1489:
Some of the sounds generated by lenition are often subsequently "normalized" into related but cross-linguistically more common sounds. An example would be the changes → → and → → . Such normalizations correspond to diagonal movements down and to the right in the above table. In other cases,
3847:
Although nasalization as a feature also occurs in most
Scottish Gaelic dialects, it is not shown in the orthography on the whole, as it is synchronic (the result of certain types of nasals affecting a following sound), rather than the diachronic Irish type sonorization (after historic nasals). For
1787:
A similar development occurred in the Celtic languages, where non-geminate intervocalic consonants were converted into their corresponding weaker counterparts through lenition (usually stops into fricatives but also laterals and trills into weaker laterals and taps), and voiceless stops became
4045:
Fortition is the opposite of lenition: a consonant mutation in which a consonant changes from one considered weak to one considered strong. Fortition is less frequent than lenition in the languages of the world, but word-initial and word-final fortition is fairly frequent.
942:
The tables below show common sound changes involved in lenition. In some cases, lenition may skip one of the sound changes. The change voiceless stop > fricative is more common than the series of changes voiceless stop > affricate > fricative.
1764:). The subsequent further weakening of the series to phonetic , as in is diachronic in the sense that the developments took place over time and displaced as the normal pronunciations between vowels. It is also synchronic in an analysis of as
1967:
in which the rule of intervocalic lenition applying to the voiced series /b d g/ extends across word boundaries. Since it is a fully active synchronic rule, lenition is not normally indicated in the standard orthographies.
3273:
In a position where lenition is expected due to the grammatical environment, lenition tends to be blocked if there are two adjacent homorganic consonants across the word boundary. For example:
3247:. This is colloquially known as 'blocked lenition', or more technically as 'homorganic inhibition' or 'homorganic blocking'. In Scottish Gaelic, for example, there are three homorganic groups:
1252:
of the consonant to the surrounding vowels, in which features of the consonant that are not present in the surrounding vowels (e.g. obstruction, voicelessness) are gradually eliminated.
951:
In the opening type of lenition, the articulation becomes more open with each step. Opening lenition involves several sound changes: shortening of double consonants,
3243:
Some languages which have lenition have in addition complex rules affecting situations where lenition might be expected to occur but does not, often those involving
3397:
There is a significant number of frozen forms involving the other two groups (labials and velars) and environments as well, especially in surnames and place names:
906:. There are two main lenition pathways: opening and sonorization. In both cases, a stronger sound becomes a weaker one. Lenition can be seen as a movement on the
1504:
is a subtype of the sonorization type of lenition. It has two possible results: a velar approximant or back vowel, or a palatal approximant or front vowel. In
1591:
Sometimes a particular example of lenition mixes the opening and sonorization pathways. For example, may spirantize or open to , then voice or sonorize to .
3346:
in the case of dentals but not the other two groups for the vast majority of speakers. It also does not affect all environments any more. For example, while
535:
3534:
Though rare, in some instances the rules of blocked lenition can be invoked by lost historical consonants, for example, in the case of the past-tense
3932:
If a language has no obstruents other than voiceless stops, other sounds are encountered, as in
Finnish, where the lenited grade is represented by
2138:("the woman"). The following examples show the development of a phrase consisting of a definite article plus a masculine noun (taking the ending
890:, a sound change that makes a consonant "stronger", is less common, but Breton and Cornish have "hard mutation" forms which represent fortition.
1808:
2276:
is unusual among forms of lenition, but it is triggered by the same environment as more prototypical lenition. (It may also leave a residue of
1626:
are pronounced . The
Italian of Central and Southern Italy has a number of lenitions, the most widespread of which is the deaffrication of
1226:
The sonorization type involves voicing. Sonorizing lenition involves several sound changes: voicing, approximation, and vocalization.
648:
4366:
1248:
Sonorizing lenition occurs especially often intervocalically (between vowels). In this position, lenition can be seen as a type of
3547:
had a final -t. In terms of blocked lenition, it continues to behave as a dental-final particle invoking blocked lenition rules:
496:
4350:
4299:
4223:
841:. This was historically due to intervocalic lenition, but in the plural, lenition does not happen, so "the cats" is
2108:, the phenomenon of intervocalic lenition historically extended across word boundaries. This explains the rise of
3352:
still invokes the rules of blocked lenition, a noun followed by an adjective generally no longer does so. Hence:
1295:
517:
78:
1696:
voiceless stops first changed into their voiced counterparts , and later into the approximants or fricatives :
4428:
4404:
921:
245:
17:
4049:
Italian, for example, presents numerous regular examples of word-initial fortition both historically (Lat.
