Eric B. (2018-01-01). "The seed microbiome: Origins, interactions, and impacts".

2942: 2331: 1609: 1354: 1307: 434:, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, where integument and nucellus are joined. 4472: 4411: 4150: 3820: 3755:

Bond, W.J.; P. Slingsby (1984). "Collapse of an ant-plant mutualism: The Argentine ant,

3572: 3529: 3512:

Kosinki, Igor (2007). "Long-term variability in seed size and seedling establishment of

3474: 6299: 6164: 5942: 5634: 5420: 5316: 5098: 4927: 4718: 4655: 4630: 4546: 4511: 4492: 4441: 4170: 4018: 3867: 3832: 3776: 3627: 3584: 3541: 2674: 2650: 2486: 2469: 2319: 2153: 2115:. Seed plants progressively became one of the major elements of nearly all ecosystems. 1801:

is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds, and its production can be affected by light.

1630: 1105: 925: 865: 594: 5239:

Plant Physiology online: Types of Seed Dormancy and the Roles of Environmental Factors

3030: 2493:. Normal cooking processes degrade lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms. 1460:

Other seeds are enclosed in fruit structures that aid wind dispersal in similar ways:

6457: 5306: 5301: 5194: 5192:

Edred John Henry Corner. The Seeds of Dicotyledons. Cambridge University Press, 1976.

5182: 5161: 5132: 5079: 4823: 4784: 4780: 4660: 4551: 4533: 4484: 4445: 4433: 4425: 4337: 4315: 4311: 4280: 4275: 4258: 4239: 4235: 4204: 4162: 4113: 4075: 4049: 4038: 3738: 3665: 3631: 3619: 3442: 3330: 3234: 3197: 3159: 3116: 3000: 2973: 2921: 2838: 2569: 2385: 1315: 1276: 1272: 650:

Seeds are very diverse, and as such there are many terms are used to describe them.

5015: 4496: 4394:

Abdelfattah, Ahmed; Wisniewski, Michael; Schena, Leonardo; Tack, Ayco J. M. (2021).

3871: 3545: 2008:

A number of different strategies are used by gardeners and horticulturists to break

1714:

release in seeds of desert plants, but little evidence exists to support this claim.

222:

Physiologie végétale, ou Exposition des forces et des fonctions vitales des végétaux

6243: 6149: 6144: 6098: 5991: 5976: 5937: 5862: 5703: 5627: 5524: 5466: 4923: 4848: 4815: 4776: 4650: 4642: 4609: 4541: 4523: 4476: 4415: 4373: 4307: 4270: 4257:

Waterworth WM; Masnavi G; Bhardwaj RM; Jiang Q; Bray CM; West CE (September 2010).

4231: 4174: 4154: 4010: 3898: 3859: 3824: 3768: 3611: 3588: 3576: 3533: 3492: 3434: 3226: 3185: 3093: 2848: 2657: 2335: 2107:, shape, dispersal and eventually the radiation of gymnosperms and angiosperms and 1625: 1362: 122: 6038: 4377: 1967: 1942:

Three distinct phases of seed germination occur: water imbibition; lag phase; and

864:

Diagram of a generalized dicot seed (1) versus a generalized monocot seed (2). A.

6523: 6497: 6479: 6341: 6170: 6120: 6108: 6070: 6006: 5833: 5801: 5762: 5735: 5564: 5559: 5450: 5386: 5267: 5203: 5191: 5179: 5151: 5126: 4976: 4898: 4880: 4767:

Wedin GP; Neal JS; Everson GW; Krenzelok EP (May 1986). "Castor bean poisoning".

4725: 4705: 4685: 4101: 4069: 3324: 3153: 2752: 2661: 2617: 2512: 2457: 1718:

Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, including:

1491: 1405: 1394: 1358: 1250: 761: 599: 485: 141: 118: 5060: 4678: 4094: 3230: 3097: 1357:, which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include 474: 369:

Plant ovules: Gymnosperm ovule on left, angiosperm ovule (inside ovary) on right

6518: 6391: 6356: 6309: 6291: 6255: 6011: 5838: 5816: 5782: 5757: 5740: 5730: 5725: 5607: 5425: 5410: 5364: 5359: 3804: 3615: 2888: 2795: 2584: 2561: 2334:), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the 2327: 2293: 2192: 1696: 1634:

or eat the elaiosomes. In areas where these ants have invaded, the numbers of

1390: 1340: 1020: 884: 800: 503: 421:, a small pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the 411: 394: 245: 106: 5255:

Plant Fix: Check out various plant seeds and learn more information about them

4819: 4528: 4480: 3537: 2755:

in the Old Testament begins with an explanation of how all plant forms began:

781: 6512: 6427: 6175: 6093: 6065: 6028: 5996: 5932: 5901: 5852: 5752: 5554: 5537: 5460: 5440: 5381: 5376: 5324: 4743: 4537: 4488: 4429: 3802: 3477:"Observations on the Morphology, Pollination and Cultivation of Coco de Mer ( 3438: 2809: 2726: 2707:. They are only 85 micrometers long, and weigh 0.81 micrograms. They have no 2397: 2365: 2238: 2188: 2108: 2026: 2009: 1874: 1798: 1774: 1758: 1743: 1688: 1647: 1617: 1005: 958: 912: 907:

from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one

202: 197:

period (416 million to 358 million years ago). From these early gymnosperms,

83: 4420: 4395: 2700:

may weigh up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) and usually contains a single seed.

1207:

In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an

6422: 6412: 6314: 6023: 5532: 5499: 4827: 4664: 4614: 4597: 4555: 4437: 4319: 4284: 4243: 4208: 4166: 3661:

California desert flowers: an introduction to families, genera, and species

3623: 3296: 3238: 2873: 2858: 2853: 2843: 2546: 2409: 2052:

water to break open the impermeable cell layers that prevent water intake.

1862: 1770: 1766: 1739: 1613: 1580: 1506: 1147: 1041: 888: 574: 561: 507: 390: 325: 150: 102: 4788: 4646: 3805:"Redefining seed dormancy: an attempt to integrate physiology and ecology" 3497: 3476: 2633: 2148: 1671:

Exogenous dormancy is caused by conditions outside the embryo, including:

1028:. The endosperm is called "horny" when the cell walls are thicker such as 6238: 6223: 6218: 6154: 6016: 5796: 5767: 5666: 5661: 5509: 5349: 5344: 5329: 2868: 2689: 2642: 2573: 2523: 2445: 2346: 2226: 2222: 2132: 2112: 1989: 1951: 1889: 1827: 1560: 1386: 1282: 1159: 1072: 1068: 1033: 985:

layer (peripheral endosperm), filled with proteinaceous aleurone grains.

974: 923:(caryopses) the single monocotyledon is shield shaped and hence called a 916: 422: 348: 265: 193:, which have no ovaries to contain the seeds. They arose during the late 190: 166: 162: 4256: 3989:

Seeds physiology of development and germination. The language of science

2917:

When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions

2678:(narrow-leafed campion) from material preserved for 31,800 years in the 2157:(common bean or green bean) seeds are diverse in size, shape, and color. 973:, the food storage tissue (also called endosperm) is part of the female 519:, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s). 6267: 6260: 6250: 6233: 5916: 5911: 5847: 5639: 5486: 5445: 5339: 5221: 4022: 3903: 3886: 3863: 3836: 3780: 3580: 2863: 2682: 2621: 2607: 2565: 2542: 2461: 2437: 2417: 2323: 2258: 2175: 1981: 1976: 1731: 1605: 1155: 1139: 1045: 757: 556: 550: 463: 365: 335: 79: 43: 1894: 747:

Other common descriptors for seeds focus on color, texture, and form.

377:

develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components:

6375: 6272: 6001: 5806: 5787: 5698: 5622: 5542: 5494: 5435: 5415: 5354: 4766: 4158: 2878: 2823: 2719: 2708: 2653: 2550: 2535: 2508: 2429: 2353: 2297: 2281: 2246: 2167: 2022: 1899: 1762: 1735: 1704: 1692: 1654: 1593: 1589: 1563:) are attractive long-term storable food resources for animals (e.g. 1464: 1382: 1319: 1311: 1233: 1227: 1174: 1171: 1113: 1056: 1029: 993: 970: 946: 908: 873: 869: 860: 840: 817: 813: 809: 753: 612:

to as the colourless layer. By contrast, the outer epidermis becomes

531: 502:, the seed leaves, attached to the embryonic axis. There may be one ( 498: 343: 130: 4801: 4014: 3828: 3772: 3081: 1417: 1130: 668:) – resembling a kidney, with lobed ends on either side of the hilum 6417: 6407: 6351: 6346: 6113: 5986: 5962: 5879: 5549: 5334: 4994:"Ice Age flower revival that could lead to resurrection of mammoth" 2993:

Taylor, Edith L.; Taylor, Thomas N.; Krings, Michael (2009-01-21).