668:
4116:
4097:
4087:
4070:
4066:
4056:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3949:
3229:
3220:
3210:
3204:
3196:
3187:
3177:
3171:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3096:
3087:
3076:
3070:
3062:
3053:
3040:
3023:
3014:
3003:
2997:
2989:
2980:
2970:
2964:
2956:
2947:
2937:
2931:
2923:
2914:
2903:
2897:
2889:
2880:
2870:
2864:
2856:
2847:
2837:
2831:
2810:
2801:
2791:
2785:
2777:
2768:
2758:
2752:
2744:
2735:
2725:
2719:
2702:
2693:
2682:
2676:
2668:
2659:
2649:
2643:
2635:
2626:
2615:
2609:
2601:
2592:
2582:
2576:
2568:
2559:
2549:
2543:
2535:
2526:
2516:
2510:
2502:
2493:
2483:
2477:
2469:
2460:
2450:
2444:
2436:
2427:
2417:
2411:
2403:
2394:
2384:
2378:
2370:
2361:
2346:
2340:
2332:
2323:
2313:
2307:
2273:
2269:
2257:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2135:
2126:
2088:
2066:
2062:
2046:
2018:
1996:
1974:
1939:
1935:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1627:
1607:
1603:
1531:
1520:
1513:
1478:
1200:
1192:
1157:
1149:
1106:
1098:
531:
527:
4162:
3953:
1890:
676:
609:
3961:
3343:
1249:
768:
698:
636:
489:
4433:
4077:
1930:
Although actually a much more profound change encompassing syllable restructuring, simplification of
876:
875:
is thus caused by the syntax of the phrase, not by the modern phonological position of the consonant
862:
854:
828:
820:
803:
766:
742:
740:
732:
714:
696:
674:
666:
646:
634:
615:
607:
260:
37:
1656:
likewise is realized between vowels, and in typical speech of
Central Tuscany, the voiceless stops
789:
581:
428:
228:
200:
46:
3727:, which tends to be more phonetic, but in some cases, etymological principles are applied. In the
3574:
In
Brythonic languages, only fossilized vestiges of lenition blocking occur, for example in Welsh
3671:
In the modern Celtic languages, lenition of the "fricating" type is usually denoted by adding an
3666:
1490:
sounds are lenited and normalized at the same time; examples would be direct changes → or → .
878:
856:
822:
805:
734:
716:
398:
310:
160:
135:
125:
53:
4370:
423:
4167:
2249:
1681:
899:
577:
513:
403:
3653:
orthographic b d g are retained as following nasals rather than their normal lenited forms .
210:
3244:
3122:
903:
593:
482:
3602:'Friday night'). Within Celtic, blocked lenition phenomena also occur in Irish (for example
4152:
3535:
2150:. The historic development of lenition in those two cases can be reconstructed as follows:
1885:. The Latin words preserved the original stops, which became fricatives in old Germanic by
1780:'wine' is pronounced after pause, but with intervocalically, as in 'of wine'; likewise,
864:
830:
393:
193:
3972:, thus the dialects have a synchronic lenition of an alveolar stop into an alveolar trill
3889:, where geminates become simple consonants while retaining voicing or voicelessness (e.g.
917:
indicates that one sound changes to another. The notation > means that changes to .
8:
4397:
Lenition in Celtic and in
Insular Spanish: The Secondary Voicing of Stops in Gran Canaria
3869:
3801:
1844:, and complete deletion in some Modern Irish and most Modern Scots Gaelic dialects, thus
1745:
1002:
928:
910:
from less sonorous to more sonorous, or on a strength hierarchy from stronger to weaker.
573:
353:
165:
73:
3739:
the affected consonant, and in the Roman script, the convention is to suffix the letter
4423:
4147:
4120:
3957:
2113:
2109:
2058:
2045:
involving opening, or loss of occlusion, rather than voicing is found for post-vocalic
1956:
1931:
991:
936:
907:
777:
458:
433:
418:
315:
235:
1614:) when not in initial position and followed by an unstressed vowel. For example, both
4400:
4346:
4295:
4219:
4176:
3817:
3126:
1852:
1829:
914:
692:
603:
585:
453:
443:
279:
180:
3524:
as a feminine noun today would normally cause lenition on a following adjective) vs
1693:
4189:
3886:
3875:
3820:, it is shown by writing the "weak" consonant alongside the (silent) "strong" one:
3724:
3662:
3650:
3266:
3252:
2814:
2180:
2105:
1689:
1599:
1595:
1238:
1013:
1009:
811:
722:
658:
626:
306:
3948:. For example, Finnish used to have a complete set of spirantization reflexes for
4119:
is subject to fortition in numerous
Romance languages, ranging from or in many
3945:
3590:
as a feminine noun normally causes lenition of a following modifier, for example
3259:
2261:
2117:
1960:
1938:'cup' is often viewed as a type of lenition (compare geminate-preserving Italian
1894:
1813:
1524:
1505:
1231:
964:
662:
598:
98:
4316:
3913:). It is also possible for entire consonant clusters to undergo lenition, as in
2087:'the house' intervocalically. Word-internally, the normal realization is also :
4185:
4157:
3941:
3914:
3844:"our head" (sonorization is traditionally called "eclipsis" in Irish grammar).
3797:; lenition of other letters was not indicated consistently in the orthography.