2789: 2722: 2611: 2516: 2449: 2441: 2433: 2421: 2384:, and others – when consumed in sufficient amounts, may cause 2301: 2277: 2250: 2230: 2196: 2171: 2085: 2077: 2057: 1997: 1963: 1885: 1854: 1785: 1754: 1727: 1700: 1597: 1449: 1422: 1303: 1201: 982: 954: 942: 938: 515: 194: 174: 158: 134: 4946:"Effects of Invasive Clusia rosea in Hawai'i – Nick Schlotterbeck" 4746:"Poisonous Plants and Plant Parts – Archives – Aggie Horticulture" 4259:"A plant DNA ligase is an important determinant of seed longevity" 1966:, often associated with unpredictable and stressful environments, 1521:) which attach to animal fur or feathers, and then drop off later. 5602: 5597: 5514: 5504: 5041:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. pp. 313–314. 3216: 2883: 2704: 2679: 2591: 2490: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2361: 2285: 2276:

Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes,

2254: 2089: 1943: 1545: 1533: 1514: 1453: 1374: 1370: 1188:

is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner integument, the

1151: 1085: 1052: 1014: 1009: 997: 978: 966: 678:– angular, with all sides being either equal, or longer-than-wide 540: 430: 329: 101:

The formation of the seed is the defining part of the process of

3709:"Ants – The astonishing intimacy between ants & plants" 3186:

Rost, Thomas L.; Weier, T. Elliot; Weier, Thomas Elliot (1979).

2477:

which can cause gastric distress if the beans are eaten without

414:

and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops.

6055: 5947: 5867: 5821: 5811: 5772: 5710: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5290: 4393: 2715: 2669: 2665: 2599: 2531: 2527: 2501: 2425: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2389: 2381: 2377: 2330:. In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in 2262: 2218: 2214: 1985: 1779: 1601: 1572: 1553: 1541: 1529: 1510: 1485: 1442: 1410: 1378: 1366: 1295: 1262: 1238: 1222: 1181: 1143: 1109: 1101: 1037: 1001: 962: 920: 900: 828: 794: 719: 639: 616:. The inner integument may consist of eight to fifteen layers. 613: 480: 126: 95: 91: 87: 63: 59: 51: 4353: 3135:

Raven, Peter H., Ray Franklin Evert, and Helena Curtis. 1981.

554:

that forms the first leaf while the radicle is covered with a

544:, the basal tip of the hypocotyl, grows into the primary root. 250:

Studies in Seeds and Fruits- An Investigation with the Balance

165:

are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an

6279: 6213: 6135: 6103: 6060: 5952: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5872: 5857: 5826: 5747: 5405: 5396: 5254: 3657: 3301:, Gerhard Leubner Lab, Royal Holloway, University of London, 2803: 2773: 2765: 2734: 2730: 2697: 2638: 2504: 2453: 2369: 2357: 2342: 2270: 2234: 2093: 1838: 1568: 1564: 1525: 1518: 1470: 1218: 1214: 1025: 904: 805: 790: 374: 360: 324:

bracts of cones. However, the seeds do become covered by the

170: 154: 145: 75: 71: 5222:

Royal Holloway, University of London: The Seed Biology Place

3601: 3558: 1657:) does not result in the death of all offspring of a plant ( 1588:. Foraging ants disperse seeds which have appendages called 1241:. Other seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, 949:, which is derived from the mother plant and the pollen via 6130: 6125: 5617: 5592: 5587: 5571: 5430: 5204:

United States Forest Service. Woody Plant Seed Manual. 1948

5146:

Heywood, Vernon Hilton; Moore, David Moresby, eds. (1984).

4509: 3849: 3646:

Plant systematics. McGraw-Hill series in organismic biology

2557: 2373: 2048: 2044: 1853:

Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy. Seeds of some

1549: 1537: 1435: 1209: 1089: 989: 786: 635: 114: 110: 67: 4628: 4389: 4387: 4297: 3803:

Vleeshouwers L.M.; Bouwmeester H.J.; Karssen C.M. (1995).

3685: 2660:

seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at

6050: 5612: 5259: 4571:"The Startup Taking On Bayer With Cheaper, Non-GMO Seeds" 4029: 3658:

Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil; Emil Morhardt, J. (2004).

3061:. London, England: Williams and Norgate. pp. 147–150 2672:. It was germinated in 2005. (A reported regeneration of 1971: 1777:. Some plants with morphophysiological dormancy, such as 1585: 1097: 1093: 484:

seed, showing a well-developed embryo, nutritive tissue (

3884: 3664:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 24. 2489:

which interfere with the action of the digestive enzyme

1146:) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in 4804:"Evaluation of castor bean toxicosis in dogs: 98 cases" 4595: 4384: 4040:

The encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses

3974:

International Workshop on Seeds, and G. Nicolas. 2003.

3408:"plant_anatomy Term "seed coat epidermis" (PO:0006048)" 3291: 3289: 2996:

Paleobotany: The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants

27:

Embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering

5110:

Quran, Translation: Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Al-An'aam 95:6

4124:. Wageningen?: International Seed Testing Association. 2522:

Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds.

2467:

The seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (

4909: 3754: 3267: 2590:

Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game

1907:

plant's growth and is called seedling establishment.

1138:

The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the

573:"Seed coat" redirects here. For artificial coat, see 5078:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 466. 4190: 3351:"The Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed. (1888) vol. 4" 3286: 2785: 1349:

their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also

1248:

A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the

1192:

from the outer surface of the inner integument. The

620:

which are broader on their inner surface are called

252:" (1912, London, England); subsequently reviewed in 5073: 4744:Martin Anderson, Texas AgriLife Extension Service. 4332:Hartmann, Hudson Thomas, and Dale E. Kester. 1983. 3961: 3959: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3465:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 8. 2261:content and physical properties. For example, the 760:(finger-like). A seed coat with the consistency of 425:

usually enters during the process of fertilization.