2050:
1886:
1498:
983:
976:
932:
793:
691:"we are" is pronounced . An example of diachronic lenition can be found in the
240:
140:
93:
88:
4417:
4181:
3952:, though these have been lost in favour of similar-sounding phonemes. In the
3544:
2265:
2236:
Synchronic lenition in
Scottish Gaelic affects almost all consonants (except
2054:
2042:
1897:, chiefly of post-vocalic stops, as evidenced in the English-German cognates
448:
290:
269:
255:
215:
3981:
3758:
2277:
2154:
1836:
and ultimately debuccalisation in most Irish and some
Scottish dialects to
1804:
960:
781:
617:
552:
325:
250:
205:
83:
33:
4142:
3937:
3728:
3623:
2240:, which has lost its lenited counterpart in most areas). Changes such as
1528:
952:
544:
468:
463:
383:
320:
4137:
3503:
3118:
2350:
710:
388:
349:
273:
118:
4340:
4292:
Blas Na Gāidhlig: The
Practical Guide to Scottish Gaelic Pronunciation
4040:
3736:
3530:"a black knife" (i.e., a common knife which just happens to be black)
1825:
1765:
1517:
887:
785:
589:
556:
438:
358:
332:
265:
175:
109:
4132:
3933:
3882:
3129:
3114:
1744:. One stage in these changes goes beyond phonetic to have become a
1611:
682:
630:
523:
413:
408:
378:
130:
4172:
3800:
Voicing lenition is represented by a simple letter switch in the
3367:"a brown hat" (although some highly conservative speakers retain
968:
339:
170:
153:
2280:
in adjacent vowels.) The orthography shows that by inserting an
625:
An example of synchronic lenition is found in most varieties of
3117:
languages, grammatical lenition also triggers the reduction of
1964:
344:
299:
3792:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3768:
3762:
2222:
2216:
2183:
2174:
1685:
564:
4076:
Catalan is among numerous Romance languages with diachronic
776:
In some languages, lenition has been grammaticalized into a
1934:
as in the passage from Latin to Spanish such as cuppa >
2116:
in modern Celtic languages through the loss of endings. A
4317:"Celtic initial consonant mutations - nghath and bhfuil?"
1760:
in Italian, with no change in the phonological status of
1660:
in the same position are pronounced respectively , as in
3255:
group in spite of the non-dental nature of the palatals)
2210:
2168:
3745:
to the consonant, to signify that it is lenited. Thus,
622:), or even causing a consonant to disappear entirely.
576:(within a language at a particular point in time) and
4100:
in consonant clusters with a lateral consonant (Lat.
3561:
3551:
3538:
3525:
3519:
3513:
3507:
3493:
3485:
3479:
3469:
3463:
3457:
3447:
3439:
3433:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3401:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3347:
3333:
3319:
3313:
3307:
3299:
3289:
3283:
3277:
3224:
3215:
3191:
3182:
3145:
3139:
3133:
3091:
3082:
3057:
3048:
3018:
3009:
2984:
2975:
2951:
2942:
2918:
2909:
2884:
2875:
2851:
2842:
2805:
2796:
2772:
2763:
2739:
2730:
2697:
2688:
2663:
2654:
2630:
2621:
2596:
2587:
2563:
2554:
2530:
2521:
2497:
2488:
2464:
2455:
2431:
2422:
2398:
2389:
2365:
2356:
2327:
2318:
2287:
2281:
2228:
2189:
2145:
2139:
2130:
2121:
1818:
1797:
1789:
588:
a voiceless consonant, causing a consonant to relax
522:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
1684:lenition is found, for example, in the change from
3711:as a result of the so-called "aspirate mutation" (
2199:
2157:
2144:) compared with a feminine noun taking the ending
4341:Roibeard O. Maolalaigh; Iain MacAonghuis (1997).
2711:
1788:voiced. For example, Indo-European intervocalic *
927:Lenition includes the loss of a feature, such as
4415:
3773:was indicated by the dot above, and lenition of
3105:
760:
536:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
3917:, where voiceless clusters become voiced, e.g.
2030:
2024:
2008:
2002:
1986:
1980:
1855:is evidenced by Latin-English cognates such as
780:, which means it is no longer triggered by its
3675:to the lenited letter. In Welsh, for example,
726:
563:itself means "softening" or "weakening" (from
4107:
4091:
4060:
4026:
4020:
4014:
4008:
4002:
3996:
3908:
3902:
3896:
3890:
2091:
2082:
2076:
2070:
1739:
1727:
1715:
1703:
1643:
1637:
1631:
748:
686:
559:, making them “weaker” in some way. The word
490:
4031:is the same stem under consonant gradation.
3731:, fricating lenition (usually called simply
3381:"girl" (a feminine noun causing lenition) →
3342:In modern Scottish Gaelic this rule is only
1922:
1916:
1910:
902:, sometimes accompanied by small changes in
754:
4184:– a specific form of lenition found in the
4101:
4081:
4050:
3924:
3918:
3855:
3849:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3821:
3811:
3805:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3676:
3613:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3575:
3361:"hat" (a feminine noun causing lenition) →
1868:
1862:
1856:
1733:
1721:
1709:
1697:
1008:> ; > (debuccalization, example in
870:
848:
842:
836:
814:
797:
704:
567:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3637:
3627:
497:
483:
4389:An Introduction to Historical Linguistics
4258:Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap, Oslo
4250:
4248:
3874:The phenomenon of consonant gradation in
2120:example would be the lack of lenition in
1851:An example of historical lenition in the
4269:The Phonemic Analysis of Scottish Gaelic
584:). Lenition can involve such changes as
4394:
4391:. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.
4213:
4096:. Fortition also occurs in Catalan for
1893:led to a second series of lenitions in
1652:, is normally pronounced . In Tuscany,
784:environment but is now governed by its
14:
4416:
4314:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4245:
3863:
2081:'in (the) house' post-consonant, but
2075:'house' in a post-pause realization,
1001:or > (spirantization, example in
4381:
4322:. Boston College University Libraries
4289:
3158:are the weak counterparts of palatal
2268:. The spirantization of Gaelic nasal
1840:, shift in Central Southern Irish to
1458:
1427:
731:(the latter weakened synchronically
526:. For the distinction between ,
4274:
4240:Einführung in die Sardische Sprache
4216:Sengoídelc: Old Irish for Beginners
4065:, with ) and synchronically (e.g.,
3312:'on the' (which causes lenition) →
3238:
956:
645:is pronounced as the more sonorous
24:
4123:to in some varieties of Spanish.