5016:"Russian Scientists Revive 32,000-Year-Old Flower" 4136: 3644:Jones, Samuel B., and Arlene E. Luchsinger. 1979. 2992: 2481:. The common bean and many others, including the 1413:, which can be carried long distances by the wind. 1310:which produces a remixing of genetic material and 5128:Pods: wildflowers and weeds in their final beauty 4802:Albretsen JC; Gwaltney-Brant SM; Khan SA (2000). 2541:Seeds are the source of some medicines including 607:, just above the hilum. In bitegmic ovules (e.g. 6510: 4970:2,000-Year-Old Seed Sprouts, Sapling Is Thriving 3956: 3942: 2943:"Devonian Period: Climate, Animals & Plants" 2718:seeds are around 365 million years old from the 2576:. However, the latter three are also poisonous. 2071: 1992:seeds, the activities of the DNA repair enzymes 1266:A collection of various vegetable and herb seeds 919:and two or more in gymnosperms. In the fruit of 389:) or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the 3110: 3023:Justice, Oren L.; Bass, Louis N. (April 1978). 237:1897 seed hygrometric studies by Victor Jodin ( 5235:– a backup facility for the world's seed banks 4221: 4112:International Seed Testing Association. 1973. 3151: 2656:-dated seed that has grown into a plant was a 5275: 3737:, 3rd ed., p. 396. (New York: W.H. Freeman). 3727: 3686:"www.seabean.com – Sea-Beans and Drift Seeds" 3189:Botany: a brief introduction to plant biology 2703:The smallest seeds are produced by epiphytic 2096:that would land and become whole new plants. 1868: 937:Within the seed, there usually is a store of 6381:International Association for Plant Taxonomy 5145: 4291: 4250: 4215: 3322: 3278:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBarthlott1984 ( 3147: 3145: 2257:of the embryo and endosperm differ in their 2136:Microbial transmission from seed to seedling 2080:. The description in 2004 of the proto-seed 161:) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. 5229:Kew Garden's ambitious preservation project 4074:. Springer. 26 December 2007. p. 147. 4071:Photobiology: The Science of Life and Light 4035: 4000: 3987:Bewley, J. Derek, and Michael Black. 1994. 3887:"A classification system for seed dormancy" 3706: 3323:Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. (2001). 3079: 3022: 2940: 2685:was achieved using fruit tissue, not seed.) 2388:. Other seeds that contain poisons include 1552:) which then disperse these seeds in their 981:tissue. The endosperm is surrounded by the 5282: 5268: 5148:"Microstructural Features of Seed Surface" 5076:The biology and evolution of fossil plants 5036: 4334:Plant propagation principles and practices 3978:. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. p. 113. 2460:are also poisonous, containing the poison 1438:) have a wing that aids in wind dispersal. 1184:and starch, and (c) inner epidermis. The 1084:seeds. The exalbuminous seeds include the 653: 328:scales as they develop in some species of 5124: 5053:"Botanical Record-Breakers (Part 1 of 2)" 4892:Chia Joo Suan Food Safety: Seeds of doubt 4843: 4841: 4654: 4631:"The Development of Endosperm in Grasses" 4613: 4545: 4527: 4419: 4367: 4274: 4186: 4184: 4036:Black, Michael H.; Halmer, Peter (2006). 3902: 3496: 3273: 3142: 3111:Galili G; Kigel J (1995). "Chapter One". 3018: 3016: 2307: 823:A typical seed includes two basic parts: 488:), and a bit of the surrounding seed coat 6325:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) 4132: 4130: 3026:Principles and Practices of Seed Storage 2632: 2147: 2131: 1893: 1499: 1477: 1456:) have hairs that aid in wind dispersal. 1416: 1404: 1261: 1129: 878: 859: 799: 780: 684:– three-sided, broadest below the middle 473: 364: 264: 149:have other modifications, the so-called 38: 4739: 4737: 4336:. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 3511: 3210: 2003: 1957: 1914:Far red light can prevent germination. 1400: 988:Originally, by analogy with the animal 804:Diagram of the internal structure of a 645: 492:The main components of the embryo are: 74:. Seeds are the product of the ripened 14: 6511: 4838: 4458: 4181: 3428: 3378:"Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers" 3305:from the original on 24 September 2015 3080:Harshberger, John W. (June 12, 1914). 3013: 2913: 2143: 560:that connects to the primary root and 5263: 4629:Sabelli, P.A.; Larkins, B.A. (2009). 4127: 3139:. New York: Worth Publishers. p. 410. 3051: 2265:of wheat, important in providing the 1409:Dandelion seeds are contained within 1325: 1213:, a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle ( 903:is the fertilised ovule, an immature 4734: 4602:Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 4568: 3388:from the original on 22 January 2014 3045: 2965: 2914:McGhee, George R. Jr. (2013-11-12). 2729:. The seeds are preserved immature 2688:The largest seed is produced by the 2560:in necklaces and rosaries including 1445:are carried efficiently by the wind. 1257: 1036:, or "ruminated" if mottled, as in 808:seed and embryo: (a) seed coat, (b) 274: 2711:and contain underdeveloped embryos. 2249:dominates and provides most of the 2118: 1524:Seeds with a fleshy covering (e.g. 932: 727:(Inflated, but less than spherical) 157:) have a hardened fruit layer (the 24: 5153:Current Concepts in Plant Taxonomy 5000:. 21 February 2012. Archived from 4928:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1990.tb06789.x 2511:seeds. Other seed fibers are from 2273:is strictly an endosperm protein. 2181: 2127: 1970:accumulates as the seeds age. In 872:C. Hilum D. Plumule E. Radicle F. 25: 6545: 6330:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) 5215: 4569:Dunn, Elizabeth G. (2019-03-04). 4044:. Wallingford, UK: CABI. p. 3991:. New York: Plenum Press. p. 230. 3885:Baskin J.M., Baskin C.C. (2004). 2768:speaks of seed germination thus: 2292:Seeds are also eaten by animals ( 2199:for natural forest reproduction. 6493: 6492: 5227:The Millennium Seed Bank Project 5026:from the original on 2012-02-27. 4910:Dhurandhar NV; Chang KC (1990). 4859:from the original on 2017-07-18. 4756:from the original on 2007-09-08. 4596:Cain M.D., Shelton M.G. (2001). 4312:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2007.03151.x 4276:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2010.04285.x 4236:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01548.x 3759:and myrmecochorous Proteaceae". 3723:from the original on 2006-08-18. 3696:from the original on 2006-07-11. 3648:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 195. 3418:from the original on 2014-02-03. 3263:from the original on 2014-02-26. 3113:Seed development and germination 2802: 2788: 2063: 1051:In most monocotyledons (such as 5117: 5104: 5092: 5067: 5045: 5030: 5008: 4986: 4962: 4938: 4903: 4885: 4874:Washington Post January 5, 2005 4863: 4795: 4760: 4711: 4691: 4671: 4622: 4589: 4562: 4503: 4452: 4347: 4326: 4106: 4088: 4062: 3994: 3981: 3968: 3933: 3924: 3911: 3878: 3843: 3796: 3787: 3748: 3700: 3678: 3638: 3595: 3552: 3505: 3468: 3455: 3422: 3400: 3370: 3361: 3343: 3316: 3245: 3179: 3082:"Book Review: Scientific Books" 2628: 2583:Seeds once used as weights for 2202: 915:, two cotyledons in almost all 230:Annales des Sciences Naturelles 5233:The Svalbard Global Seed Vault 5074:Taylor EL; Taylor TMC (1993). 3433:. Cambridge University Press. 3129: 3104: 3073: 2986: 2959: 2934: 2907: 2746: 2352:In addition, seeds containing 2161: 2103:. With this radiation came an 1879: 1204:), hence 'palisade exotesta'. 1119: 752:be described by terms such as 628: 260: 13: 1: 4378:10.1126/science.276.5316.1248 2920:. Columbia University Press. 2900: 2834:List of world's largest seeds 2556:Many seeds have been used as 2496: 2072:Evolution and origin of seeds 1584:is the dispersal of seeds by 1012:, but may also be oily as in 847: 793:), showing the seed coat and 256:(June 1914, Washington, D.C.) 66:, which may include seed and 6371:History of plant systematics 5958:Thorns, spines, and prickles 5039:The Natural History of Palms 4781:10.1016/0735-6757(86)90080-X 3192:. New York: Wiley. pp. 3152:T.T. Kozlowski, ed. (1972). 2692:, or "double coconut palm", 2526:is used in paints. Oil from 1750:Morphophysiological dormancy 1509:) with barbs or hooks (e.g. 1334: 1289: 992:, the outer nucellus layer ( 776: 568: 214:Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 7: 4879:September 15, 2017, at the 4699:Seeds of Doubt: Food Safety 4122:Seed science and technology 3733:Ricklefs, Robert E. (1993) 3481:(J F Gmel.) Pers., Palmae)" 3098:10.1126/science.39.1015.873 3055:Studies in Seeds and Fruits 2781: 2473:), contain proteins called 1994:Poly ADP ribose polymerases 1641: 1225:) or an oily appendage, an 894: 212:1832 seed storage guide in 10: 6550: 6187:Alternation of generations 5289: 4719:Poisonous Plants and Seeds 4400:Environmental Microbiology 4095:Seed Vigor and Vigor Tests 4003:American Journal of Botany 3616:10.1038/s41477-020-00826-5 2941:Mary Bagley (2014-02-22). 