3584:'good night' lenition is blocked (
2823:
975:or > (shortening, example in
572:'weak'). Lenition can happen both
25:
4445:
2299:
1237:> (approximation, example in
602:, which turns a consonant into a
4399:. Oxford University Press, USA.
4367:"Yleiskielen d:n murrevastineet"
3976:. Furthermore, the same phoneme
3282:'one' (which causes lenition) →
1630:to between vowels: post-pausal
982:> (affrication, for example
3791:was indicated by the postposed
1807:
1493:
1221:
518:International Phonetic Alphabet
79:Consonant voicing and devoicing
4359:
4334:
4308:
4261:
4232:
4207:
4175:– a similar phenomenon in the
3723:"her stone"). An exception is
3656:
3251:d n t l s (usually called the
2712:Loss of secondary articulation
2099:
2043:series of synchronic lenitions
1512:-vocalization of the sequence
922:sound change of palatalization
13:
1:
4242:, Romanistischer Verlag, Bonn
4218:. Syracuse University Press.
4195:
3150:sounds). In Scottish Gaelic,
3106:Reduction of place markedness
1959:, with the sole exception of
1950:
1945:
1889:. A few centuries later, the
1676:
924:sometimes involves lenition.
898:Lenition involves changes in
792:environment. For example, in
4271:Helmut Buske Verkag, Hamburg
4200:
4121:speech types on Italian soil
4034:
3878:is also a form of lenition.
3265:b f m p (usually called the
2260:involves the reduction of a
2129:("the man") and lenition in
802:"cat" begins with the sound
773:has disappeared completely.
7:
4345:. Hunter Pub Incorporated.
4343:Scottish Gaelic in 3 Months
4163:High German consonant shift
4126:
3816:, "the stone" in Welsh. In
3646:'the first man') however.
1891:High German consonant shift
1230:> (voicing, example in
10:
4450:
4038:
3867:
3660:
3560:"bad was the food" versus
3332:"on the brown house" (not
3032:
1819:
1798:
1790:
1746:phonological restructuring
1671:
1636:'dinner' but post-vocalic
946:
886:The opposite of lenition,
582:language changes over time
3761:manuscripts, lenition of
3112:
3103:
3030:
2821:
2709:
2297:
1556:
1477:
1465:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1429:
1408:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1333:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1310:
1304:
1277:
1269:
1156:
1153:
1148:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1105:
1102:
1097:
1019:, , , , > ∅ (elision)
4315:Conroy, Kevin M (2008).
3622:'the first person') and
3258:c g (usually called the
1648:, although structurally
1594:Lenition can be seen in
1586:
1305:spirantization, trilling
1272:(fricative, trill, etc.)
963:of stops or affricates,
893:
835:: "the cat" in Welsh is
429:Compensatory lengthening
201:Compensatory lengthening
4395:Oftedal, Magne (1985).
4387:Crowley, Terry (1997).
4290:Bauer, Michael (2011).
4214:Stifter, David (2006).
4025:is its nominative, and
3925:
3919:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3769:
3763:
3667:Irish initial mutations
2223:
2217:
2211:
2201:
2184:
2175:
2169:
2159:
2061:, for example, has the
1828:
1642:'the dinner'; the name
995:
727:
514:phonetic transcriptions
54:Quantitative metathesis
4256:The Gaelic of Leurbost
4238:Mensching, G. (1992).
4168:Historical linguistics
4108:
4102:
4092:
4082:
4061:
4051:
4027:
4021:
4015:
4009:
4003:
3997:
3954:Southern Ostrobothnian
3909:
3903:
3897:
3891:
3885:consonants comes from
3856:
3850:
3840:
3834:
3828:
3822:
3812:
3806:
3753:
3747:
3741:
3719:
3713:
3707:
3701:
3695:
3689:
3683:
3677:
3638:
3628:
3614:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3576:
3562:
3552:
3539:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3494:
3486:
3480:
3470:
3464:
3458:
3448:
3440:
3434:
3424:
3418:
3412:
3402:
3389:
3383:
3377:
3369:
3363:
3357:
3348:
3334:
3320:
3314:
3308:
3300:
3290:
3284:
3278:
3225:
3216:
3192:
3183:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3092:
3083:
3058:
3049:
3019:
3010:
2985:
2976:
2952:
2943:
2919:
2910:
2885:
2876:
2852:
2843:
2806:
2797:
2773:
2764:
2740:
2731:
2698:
2689:
2664:
2655:
2631:
2622:
2597:
2588:
2564:
2555:
2531:
2522:
2498:
2489:
2465:
2456:
2432:
2423:
2399:
2390:
2366:
2357:
2328:
2319:
2288:
2282:
2250:secondary articulation
2229:
2190:
2146:
2140:
2131:
2122:
2092:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2031:
2025:
2009:
2003:
1987:
1981:
1963:, offer an example of
1923:
1917:
1911:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1644:
1638:
1632:
987:
900:manner of articulation
871:
849:
843:
837:
815:
798:
761:
755:
749:
705:
687:
685:, so that a word like
568:
511:This article contains
27:Consonant sound change
4429:Linguistic morphology
4069:"house, home" → but
3964:dialects of Finnish,
3335:air an *thaigh *dhonn
3245:homorganic consonants
3123:place of articulation
3079:(before a back vowel)
3006:(before a back vowel)
2906:(before a back vowel)
2685:(before a back vowel)
2618:(before a back vowel)
1803:"people" resulted in
1050:placeless approximant
939:is lost: or > .
937:ejective articulation
913:In examples below, a
904:place of articulation
596:(a phenomenon called
594:place of articulation
4153:Germanic spirant law
4078:word-final devoicing
3968:mostly changed into
3735:) is indicated by a
3518:'1 black 2 hidden';
3387:"a smart girl" (not
3318:'on the big leg' vs
2248:involve the loss of
1772:: illustrating with
1244:> (vocalization)
747:), while in Catalan
657:. Some varieties of
653:in the related form
194:Transphonologization
4254:Oftedal, M. (1956)
3870:Consonant gradation
3864:Consonant gradation
3802:Brythonic languages
3649:Outside Celtic, in
3570:'great was the pity
3099:"very inquisitive"
2221:→ Classical Gaelic
2114:consonant mutations
1932:geminate consonants
1540:lateral approximant
1003:Gilbertese language
74:Consonant gradation
4382:General references
4267:Ternes, E. (1989)
4148:Consonant mutation
2209:IPA: → Old Irish
2167:IPA: → Old Irish
1853:Germanic languages
1610:soften to a tap (
1534:in Modern French.
908:sonority hierarchy
778:consonant mutation
459:Consonant mutation
434:Monophthongization
316:Consonant mutation
4352:978-0-85285-234-7
4301:978-1-907165-00-9
4225:978-0-8156-3072-2
4177:Japanese language
3991:before the vowel
3818:Irish orthography
3751:is equivalent to
3298:'one house' (not
3236:
3235:
2638:"very deceitful"
2039:
2038:
1955:All varieties of
1584:
1583:
1487:
1486:
1219:
1218:
915:greater-than sign
693:Romance languages
629:, in the form of
604:glottal consonant
507:
506:
454:Shm-reduplication
444:Rhinoglottophilia
280:Consonant harmony
181:Cluster reduction
16:(Redirected from
4441:
4434:Celtic languages
4410:
4375:
4374:
4369:. Archived from
4363:
4357:
4356:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4327:
4321:
4312:
4306:
4305:
4287:
4272:
4265:
4259:
4252:
4243:
4236:
4230:
4229:
4211:
4118:
4111:
4105:
4099:
4095:
4089:
4085:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4058:
4054:
4030:
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3951:
3928:
3922:
3912:
3906:
3900:
3894:
3881:An example with
3876:Finnic languages
3859:
3853:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3825:
3815:
3809:
3796:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3766:
3756:
3750:
3744:
3725:Manx orthography
3722:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3698:
3692:
3686:
3680:
3663:Welsh morphology
3645:
3635:
3621:
3611:
3601:
3596:'Friday' yields
3595:
3589:
3583:
3569:
3559:
3542:
3529:
3523:
3517:
3511:
3501:
3489:
3483:
3477:
3467:
3461:
3455:
3443:
3437:
3431:
3421:
3415:
3409:
3392:
3386:
3380:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3351:
3337:
3331:
3317:
3315:air a' chas mhòr
3311:
3303:
3297:
3287:
3281:
3239:Blocked lenition
3231:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3212:
3206:
3198:
3195:
3189:
3186:
3179:
3173:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3137:
3098:
3095:
3090:"inquisitive" →
3089:
3086:
3078:
3072:
3064:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3042:
3025:
3022:
3016:
3013:
3005:
2999:
2991:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2972:
2966:
2958:
2955:
2949:
2946:
2939:
2933:
2925:
2924:/kleːhjɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/
2922:
2916:
2913:
2905:
2899:
2892:"very constant"
2891:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2872:
2866:
2858:
2855:
2849:
2846:
2839:
2833:
2813:"very weak" (in
2812:
2809:
2803:
2800:
2793:
2787:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2767:
2760:
2754:
2746:
2743:
2737:
2734:
2727:
2721:
2704:
2703:/kleːfjal̪ˠakəx/
2701:
2695:
2692:
2684:
2678:
2670:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2651:
2645:
2637:
2636:/kleːvjaul̪ˠt̪ə/
2634:
2628:
2625:
2617:
2611:
2603:
2600:
2594:
2591:
2584:
2578:
2570:
2567:
2561:
2558:
2551:
2545:
2537:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2518:
2512:
2504:
2501:
2495:
2492:
2485:
2479:
2471:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2452:
2446:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2419:
2413:
2405:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2386:
2380:
2372:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2348:
2342:
2334:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2315:
2309:
2295:
2294:
2291:
2285:
2275:
2271:
2259:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2232:
2227:→ Modern Gaelic
2226:
2220:
2214:
2208:
2193:
2188:→ Modern Gaelic
2187:
2181:Classical Gaelic
2178:
2172:
2166:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2106:Celtic languages
2095:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2074:
2068:
2064:
2057:. Stereotypical
2048:
2034:
2028:
2020:
2012:
2006:
1998:
1990:
1984:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1941:
1937:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1872:
1866:
1860:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1822:
1821:
1801:
1800:
1793:
1792:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1768:realizations of
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1667:
1664:→ 'the house',
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1622:plus the suffix
1609:
1605:
1600:American English
1537:
1536:
1533:
1522:
1516:resulted in the
1515:
1480:
1255:
1254:
1202:
1194:
1159:
1151:
1108:
1100:
1023:
1022:
929:deglottalization
882:
874:
868:
860:
853:. The change of
852:
846:
840:
834:
826:
818:
812:definite article
810:, but after the
809:
801:
772:
764:
758:
752:
746:
738:
730:
720:
708:
702:
690:
681:at the end of a
680:
672:
652:
640:
627:American English
621:
613:
571:
533:
529:
499:
492:
485:
30:
29:
21:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4443:
4442:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4414:
4413:
4407:
4384:
4379:
4378:
4365:
4364:
4360:
4353:
4339:
4335:
4325:
4323:
4319:
4313:
4309:
4302:
4288:
4275:
4266:
4262:
4253:
4246:
4237:
4233:
4226:
4212:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4129:
4115:Word-medially,
4073:"at home" → ).