2829:Genetically modified crops 2604:seeds used to caulk boats. 2549:and the quack cancer drug 2345:, comes from seeds of the 2311: 2241:. In different seeds the 2225:. Seeds also provide most 2206: 1883: 1872: 1869:Persistence and seed banks 1645: 1338: 1123: 969:. In gymnosperms, such as 572: 358: 270:Stages of seed development 180: 144:, the ovary ripens into a 29: 6488: 6436: 6400: 6337:Cultivated plant taxonomy 6300:Biological classification 6290: 6163: 6079: 5975: 5925: 5650: 5580: 5523: 5485: 5459: 5395: 5315: 5297: 4820:10.5326/15473317-36-3-229 4529:10.1186/s40168-019-0723-5 4481:10.1007/s11104-017-3289-7 3713:Plants & Gardens News 3538:10.1007/s11258-007-9281-1 3429:Rudall, Paula J. (2007). 3231:10.1093/jexbot/51.343.249 2969:Principles of Paleobotany 2894:Selective embryo abortion 2579:Other seed uses include: 2178:seed is priced at $ 270. 469: 373:After fertilization, the 6197:Evolutionary development 5125:Embertson, Jane (1979). 5101:, Genesis 1:12,13, 1611. 4981:National Geographic News 3439:10.1017/CBO9780511801709 3329:. Elsevier. p. 27. 3052:Guppy, Henry B. (1912). 2620:used as animal feed and 1638:seedlings have dropped. 1536:) are eaten by animals ( 1134:Seed coat of pomegranate 1067:) dicotyledons (such as 772:(hard, thin or brittle). 585:and the outer forms the 354: 218:Conservation des Graines 109:). Other plants such as 5848:Hypanthium (Floral cup) 5158:Systematics Association 4421:10.1111/1462-2920.15392 3155:Seed Biology Volume III 3115:. New York: M. Dekker. 2972:. Mittal Publications. 2296:), and are also fed to 1473:samaras have two wings. 1351:vegetative reproduction 1318:acts. Plant seeds hold 1302:to a new location, and 1154:), or fleshy as in the 654:Terms to describe shape 442:, with a curved shape. 220:, part of his 3-volume 6463:by author abbreviation 6387:Plant taxonomy systems 6305:Botanical nomenclature 5057:waynesword.palomar.edu 4576:Bloomberg Businessweek 3461:Smith, Welby R. 1993. 3339:– via google.ca. 3298:The Seed Biology Place 2779: 2762: 2645: 2308:Poison and food safety 2158: 2137: 2105:evolution of seed size 2101:evolutionary radiation 1929:germination percentage 1903: 1814:combinational dormancy 1794:Physiological dormancy 1724:morphological dormancy 1682:occurs when seeds are 1604:, and many species of 1441:The dustlike seeds of 1430: 1414: 1267: 1135: 1126:Scarification (botany) 891: 876: 820: 797: 768:. Other terms include 489: 410:, the remnant of the 397:or fruit wall, at the 370: 320: 47: 6470:Botanical expeditions 4968:Roach, John. (2005) " 4647:10.1104/pp.108.129437 3919:Plant Species Biology 3891:Seed Science Research 3852:Seed Science Research 3735:The Economy of Nature 2770: 2757: 2636: 2314:Category:Plant toxins 2312:Further information: 2207:Further information: 2151: 2135: 1897: 1873:Further information: 1500:By animals (zoochory) 1483:Some plants, such as 1478:By water (hydrochory) 1420: 1408: 1314:variability on which 1265: 1133: 1104:, vegetables such as 1096:), trees such as the 996:) was referred to as 882: 863: 803: 784: 477: 368: 268: 133:both in hot and cold 42: 32:Seed (disambiguation) 6202:Evolutionary history 6192:Double fertilization 6044:Cellular respiration 4808:J Am Anim Hosp Assoc 4615:10.1093/sjaf/25.1.40 3707:Marinelli J (1999). 3561:Agroforestry Systems 3514:Maianthemum bifolium 3463:Orchids of Minnesota 3357:. 1888. p. 155. 2819:Biological dispersal 2456:. The seeds of the 2209:List of edible seeds 2082:Runcaria heinzelinii 2004:Inducing germination 1958:Repair of DNA damage 1401:By wind (anemochory) 951:double fertilization 646:Shape and appearance 340:double fertilization 307:Mature Embryo 239:Annales Agronomiques 30:For other uses, see 5421:Non-vascular plants 5160:. pp. 95–105. 5037:Corner EJH (1966). 4849:"Almond/Almond Oil" 4473:2018PlSoi.422....7N 4412:2021EnvMi..23.2199A 4362:(5316): 1248–1250. 4197:Folia Biol. (Praha) 4151:1978Natur.272..593C 3821:1995JEcol..83.1031V 3757:Iridomyrmex humilis 3573:1996AgrSy..35...95S 3530:2007PlEco.194..149K 3498:10.1155/2012/687832 2966:Bora, Lily (2010). 2739:Elkinsia polymorpha 2237:and some important 2144:Economic importance 1467:achenes have hairs. 1308:sexual reproduction 387:funiculus, funiculi 201:evolved during the 6529:Plant reproduction 5926:Surface structures 5721:Flower development 5099:King James Version 4975:2007-02-03 at the 4897:2008-04-29 at the 4730:Healthy Child Care 4724:2007-10-12 at the 4704:2008-04-29 at the 4684:2009-09-09 at the 4100:2006-09-12 at the 3904:10.1079/ssr2003150 3864:10.1079/ssr2003128 3809:Journal of Ecology 3581:10.1007/BF02345331 3479:Lodoicea maldivica 3033:on 7 February 2023 2999:. Academic Press. 2694:Lodoicea maldivica 2675:Silene stenophylla 2646: 2507:grows attached to 2487:trypsin inhibitors 2470:Phaseolus vulgaris 2320:chemical compounds 2269:property to bread 2159: 2154:Phaseolus vulgaris 2138: 1904: 1820:Secondary dormancy 1631:Mimetes cucullatus 1622:Linepithema humile 1434:Some seeds (e.g., 1431: 1415: 1326:Embryo nourishment 1268: 1136: 1004:, as for instance 892: 877: 821: 798: 764:is referred to as 490: 371: 321: 48: 6506: 6505: 6145:Herbaceous plants 5971: 5970: 5167:978-0-12-347060-7 5085:978-0-13-651589-0 5004:on 22 March 2014. 4717:Clelland, Mike. " 4145:(5654): 593–599. 4055:978-0-85199-723-0 3671:978-0-520-24003-2 3485:Journal of Botany 3448:978-0-521-69245-8 3336:978-0-12-080263-0 3203:978-0-471-02114-8 3165:978-0-323-15067-5 3137:Biology of plants 3122:978-0-8247-9229-9 3092:(1015): 873–874. 3006:978-0-08-055783-0 2979:978-81-8293-024-7 2927:978-0-231-16057-5 2839:Recalcitrant seed 2386:cyanide poisoning 2341:A deadly poison, 1711:Chemical dormancy 1676:Physical dormancy 1448:Some seeds (e.g. 1427:Asclepias syriaca 1316:natural selection 1277:mycorrhizal fungi 1258:Size and seed set 957:, and is rich in 838:In addition, the 311: 310: 187:first land plants 169:seed, such as an 16:(Redirected from 6541: 6496: 6495: 6475:Individual trees 6150:Secondary growth 6121:Succulent plants 6109:Prostrate shrubs 5992:Apical dominance 5977:Plant physiology 5938:Epicuticular wax 5483: 5482: 5476: 5467:Plant morphology 5284: 5277: 5270: 5261: 5260: 5171: 5142: 5111: 5108: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5071: 5065: 5064: 5059:. Archived from 5049: 5043: 5042: 5034: 5028: 5027: 5012: 5006: 5005: 4990: 4984: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4930:. Archived from 4907: 4901: 4889: 4883: 4872:Seeds of Anxiety 4867: 4861: 4860: 4845: 4836: 4835: 4830:. Archived from 4799: 4793: 4792: 4764: 4758: 4757: 4741: 4732: 4715: 4709: 4697:Chia Joo Suan, " 4695: 4689: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4658: 4635:Plant Physiology 4626: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4583: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4549: 4531: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4423: 4406:(4): 2199–2214. 4391: 4382: 4381: 4371: 4351: 4345: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4278: 4254: 4248: 4247: 4219: 4213: 4212: 4188: 4179: 4178: 4159:10.1038/272593a0 4134: 4125: 4110: 4104: 4092: 4086: 4085: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4043: 4033: 4027: 4026: 3998: 3992: 3985: 3979: 3972: 3966: 3963: 3954: 3951: 3940: 3937: 3931: 3928: 3922: 3915: 3909: 3908: 3906: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3815:(6): 1031–1037. 3800: 3794: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3767:(4): 1031–1037. 3752: 3746: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3655: 3649: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3509: 3503: 3502: 3500: 3472: 3466: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3426: 3420: 3419: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3382:5e.plantphys.net 3374: 3368: 3365: 3359: 3358: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3293: 3284: 3283: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3225:(343): 249–264. 3214: 3208: 3207: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3149: 3140: 3133: 3127: 3126: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3077: 3071: 3070: 3068: 3066: 3060: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3020: 3011: 3010: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2963: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2953: 2938: 2932: 2931: 2911: 2849:Seed enhancement 2812: 2807: 2806: 2798: 2793: 2792: 2658:Judean date palm 2336:digestive system 2119:True to the seed 1933:germination rate 1421:The seed pod of 1275:which depend on 1273:mycoheterotrophs 953:. It is usually 933:Nutrient storage 911:or seed leaf in 667: 666: 478:The inside of a 275: 142:flowering plants 105:in seed plants ( 46:of various seeds 21: 6549: 6548: 6544: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6539: 6538: 6534:Plant sexuality 6509: 6508: 6507: 6502: 6484: 6453:Botanical terms 6446: 6432: 6396: 6342:Citrus taxonomy 6320:Author citation 6286: 6180: 6159: 6081: 6075: 6071:Turgor pressure 5979: 5967: 5921: 5736:Floral symmetry 5654: 5646: 5576: 5565:Vascular bundle 5560:Vascular tissue 5519: 5479: 5470: 5469: 5455: 5426:Vascular plants 5391: 5387:Plant pathology 5311: 5293: 5288: 5218: 5213: 5168: 5139: 5120: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5105: 5097: 5093: 5086: 5072: 5068: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5035: 5031: 5014: 5013: 5009: 4998:Telegraph.co.uk 4992: 4991: 4987: 4977:Wayback Machine 4967: 4963: 4954: 4952: 4944: 4943: 4939: 4908: 4904: 4899:Wayback Machine 4890: 4886: 4881:Wayback Machine 4868: 4864: 4847: 4846: 4839: 4800: 4796: 4765: 4761: 4742: 4735: 4726:Wayback Machine 4716: 4712: 4706:Wayback Machine 4696: 4692: 4686:Wayback Machine 4676: 4672: 4627: 4623: 4594: 4590: 4581: 4579: 4567: 4563: 4508: 4504: 4457: 4453: 4392: 4385: 4352: 4348: 4331: 4327: 4296: 4292: 4255: 4251: 4220: 4216: 4189: 4182: 4135: 4128: 4111: 4107: 4102:Wayback Machine 4093: 4089: 4082: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4056: 4034: 4030: 4015:10.2307/2442185 3999: 3995: 3986: 3982: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3957: 3952: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3925: 3916: 3912: 3883: 3879: 3848: 3844: 3829:10.2307/2261184 3801: 3797: 3792: 3788: 3773:10.2307/1938311 3753: 3749: 3732: 3728: 3705: 3701: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3672: 3656: 3652: 3643: 3639: 3600: 3596: 3557: 3553: 3510: 3506: 3473: 3469: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3427: 3423: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3391: 3389: 3376: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3362: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3321: 3317: 3308: 3306: 3295: 3294: 3287: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3251: 3250: 3246: 3215: 3211: 3204: 3184: 3180: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3150: 3143: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3109: 3105: 3078: 3074: 3064: 3062: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3036: 3034: 3021: 3014: 3007: 2991: 2987: 2980: 2964: 2960: 2951: 2949: 2947:livescience.com 2939: 2935: 2928: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2898: 2808: 2801: 2794: 2787: 2784: 2753:Book of Genesis 2749: 2662:Herod the Great 2631: 2618:Cottonseed meal 2534:are similar to 2499: 2485:, also contain 2458:strychnine tree 2316: 2310: 2300:or provided as 2211: 2205: 2184: 2182:Seed production 2164: 2146: 2130: 2128:Seed microbiome 2121: 2074: 2066: 2006: 1984:. A plant DNA 1960: 1892: 1884:Main articles: 1882: 1877: 1871: 1680:hard seed coats 1650: 1644: 1502: 1480: 1403: 1343: 1337: 1328: 1292: 1260: 1128: 1122: 1077:non-endospermic 935: 897: 853:obliterate it. 850: 785:The parts of a 779: 664: 663: 656: 648: 631: 578: 571: 486:megagametophyte 472: 363: 357: 312: 303: 298: 287: 282: 263: 241:, October 1897) 183: 44:Photomicrograph 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6547: 6537: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6500: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6466: 6465: 6455: 6449: 6447: 6445: 6444: 6443:Related topics 6441: 6437: 6434: 6433: 6431: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6404: 6402: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6394: 6392:Taxonomic rank 6389: 6384: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6367: 6366: 6365: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6344: 6334: 6333: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6310:Botanical name 6302: 6296: 6294: 6292:Plant taxonomy 6288: 6287: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6268:Megasporangium 6265: 6264: 6263: 6256:Microsporangia 6248: 6247: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6210: 6209: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6183: 6181: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6167: 6161: 6160: 6158: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6141: 6140: 6139: 6138: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6117: 6116: 6111: 6101: 6096: 6094:Cushion plants 6085: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6047: 6046: 6041: 6031: 6029:Plant hormones 6026: 6021: 6020: 6019: 6012:Photosynthesis 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5983: 5981: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5929: 5927: 5923: 5922: 5920: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5898: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5877: 5876: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5850: 5845: 5844: 5843: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5793: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5760: 5755: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5731:Floral formula 5728: 5726:Floral diagram 5723: 5718: 5708: 5707: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5695: 5694: 5689: 5679: 5669: 5664: 5658: 5656: 5655:(incl. Flower) 5648: 5647: 5645: 5644: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5615: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5584: 5582: 5578: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5569: 5568: 5567: 5557: 5555:Storage organs 5552: 5547: 5546: 5545: 5535: 5529: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5491: 5489: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5441:Spermatophytes 5438: 5433: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5411:Archaeplastida 5408: 5402: 5400: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5373: 5372: 5365:Phytogeography 5362: 5360:Phytochemistry 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5321: 5319: 5317:Subdisciplines 5313: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5304: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5287: 5286: 5279: 5272: 5264: 5258: 5257: 5252: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5230: 5224: 5217: 5216:External links 5214: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5189: 5177: 5172: 5166: 5143: 5137: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5103: 5091: 5084: 5066: 5063:on 2010-12-19. 5044: 5029: 5007: 4985: 4983:, 22 November. 4961: 4937: 4934:on 2013-01-05. 4922:(2): 470–474. 4902: 4884: 4862: 4837: 4834:on 2012-08-02. 4814:(3): 229–233. 4794: 4775:(3): 259–261. 4769:Am J Emerg Med 4759: 4733: 4710: 4690: 4679:Seed Marketing 4670: 4621: 4588: 4561: 4502: 4461:Plant and Soil 4451: 4383: 4346: 4344:. pp. 175–177. 4325: 4306:(3): 341–351. 4290: 4269:(5): 848–860. 4249: 4230:(3): 511–528. 4214: 4180: 4126: 4120:. pp. 120–121. 4105: 4087: 4080: 4061: 4054: 4028: 4009:(8): 891–895. 3993: 3980: 3967: 3955: 3941: 3932: 3923: 3910: 3877: 3842: 3795: 3786: 3747: 3726: 3699: 3677: 3670: 3650: 3637: 3594: 3551: 3524:(2): 149–156. 3504: 3467: 3454: 3447: 3421: 3399: 3369: 3360: 3342: 3335: 3315: 3285: 3274:Barthlott 1984 3266: 3244: 3209: 3202: 3178: 3164: 3141: 3128: 3121: 3103: 3072: 3044: 3012: 3005: 2985: 2978: 2958: 2933: 2926: 2905: 2904: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2889:Soil seed bank 2886: 2881: 2876: 2871: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2841: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2815: 2814: 2813: 2799: 2796:Biology portal 2783: 2780: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2712: 2701: 2696:. The entire 2686: 2630: 2627: 2626: 2625: 2615: 2605: 2595: 2588: 2498: 2495: 2414:horse-chestnut 2328:seed predators 2322:to discourage 2309: 2306: 2294:seed predation 2253:. The storage 2239:food additives 2204: 2201: 2193:shortleaf pine 2183: 2180: 2163: 2160: 2145: 2142: 2129: 2126: 2120: 2117: 2109:monocotyledons 2073: 2070: 2065: 2062: 2034:Stratification 2027:Microorganisms 2005: 2002: 1959: 1956: 1881: 1878: 1870: 1867: 1851: 1850: 1846:Thermodormancy 1843: 1824: 1823: 1817: 1812:In seeds with 1810: 1809: 1808: 1791: 1747: 1716: 1715: 1708: 1697:Convulvulaceae 1646:Main article: 1643: 1640: 1577: 1576: 1557: 1522: 1501: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1468: 1458: 1457: 1446: 1439: 1402: 1399: 1341:Seed dispersal 1339:Main article: 1336: 1333: 1327: 1324: 1291: 1288: 1259: 1256: 1121: 1118: 1018:(castor oil), 934: 931: 913:monocotyledons 896: 893: 885:monocotyledons 883:Comparison of 849: 846: 836: 835: 832: 778: 775: 774: 773: 745: 743: 738: 733: 728: 722: 713: 708: 699: 685: 679: 669: 655: 652: 647: 644: 630: 627: 570: 567: 546: 545: 536: 527: 520: 511: 