4043:
4037:
3872:
3866:
3804:, for instance
3669:
3659:
3241:
3108:
3093:glé fheòrachail
3035:
2826:
2824:Debuccalization
2747:"very natural"
2745:/kleːnaːt̪ərˠə/
2714:
2699:glé pheallagach
2302:
2252:; in addition,
2215:→ Middle Irish
2173:→ Middle Irish
2118:Scottish Gaelic
2110:grammaticalised
2102:
2051:Tuscan dialects
1953:
1948:
1895:Old High German
1814:Primitive Irish
1692:, in which the
1679:
1674:
1589:
1568:
1562:
1527:, yielding the
1525:monophthongized
1496:
1298:
1271:
1224:
1087:debuccalization
1081:(deaffrication)
1080:
965:debuccalization
949:
896:
759:and Portuguese
663:debuccalization
641:of a word like
599:debuccalization
541:
540:
539:
503:
474:
473:
374:
366:
365:
364:
363:
335:
302:
285:
284:
261:Final devoicing
231:
221:
220:
196:
186:
185:
156:
146:
145:
121:
104:
103:
99:Debuccalization
69:
59:
58:
49:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4447:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4412:
4411:
4405:
4392:
4383:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4373:on 2021-10-08.
4358:
4351:
4333:
4307:
4300:
4273:
4260:
4244:
4231:
4224:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4186:Tuscan dialect
4179:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4128:
4125:
4039:Main article:
4036:
4033:
3868:Main article:
3865:
3862:
3658:
3655:
3572:
3571:
3532:
3531:
3491:
3445:
3410:'Montgomery' (
3395:
3394:
3374:
3340:
3339:
3305:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3233:
3213:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3199:"very cloudy"
3197:/kleːnial̪ˠəx/
3180:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3113:In the modern
3110:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3097:/kleːjɔːɾəxal/
3080:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3046:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3007:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2940:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2907:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2886:glé sheasmhach
2873:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2840:
2834:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2819:
2818:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2705:"very shaggy"
2686:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2629:"deceitful" →
2619:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2552:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2519:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2354:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2316:
2310:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:Spirantization
2298:
2286:(except after
2234:
2233:
2195:
2194:
2101:
2098:
2037:
2036:
2021:
2015:
2014:
1999:
1993:
1992:
1977:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1495:
1492:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1299:(sonorization)
1293:
1290:
1289:original sound
1286:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1235:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1155:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1104:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:spirantization
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:original sound
1058:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1026:geminated stop
1021:
1020:
1017:
1006:
999:
980:
967:, and finally
957:spirantization
948:
945:
933:glottalization
895:
892:
592:, to lose its
578:diachronically
574:synchronically
534:⟩, see
510:
509:
508:
505:
504:
502:
501:
494:
487:
479:
476:
475:
472:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
375:
372:
371:
368:
367:
362:
361:
356:
347:
342:
336:
331:
330:
329:
328:
323:
318:
313:
303:
298:
297:
294:
293:
287:
286:
283:
282:
277:
263:
258:
253:
248:
246:Palatalization
243:
241:Coarticulation
238:
232:
227:
226:
223:
222:
219:
218:
213:
208:
203:
197:
192:
191:
188:
187:
184:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
157:
152:
151:
148:
147:
144:
143:
141:Vowel breaking
138:
133:
128:
122:
117:
116:
113:
112:
106:
105:
102:
101:
96:
94:L-vocalization
91:
89:Spirantization
86:
81:
76:
70:
65:
64:
61:
60:
57:
56:
50:
45:
44:
41:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4446:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4408:
4402:
4398:
4393:
4390:
4386:
4385:
4372:
4368:
4362:
4354:
4348:
4344:
4337:
4318:
4311:
4303:
4297:
4294:. Akerbeltz.
4293:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4270:
4264:
4257:
4251:
4249:
4241:
4235:
4227:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4206:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4182:Tuscan gorgia
4180:
4178:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4124:
4122:
4113:
4110:
4104:
4094:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4063:
4055:with initial
4053:
4047:
4042:
4032:
4029:
4023:
4019:is the stem,
4017:
4011:
4005:
3999:
3983:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3930:
3927:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3877:
3871:
3861:
3860:"the house".