504:Monocotyledons 471: 468: 448:Campylotropous 436: 435: 426: 415: 412:megasporangium 404: 359:Main article: 356: 353: 309: 308: 292: 273: 262: 259: 258: 257: 246:Henry B. Guppy 242: 235: 225: 182: 179: 125:on land, from 107:spermatophytes 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6546: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6499: 6491: 6490: 6487: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6464: 6461: 6460: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6435: 6429: 6428:Phytochemical 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6405: 6403: 6399: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6295: 6293: 6289: 6281: 6278: 6274: 6271: 6270: 6269: 6266: 6262: 6259: 6258: 6257: 6254: 6253: 6252: 6249: 6245: 6242: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6226: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6215: 6212: 6208: 6205: 6204: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6162: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6091: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6078: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6066:Transpiration 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5924: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5874: 5871: 5869: 5866: 5864: 5861: 5859: 5856: 5855: 5854: 5853:Inflorescence 5851: 5849: 5846: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5820: 5819: 5818: 5815: 5814: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5795: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5780: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5749: 5746: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5674: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5544: 5541: 5540: 5539: 5538:Ground tissue 5536: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5484: 5481: 5474: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5461:Plant anatomy 5458: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5382:Plant ecology 5380: 5378: 5377:Plant anatomy 5375: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5325:Archaeobotany 5323: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5314: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5296: 5292: 5285: 5280: 5278: 5273: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5262: 5256: 5253: 5250: 5249:The Seed Site 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5231: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5219: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5199:0-521-20688-X 5196: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5187:0-85199-906-9 5184: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5169: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5140: 5138:0-684-15543-5 5134: 5130: 5129: 5123: 5122: 5107: 5100: 5095: 5087: 5081: 5077: 5070: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5048: 5040: 5033: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4989: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4971: 4965: 4951: 4950:sites.psu.edu 4947: 4941: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4888: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4844: 4842: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4738: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4720: 4714: 4707: 4703: 4700: 4694: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4674: 4666: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4625: 4616: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4578: 4577: 4572: 4565: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4390: 4388: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4369:10.1.1.3.2708 4365: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4343: 4342:0-13-681007-1 4339: 4335: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4187: 4185: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4131: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4103: 4099: 4096: 4091: 4083: 4081:9780387726557 4077: 4073: 4072: 4065: 4057: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4041: 4032: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3990: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3962: 3960: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3936: 3927: 3920: 3914: 3905: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3858:(2): 97–100. 3857: 3853: 3846: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3799: 3790: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3743:0-7167-2409-X 3740: 3736: 3730: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3703: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3673: 3667: 3663: 3662: 3654: 3647: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3604:Nature Plants 3598: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3567:(1): 95–110. 3566: 3562: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3518:Plant Ecology 3515: 3508: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3480: 3471: 3464: 3458: 3450: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3425: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3403: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3364: 3356: 3352: 3346: 3338: 3332: 3328: 3327: 3319: 3304: 3300: 3299: 3292: 3290: 3281: 3275: 3270: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3205: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3190: 3182: 3167: 3161: 3157: 3156: 3148: 3146: 3138: 3132: 3124: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3076: 3057: 3056: 3048: 3032: 3028: 3027: 3019: 3017: 3008: 3002: 2998: 2997: 2989: 2981: 2975: 2971: 2970: 2962: 2948: 2944: 2937: 2929: 2923: 2919: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2895: 2892: 2890: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2880: 2877: 2875: 2872: 2870: 2867: 2865: 2862: 2860: 2857: 2855: 2852: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2816: 2811: 2810:Plants portal 2805: 2800: 2797: 2791: 2786: 2778: 2775: 2769: 2767: 2761: 2756: 2754: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2727:West Virginia 2724: 2721: 2717: 2714:The earliest 2713: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2677: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2664:'s palace on 2663: 2659: 2655: 2652: 2651:oldest viable 2648: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2503: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2471: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2398:custard apple 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2366:bitter almond 2363: 2359: 2355: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2315: 2305: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2189:loblolly pine 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2156: 2155: 2150: 2141: 2134: 2125: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2097: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2069: 2064:Sterile seeds 2061: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2019: 2018: 2017:Scarification 2013: 2011: 2010:seed dormancy 2001: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1955: 1953: 1947: 1945: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1930: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1912: 1908: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1876: 1875:Seed dormancy 1866: 1864: 1859: 1856: 1847: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1835:Photodormancy 1833: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1811: 1806: 1803: 1802: 1800: 1799:Abscisic acid 1795: 1792: 1788: 1787: 1782: 1781: 1776: 1775:Ranunculaceae 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1759:Aquifoliaceae 1756: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1744:Ranunculaceae 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1720: 1719: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1689:Anacardiaceae 1685: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1672: 1669: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1649: 1648:Seed dormancy 1639: 1637: 1633: 1632: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1618:Argentine ant 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1582: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1503: 1494: 1493: 1488: 1487: 1482: 1481: 1472: 1469: 1466: 1463: 1462: 1461: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1437: 1433: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1412: 1407: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1342: 1332: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1287: 1285: 1284: 1278: 1274: 1264: 1255: 1253: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1230: 1229: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1132: 1127: 1117: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1022: 1017: 1016: 1011: 1007: 1006:cereal grains 1003: 999: 995: 991: 986: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 930: 928: 927: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 890: 886: 881: 875: 871: 867: 862: 858: 854: 845: 843: 842: 833: 830: 826: 825: 824: 819: 815: 811: 807: 802: 796: 792: 788: 783: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 750: 746: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 726: 723: 721: 717: 714: 712: 709: 706: 703: 700: 697: 693: 689: 686: 683: 680: 677: 673: 670: 661: 658: 657: 651: 643: 641: 637: 626: 623: 617: 615: 610: 606: 602: 601: 596: 592: 588: 584: 576: 566: 563: 559: 558: 553: 552: 543: 542: 537: 534: 533: 528: 525: 521: 518: 517: 512: 509: 505: 501: 500: 495: 494: 493: 487: 483: 482: 476: 467: 465: 459: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 433: 432: 427: 424: 420: 416: 413: 409: 405: 402: 401: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 379: 378: 376: 367: 362: 352: 350: 345: 341: 337: 333: 331: 327: 319: 315: 306: 301: 296: 293: 290: 285: 280: 277: 276: 271: 267: 255: 251: 248:'s 528 page " 247: 243: 240: 236: 233: 231: 226: 223: 219: 215: 211: 210: 209: 206: 204: 203:Carboniferous 200: 196: 192: 188: 178: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 153:(such as the 152: 147: 143: 138: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 99: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6423:Horticulture 6413:Floriculture 6315:Correct name 6165:Reproduction 6155:Woody plants 6080:Plant growth 6039:Gas Exchange 6024:Phytomelanin 5902:Plant embryo 5777: 5652:Reproductive 5500:Phragmoplast 5152: 5127: 5118:Bibliography 5106: 5094: 5075: 5069: 5061:the original 5056: 5047: 5038: 5032: 5020:sci-news.com 5019: 5010: 5002:the original 4997: 4988: 4980: 4964: 4953:. Retrieved 4949: 4940: 4932:the original 4919: 4915: 4905: 4887: 4871: 4865: 4852: 4832:the original 4811: 4807: 4797: 4772: 4768: 4762: 4749: 4729: 4713: 4693: 4673: 4641:(1): 14–26. 4638: 4634: 4624: 4608:(1): 40–45. 4605: 4601: 4591: 4580:. Retrieved 4574: 4564: 4519: 4515: 4505: 4464: 4460: 4454: 4403: 4399: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4333: 4328: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4266: 4262: 4252: 4227: 4223: 4217: 4203:(2): 50–54. 4200: 4196: 4192: 4142: 4138: 4121: 4108: 4090: 4070: 4064: 4039: 4031: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3988: 3983: 3975: 3970: 3935: 3926: 3918: 3913: 3894: 3890: 3880: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3812: 3808: 3798: 3789: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3750: 3734: 3729: 3716: 3712: 3702: 3689: 3680: 3660: 3653: 3645: 3640: 3610:(1): 60–72. 3607: 3603: 3597: 3564: 3560: 3554: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3507: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3470: 3462: 3457: 3430: 3424: 3411: 3402: 3390:. Retrieved 3381: 3372: 3363: 3354: 3345: 3325: 3318: 3307:, retrieved 3297: 3269: 3256: 3253:"Seed shape" 3247: 3222: 3218: 3212: 3188: 3181: 3169:. Retrieved 3158:. Elsevier. 3154: 3136: 3131: 3112: 3106: 3089: 3085: 3075: 3063:. Retrieved 3054: 3047: 3035:. Retrieved 3031:the original 3025: 2995: 2988: 2968: 2961: 2950:. Retrieved 2946: 2936: 2916: 2909: 2874:Seed testing 2859:Seed orchard 2854:Seed library 2844:Seed company 2771: 2763: 2758: 2750: 2737: 2693: 2673: 2637:The massive 2629:Seed records 2598: 2578: 2555: 2547:tea tree oil 2540: 2521: 2509:cotton plant 2500: 2468: 2466: 2410:golden chain 2351: 2340: 2317: 2291: 2278:forest trees 2275: 2227:cooking oils 2212: 2203:Edible seeds 2185: 2165: 2152: 2139: 2122: 2113:dicotyledons 2098: 2081: 2075: 2067: 2054: 2047:and melting 2040: 2039: 2032: 2031: 2015: 2014: 2007: 1975: 1962:During seed 1961: 1948: 1941: 1938: 1932: 1928: 1926: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1898:Germinating 1860: 1852: 1845: 1834: 1825: 1819: 1813: 1804: 1793: 1784: 1778: 1771:Papaveraceae 1767:Magnoliaceae 1749: 1740:Magnoliaceae 1723: 1717: 1710: 1679: 1675: 1670: 1666: 1663: 1651: 1635: 1629: 1621: 1614:South Africa 1581:Myrmecochory 1579: 1578: 1490: 1484: 1459: 1426: 1344: 1329: 1293: 1281: 1269: 1249: 1247: 1242: 1232: 1226: 1208: 1206: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1179: 1167: 1163: 1148:honey locust 1137: 1082:exalbuminous 1081: 1076: 1069:castor beans 1064: 1060: 1059:) and some ( 1050: 1019: 1013: 987: 936: 924: 917:dicotyledons 898: 889:dicotyledons 855: 851: 839: 837: 834:a seed coat. 822: 769: 765: 748: 740: 735: 730: 724: 715: 710: 704: 701: 695: 691: 687: 681: 675: 671: 659: 649: 632: 621: 618: 608: 604: 598: 586: 582: 579: 575:Seed coating 562:adventitious 555: 549: 547: 539: 530: 523: 514: 508:Dicotyledons 497: 491: 479: 460: 455: 452:amphitropous 451: 447: 444:Orthotropous 443: 439: 437: 429: 418: 407: 398: 386: 382: 372: 334: 322: 317: 313: 304: 299: 294: 288: 283: 278: 269: 253: 249: 238: 228: 221: 217: 207: 184: 151:stone fruits 139: 103:reproduction 100: 94:, forming a 78:, after the 55: 49: 36: 6239:Pollen tube 6234:Pollinators 6224:Pollination 6219:Germination 6034:Respiration 6017:Chlorophyll 5863:Pedicellate 5797:Gametophyte 5716:Aestivation 5667:Antheridium 5662:Archegonium 5510:Plasmodesma 5487:Plant cells 5350:Paleobotany 5345:Ethnobotany 5330:Astrobotany 4870:Wolke, RL. 4688:, FAO, Rome 4467:(1): 7–34. 3690:seabean.com 3412:gramene.org 3257:anbg.gov.au 3171:17 February 2869:Seed saving 2747:In religion 2690:coco de mer 2643:coco de mer 2597:Resin from 2574:castor bean 2562:Job's tears 2524:Linseed oil 2446:sugar apple 2404:, uncooked 2347:castor bean 2282:turfgrasses 2243:seed embryo 2162:Seed market 1990:Arabidopsis 1952:germination 1946:emergence. 1890:Germination 1880:Germination 1828:Germination 1684:impermeable 1659:bet-hedging 1283:coco de mer 1160:pomegranate 1140:integuments 1073:germination 1061:endospermic 975:gametophyte 770:crustaceous 660:Bean-shaped 629:Gymnosperms 614:tanniferous 506:), or two ( 423:pollen tube 349:germination 291:Globular 261:Development 232:; Botanique 191:gymnosperms 167:indehiscent 58:is a plant 6513:Categories 6261:Microspore 6251:Sporangium 6229:Artificial 5917:Sporophyte 5912:Sporophyll 5907:Receptacle 5802:Gynandrium 5672:Androecium 5581:Vegetative 5451:Angiosperm 5446:Gymnosperm 5340:Dendrology 4955:2023-07-30 4916:J Food Sci 4582:2019-03-07 4522:(1): 108. 4516:Microbiome 4224:New Phytol 4193:Vicia faba 3921:15:139–152 3309:13 October 3065:5 February 3037:7 February 2952:2022-01-02 2901:References 2864:Seed paper 2683:permafrost 2622:fertilizer 2608:Nematicide 2570:rosary pea 2566:Chinaberry 2543:castor oil 2497:Other uses 2462:strychnine 2438:rosary pea 2324:herbivores 2259:amino acid 1982:DNA repair 1977:Vicia faba 1968:DNA damage 1922:Seed vigor 1732:Cycadaceae 1606:Proteaceae 1590:elaiosomes 1320:endophytic 1217:), (as in 1186:endotegmen 1156:sarcotesta 1124:See also: 1114:sunflowers 1065:albuminous 1046:Annonaceae 848:Seed types 758:digitiform 731:Lenticular 725:Subglobose 682:Triangular 595:homologous 557:coleorhiza 551:coleoptile 499:cotyledons 464:micropylar 440:anatropous 393:and hence 336:Angiosperm 199:seed ferns 131:grasslands 119:liverworts 84:fertilized 80:embryo sac 6458:Botanists 6376:Herbarium 6273:Megaspore 6171:Evolution 6114:Subshrubs 6082:and habit 6007:Nutrition 6002:Cellulose 5997:Bulk flow 5980:Materials 5943:Epidermis 5807:Gynoecium 5788:Endosperm 5783:Dispersal 5699:Staminode 5635:Sessility 5623:Cataphyll 5543:Mesophyll 5495:Cell wall 5436:Lycophyte 5416:Bryophyte 5370:Geobotany 5355:Phycology 4853:drugs.com 4677:G. Mumby 4538:2049-2618 4489:1573-5036 4446:231576517 4430:1462-2920 4364:CiteSeerX 4118:0251-0952 3632:230508404 3355:google.ca 3219:J Exp Bot 2879:Seed trap 2824:Carpology 2709:endosperm 2654:carbon-14 2536:whale oil 2430:nectarine 2354:amygdalin 2298:livestock 2251:nutrients 2247:endosperm 2231:beverages 2197:seedlings 2168:DowDuPont 2023:digestion 1902:seedlings 1900:sunflower 1855:mangroves 1763:Liliaceae 1736:Liliaceae 1705:Malvaceae 1693:Cannaceae 1655:herbivory 1610:mutualism 1598:trilliums 1594:bloodroot 1554:droppings 1465:Dandelion 1383:caryopses 1363:follicles 1355:dehiscent 1335:Dispersal 1312:phenotype 1300:dispersal 1290:Functions 1243:caruncles 1234:Corydalis 1228:elaiosome 1215:funiculus 1194:endotesta 1190:exotegmen 1175:sclereids 1172:lignified 1168:unitegmic 1120:Seed coat 1088:(such as 1075:. In the 994:perisperm 947:endosperm 939:nutrients 926:scutellum 909:cotyledon 874:Endosperm 870:Cotyledon 866:Scutellum 841:endosperm 818:hypocotyl 814:cotyledon 810:endosperm 777:Structure 754:papillate 741:Sectoroid 720:spherical 711:Ellipsoid 609:Gossypium 569:Seed coat 532:hypocotyl 456:funiculus 419:micropyle 344:endosperm 286:Proembryo 18:Seed coat 6498:Category 6418:Forestry 6408:Agronomy 6401:Practice 6352:Cultivar 6347:Cultigen 6207:timeline 6099:Rosettes 5987:Aleurone 5963:Trichome 5880:Perianth 5692:Filament 5550:Meristem 5473:glossary 5335:Bryology 5024:Archived 4973:Archived 4895:Archived 4877:Archived 4857:Archived 4828:10825094 4754:Archived 4750:tamu.edu 4722:Archived 4702:Archived 4682:Archived 4665:19126691 4556:31340847 4497:38490116 4438:33427409 4320:17587307 4285:20584150 4244:16313635 4209:11321247 4167:19213149 4098:Archived 3897:: 1–16. 