3858:
3852:
3845:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3795:
3789:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3729:Gaelic script
3726:
3721:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3691:
3685:
3679:
3674:
3668:
3664:
3654:
3652:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3634:
3632:
3626:(for example
3625:
3620:
3618:
3610:
3608:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3580:
3568:
3566:
3558:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3545:Common Celtic
3541:
3537:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3498:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3466:
3460:
3454:
3452:
3446:
3442:
3436:
3430:
3428:
3420:
3414:
3408:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3391:
3390:caileag *glic
3385:
3384:caileag ghlic
3379:
3375:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3350:
3345:
3336:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3316:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3296:
3294:
3288:'one leg' vs
3286:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3227:
3218:
3214:
3208:
3203:
3202:
3194:
3185:
3181:
3175:
3170:
3169:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3131:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3102:
3094:
3085:
3081:
3074:
3069:
3068:
3065:"very faint"
3060:
3051:
3047:
3044:
3039:
3038:
3029:
3026:"very tight"
3024:/kleːhjaun̪ˠ/
3021:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2996:
2995:
2987:
2978:
2974:
2968:
2963:
2962:
2954:
2945:
2941:
2935:
2930:
2929:
2921:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2896:
2895:
2890:/kleːhes̪vəx/
2887:
2883:"constant" →
2878:
2874:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2859:"very happy"
2854:
2845:
2841:
2835:
2830:
2829:
2820:
2817:Gaelic only)
2816:
2808:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2784:
2783:
2780:"very stiff"
2775:
2766:
2762:
2756:
2751:
2750:
2742:
2736:/n̪ˠaːt̪ərˠə/
2733:
2729:
2723:
2718:
2717:
2708:
2700:
2694:/pʰjal̪ˠakəx/
2691:
2687:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2671:"very exact"
2666:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2633:
2624:
2620:
2613:
2608:
2607:
2599:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2575:
2574:
2571:"very sharp"
2566:
2557:
2553:
2547:
2542:
2541:
2538:"very rough"
2533:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2509:
2508:
2505:"very ready"
2500:
2491:
2487:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2472:"very black"
2467:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2443:
2442:
2439:"very quiet"
2434:
2425:
2421:
2415:
2410:
2409:
2406:"very steep"
2401:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2373:'very alive'
2368:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2344:
2339:
2338:
2330:
2321:
2317:
2311:
2306:
2305:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2284:
2279:
2267:
2263:
2251:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2207:
2205:
2198:Proto-Celtic
2197:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2163:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2151:
2148:
2142:
2133:
2124:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2094:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2060:
2056:
2055:Central Italy
2052:
2044:
2033:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1994:
1989:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1943:
1933:
1928:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1815:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1785:
1767:
1747:
1742:
1736:
1730:
1724:
1718:
1712:
1706:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1669:
1646:
1640:
1634:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1502:-vocalization
1501:
1491:
1482:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1351:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1311:approximation
1307:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1274:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1147:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1004:
1000:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
978:
974:
973:
972:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
944:
940:
938:
934:
930:
925:
923:
918:
916:
911:
909:
905:
901:
891:
889:
884:
880:
873:
866:
858:
851:
845:
839:
832:
824:
817:
813:
807:
800:
795:
791:
790:morphological
787:
783:
779:
774:
770:
763:
757:
751:
744:
736:
729:
724:
718:
713:) has become
712:
707:
700:
694:
689:
684:
678:
670:
664:
660:
656:
650:
644:
638:
632:
628:
623:
619:
611:
605:
601:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
537:
525:
521:
519:
515:
500:
495:
493:
488:
486:
481:
480:
478:
477:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
449:Sulcalization
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
377:
376:
370:
369:
360:
357:
355:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
337:
334:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
308:
305:
304:
301:
296:
295:
292:
291:Dissimilation
289:
288:
281:
278:
275:
271:
270:vowel harmony
267:
264:
262:
259:
257:
256:Labialization
254:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
230:
225:
224:
217:
216:Floating tone
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
198:
195:
190:
189:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
158:
155:
150:
149:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
123:
120:
115:
114:
111:
108:
107:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
71:
68:
63:
62:
55:
52:
51:
48:
43:
42:
39:
35:
32:
31:
19:
18:Soft mutation
4396:
4388:
4371:the original
4361:
4342:
4336:
4326:16 September
4324:. Retrieved
4310:
4291:
4268:
4263:
4255:
4239:
4234:
4215:
4209:
4114:
4075:
4048:
4044:
3995:, e.g. root
3982:assibilation
3962:southwestern
3938:approximants
3931:
3880:
3873:
3846:
3810:, "stone" →
3799:
3759:Middle Irish
3732:
3717:, "stone" →
3693:change into
3672:
3670:
3648:
3640:
3636:'one door',
3630:
3616:
3612:'one door',
3606:
3578:
3573:
3564:
3557:ona am biadh
3554:
3533:
3496:
3472:
3468:'mouth') vs
3462:'crooked' +
3456:'Campbell' (
3450:
3432:'MacDonald (
3426:
3404:
3396:
3341:
3326:
3322:
3292:
3272:
3242:
3232:"very lazy"
2959:"very thin"
2738:"natural" →
2669:/kleːfɔŋɡal/
2665:glé phongail
2632:glé mheallta
2627:/mjaul̪ˠt̪ə/
2604:"very bald"
2602:/kleːvɯːl̪ˠ/
2499:glé dheiseil
2335:"very soft"
2278:nasalization
2235:
2203:
2161:
2155:Proto-Celtic
2103:
2040:
2035:"the ladle"
2013:"the house"
1954:
1929:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1850:
1816:
1805:Proto-Celtic
1795:
1786:
1694:intervocalic
1680:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1593:
1590:
1523:, which was
1509:
1499:
1497:
1494:Vocalization
1488:
1250:assimilation
1247:
1225:
1222:Sonorization
1067:degemination
961:assibilation
950:
941:
926:
919:
912:
897:
885:
782:phonological
775:
725:and Spanish
695:, where the
654:
642:
624:
597:
560:
555:that alters
553:sound change
548:
542:
530:and ⟨
512:
326:Vowel hiatus
251:Velarization
229:Assimilation
206:Nasalization
84:Assibilation
66:
34:Sound change
4158:Grimm's Law
4143:Chain shift
3923:"to cry" →
3838:, "head" →
3832:"our pen",
3657:Orthography
3543:, which in
3527:sgian dhubh
3478:'Cameron' (
3301:aon *thaigh
3230:/kleːleʃkʲ/
3193:glé neulach
3190:"cloudy" →
3088:/fjɔːɾəxal/
3063:/kleːaun̪ˠ/
2992:"very ill"
2926:"very sly"
2920:glé sheòlta
2915:/ʃɔːl̪ˠt̪ə/
2741:glé nàdarra
2696:"shaggy" →
2536:/kleːɣaɾav/
2503:/kleːʝeʃal/
2100:Grammatical
2096:'hole' → .