3872:85950260 3721:Archived 3694:Archived 3624:33398157 3546:31774027 3491:: 1–13. 3416:Archived 3386:Archived 3303:archived 3261:Archived 3239:10938831 2782:See also 2723:Devonian 2680:Siberian 2612:milkweed 2585:balances 2551:Laetrile 2517:milkweed 2450:wisteria 2442:sour sop 2434:rambutan 2422:locoweed 2418:larkspur 2356: – 2302:birdseed 2255:proteins 2172:Monsanto 2086:Givetian 2078:Devonian 2058:thiourea 2041:Leaching 1998:dormancy 1980:undergo 1964:dormancy 1886:Seedling 1786:Trillium 1755:Apiaceae 1728:Apiaceae 1701:Fabaceae 1642:Dormancy 1569:hazelnut 1546:reptiles 1450:milkweed 1423:milkweed 1395:utricles 1375:siliques 1371:silicles 1359:capsules 1347:disperse 1304:dormancy 1202:Fabaceae 1198:exotesta 1164:bitegmic 983:aleurone 971:conifers 955:triploid 943:seedling 941:for the 789:seed (a 766:suberose 688:Elliptic 665:reniform 622:palisade 591:pericarp 516:epicotyl 408:nucellus 400:pericarp 391:placenta 195:Devonian 175:hazelnut 159:endocarp 135:climates 6176:Ecology 5933:Cuticle 5763:Capsule 5753:Anatomy 5704:Tapetum 5628:Petiole 5603:Rhizome 5598:Rhizoid 5525:Tissues 5515:Vacuole 5505:Plastid 5307:Outline 5302:History 4789:3964368 4656:2613697 4547:6651914 4469:Bibcode 4408:Bibcode 4356:Science 4300:Plant J 4263:Plant J 4175:4208828 4147:Bibcode 4023:2442185 3837:2261184 3817:Bibcode 3781:1938311 3761:Ecology 3589:2328584 3569:Bibcode 3526:Bibcode 3086:Science 2884:Seedbed 2733:of the 2705:orchids 2641:of the 2592:Conkers 2491:trypsin 2483:soybean 2479:cooking 2475:lectins 2362:apricot 2332:mustard 2286:pasture 2267:elastic 2245:or the 2229:, many 2219:legumes 2215:cereals 2090:Belgium 2084:in the 1944:radicle 1863:annuals 1636:Mimetes 1626:invaded 1602:acacias 1559:Seeds ( 1542:mammals 1534:juniper 1515:burdock 1505:Seeds ( 1492:Dioclea 1443:orchids 1411:achenes 1391:samaras 1379:achenes 1367:legumes 1231:(as in 1152:coconut 1086:legumes 1053:grasses 1015:Ricinus 1010:coconut 998:albumen 979:haploid 967:protein 749:Striate 716:Globose 702:Discoid 696:Obovate 541:radicle 524:plumule 431:chalaza 383:funicle 330:conifer 302:Torpedo 254:Science 244:1912's 181:History 140:In the 127:forests 6524:Botany 6480:Plants 6383:(IAPT) 6136:Lianas 6104:Shrubs 6056:Starch 5948:Nectar 5868:Raceme 5834:Stigma 5822:Locule 5812:Carpel 5773:Pyrena 5711:Flower 5687:Anther 5682:Stamen 5677:Pollen 5399:groups 5291:Botany 5197: 5185: 5164: 5135: 5082: 4826: 4787: 4663: 4653: 4554: 4544: 4536: 4495: 4487: 4444: 4436: 4428: 4366: 4340: 4318: 4283: 4242: 4207: 4173: 4165: 4139:Nature 4116: 4078: 4052: 4021: 3870: 3835: 3779: 3741: 3668: 3630: 3622: 3587: 3544: 3445: 3333: 3237: 3200: 3162: 3119: 3003: 2976: 2924: 2777:truth? 2772:It is 2731:ovules 2716:fossil 2670:Israel 2666:Masada 2614:seeds. 2600:Clusia 2572:, and 2532:crambe 2528:jojoba 2502:Cotton 2452:, and 2426:lychee 2406:durian 2402:datura 2394:cotton 2390:annona 2382:quince 2378:cherry 2284:, and 2263:gluten 2235:spices 2094:spores 1986:ligase 1805:Drying 1780:Asarum 1624:) has 1616:, the 1592:(e.g. 1573:walnut 1565:acorns 1530:cherry 1511:acaena 1486:Mucuna 1454:poplar 1393:, and 1296:embryo 1239:cotton 1223:nutmeg 1182:tannin 1144:peanut 1112:, and 1110:radish 1106:squash 1102:walnut 1038:nutmeg 1034:coffee 1021:Croton 1002:starch 965:, and 963:starch 921:grains 901:embryo 895:Embryo 829:embryo 816:, (d) 812:, (c) 795:embryo 676:Oblong 672:Square 640:spruce 583:tegmen 481:Ginkgo 470:Embryo 375:ovules 281:Zygote 123:niches 115:mosses 96:zygote 92:pollen 60:embryo 52:botany 6519:Seeds 6440:Lists 6357:Group 6280:Spore 6214:Flora 6131:Vines 6126:Trees 6089:Habit 6061:Sugar 5953:Stoma 5895:Sepal 5890:Petal 5885:Tepal 5873:Umbel 5858:Bract 5839:Style 5827:Ovule 5817:Ovary 5758:Berry 5748:Fruit 5741:Whorl 5608:Shoot 5406:Algae 5397:Plant 4493:S2CID 4442:S2CID 4171:S2CID 4019:JSTOR 3868:S2CID 3833:JSTOR 3777:JSTOR 3719:(1). 3628:S2CID 3585:S2CID 3542:S2CID 3392:7 May 3059:(PDF) 2774:Allah 2766:Quran 2735:plant 2698:fruit 2639:fruit 2610:from 2602:rosea 2558:beads 2513:kapok 2505:fiber 2370:peach 2358:apple 2343:ricin 2271:dough 1842:soil. 1839:light 1538:birds 1526:apple 1507:burrs 1471:Maple 1251:hilum 1090:beans 1057:palms 1042:palms 1026:Poppy 905:plant 806:dicot 791:dicot 736:Ovoid 692:Ovate 605:raphe 600:hilum 587:testa 395:ovary 361:Ovule 355:Ovule 297:Heart 171:acorn 155:peach 146:fruit 111:ferns 90:from 88:sperm 76:ovule 72:tuber 6362:Grex 6244:Self 5778:Seed 5640:Stem 5618:Leaf 5593:Root 5588:Bulb 5572:Wood 5533:Cork 5431:Fern 5195:ISBN 5183:ISBN 5162:ISBN 5133:ISBN 5080:ISBN 4824:PMID 4785:PMID 4661:PMID 4552:PMID 4534:ISSN 4485:ISSN 4434:PMID 4426:ISSN 4338:ISBN 4316:PMID 4281:PMID 4240:PMID 4205:PMID 4163:PMID 4114:ISSN 4076:ISBN 4050:ISBN 3739:ISBN 3666:ISBN 3620:PMID 3489:2012 3443:ISBN 3394:2018 3331:ISBN 3311:2015 3280:help 3235:PMID 3198:ISBN 3173:2014 3160:ISBN 3117:ISBN 3067:2023 3039:2023 3001:ISBN 2974:ISBN 2922:ISBN 2764:The 2751:The 2720:Late 2649:The 2530:and 2515:and 2374:plum 2326:and 2233:and 2223:nuts 2221:and 2191:and 2176:corn 2170:and 2111:and 2049:snow 2045:Rain 1927:The 1888:and 1861:For 1773:and 1742:and 1703:and 1586:ants 1561:nuts 1550:fish 1519:dock 1489:and 1436:pine 1387:nuts 1373:and 1221:and 1210:aril 1150:and 1108:and 1100:and 1094:peas 1092:and 1055:and 1044:and 1032:and 1030:date 1024:and 990:ovum 977:, a 887:and 787:bean 762:cork 638:and 636:pine 538:The 529:The 522:The 513:The 496:The 428:The 417:The 406:The 381:The 326:cone 185:The 163:Nuts 117:and 68:husk 64:sown 56:seed 54:, a 6051:Sap 5768:Nut 5613:Bud 4979:", 4924:doi 4816:doi 4777:doi 4728:", 4651:PMC 4643:doi 4639:149 4610:doi 4542:PMC 4524:doi 4477:doi 4465:422 4416:doi 4374:doi 4360:276 4308:doi 4271:doi 4232:doi 4228:168 4195:". 4155:doi 4143:272 4046:224 4011:doi 3899:doi 3860:doi 3825:doi 3769:doi 3612:doi 3577:doi 3534:doi 3522:194 3516:". 3493:doi 3435:doi 3227:doi 3194:319 3094:doi 2725:of 2668:in 2454:yew 2088:of 1972:rye 1830:): 1783:or 1722:In 1678:or 1219:yew 1166:or 1158:of 1098:oak 1063:or 961:or 959:oil 868:B. 827:an 756:or 694:or 690:or 674:or 458:). 314:Key 289:III 272:: 216:'s 173:or 129:to 86:by 82:is 70:or 50:In 6515:: 5156:. 5150:. 5055:. 5022:. 5018:. 4996:. 4948:. 4920:55 4918:. 4914:. 4855:. 4851:. 4840:^ 4822:. 4812:36 4810:. 4806:. 4783:. 4771:. 4752:. 4748:. 4736:^ 4659:. 4649:. 4637:. 4633:. 4606:25 4604:. 4600:. 4573:. 4550:. 4540:. 4532:. 4518:. 4514:. 4491:. 4483:. 4475:. 4463:. 4440:. 4432:. 4424:. 4414:. 4404:23 4402:. 4398:. 4386:^ 4372:. 4358:. 4314:. 4304:51 4302:. 4279:. 4267:63 4265:. 4261:. 4238:. 4226:. 4201:47 4199:. 4183:^ 4169:. 4161:. 4153:. 4141:. 4129:^ 4048:. 4017:. 4007:65 4005:. 3958:^ 3944:^ 3895:14 3893:. 3889:. 3866:. 3856:13 3854:. 3831:. 3823:. 3813:83 3811:. 3807:. 3775:. 3765:65 3763:. 3717:14 3715:. 3711:. 3692:. 3688:. 3626:. 3618:. 3606:. 3583:. 3575:. 3565:35 3563:. 3540:. 3532:. 3520:. 3487:. 3483:. 3441:. 3414:. 3410:. 3384:. 3380:. 3353:. 3288:^ 3259:. 3255:. 3233:. 3223:51 3221:. 3196:. 3144:^ 3090:39 3088:. 3084:. 3015:^ 2945:. 2568:, 2564:, 2553:. 2545:, 2538:. 2519:. 2464:. 2448:, 2444:, 2440:, 2436:, 2432:, 2428:, 2424:, 2420:, 2416:, 2412:, 2408:, 2400:, 2396:, 2392:, 2380:, 2376:, 2372:, 2368:, 2364:, 2360:, 2304:. 2280:, 2217:, 2012:. 1769:, 1765:, 1761:, 1757:, 1738:, 1734:, 1730:, 1699:, 1695:, 1691:, 1600:, 1596:, 1571:, 1567:, 1548:, 1544:, 1540:, 1532:, 1528:, 1517:, 1513:, 1452:, 1397:. 1389:, 1385:, 1381:, 1369:, 1365:, 1361:, 1298:, 1177:. 1048:. 1040:, 718:– 642:. 351:. 332:. 316:: 305:VI 295:IV 284:II 177:. 137:. 113:, 5475:) 5471:( 5283:e 5276:t 5269:v 5170:. 5141:. 5088:. 4958:. 4926:: 4818:: 4791:. 4779:: 4773:4 4708:" 4667:. 4645:: 4618:. 4612:: 4585:. 4558:. 4526:: 4520:7 4499:. 4479:: 4471:: 4448:. 4418:: 4410:: 4380:. 4376:: 4322:. 4310:: 4287:. 4273:: 4246:. 4234:: 4211:. 4177:. 4157:: 4149:: 4084:. 4058:. 4025:. 4013:: 3907:. 3901:: 3874:. 3862:: 3839:. 3827:: 3819:: 3783:. 3771:: 3745:. 3674:. 3634:. 3614:: 3608:7 3591:. 3579:: 3571:: 3548:. 3536:: 3528:: 3501:. 3495:: 3451:. 3437:: 3396:. 3282:) 3276:. 3241:. 3229:: 3206:. 3175:. 3125:. 3100:. 3096:: 3069:. 3041:. 3009:. 2982:. 2955:. 2930:. 2742:. 2624:. 2594:. 2587:. 1746:. 1707:. 1620:( 1556:. 1429:) 1425:( 831:; 705:– 662:( 577:. 403:. 385:( 300:V 279:I 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index