1887:Grimm's law
1668:→ 'hole'.
1650:/luˈt͡ʃano/
1529:monophthong
1278:approximant
1264:voiced stop
1073:affrication
953:affrication
931:, in which
827:changes to
796:, the word
765:historical
709:("father",
545:linguistics
469:Chain shift
464:Vowel shift
384:Affrication
373:Other types
321:Tone sandhi
211:Tonogenesis
38:alternation
4418:Categories
4406:8200072827
4196:References
4138:Begadkefat
4001:"water" →
3980:undergoes
3854:"house" →
3826:, "pen" →
3754:a mháthair
3720:ei charreg
3661:See also:
3567:òr am beud
3512:'knife' +
3504:Sgian-dubh
3344:productive
3188:/ɲial̪ˠəx/
3119:markedness
3084:feòrachail
3056:"faint" →
3020:glé theann
3017:"tight" →
3015:/tʰʲaun̪ˠ/
2990:/kleːhiːɲ/
2957:/kleːhanə/
2857:/kleːhɔnə/
2850:"happy" →
2811:/kleːlˠak/
2771:"stiff" →
2690:peallagach
2662:"exact" →
2569:/kleːʝiaɾ/
2562:"sharp" →
2532:glé gharbh
2529:"rough" →
2496:"ready" →
2463:"black" →
2437:/kleːçuːɲ/
2433:glé chiùin
2430:"quiet" →
2404:/kleːxas̪/
2397:"steep" →
2371:/kleːvjɔː/
2364:'alive' →
2351:back vowel
2349:(before a
2059:Florentine
2029:"ladle" →
2007:"house" →
1991:"the cow"
1951:Allophonic
1946:Synchronic
1766:allophonic
1682:Diachronic
1677:Diachronic
1270:continuant
955:of stops,
711:accusative
557:consonants
389:Gemination
350:Synaeresis
119:Epenthesis
47:Metathesis
4424:Phonology
4201:Citations
4052:Januarius
4041:Fortition
4035:Fortition
3958:Tavastian
3934:chronemes
3841:ár gceann
3829:ár bpeann
3737:dot above
3599:nos Wener
3226:glé leisg
3223:"lazy" →
3130:sonorants
3059:glé fhann
2986:glé thinn
2953:glé thana
2950:"thin" →
2881:/ʃes̪vəx/
2877:seasmhach
2853:glé shona
2804:"weak" →
2778:/kleːɾak/
2660:/pʰɔŋɡal/
2598:glé mhaol
2595:"bald" →
2565:glé gheur
2470:/kleːɣuh/
2466:glé dhubh
2333:/kleːvok/
2326:"soft" →
1957:Sardinian
1826:Old Irish
1756:(compare
1546:semivowel
1518:diphthong
1284:no sound
1056:no sound
1044:fricative
1038:affricate
992:Aromanian
888:fortition
786:syntactic
753:, French
703:of Latin
590:occlusion
439:Rhotacism
359:Synizesis
354:diaeresis
333:Synalepha
311:linking R
266:Metaphony
176:Haplology
161:Apheresis
136:Unpacking
126:Prothesis
110:Fortition
4133:Apophony
4127:See also
4088:*/ˈfɾɛd/
4083:frigidus
4071:/aˈkaza/
4013:. Here,
3944:or even
3883:geminate
3857:an taigh
3848:example
3813:y garreg
3748:a ṁáṫair
3733:lenition
3441:Dòmhnall
3429:òmhnaill
3419:Gumaraid
3364:ad dhonn
3285:aon chas
3115:Goidelic
3054:/faun̪ˠ/
2983:"ill" →
2948:/t̪ʰanə/
2917:"sly" →
2593:/mɯːl̪ˠ/
2494:/tʲeʃal/
2428:/kʰʲuːɲ/
2400:glé chas
2367:glé bheò
2329:glé bhog
2230:a' bhean
2224:an bhean
2132:a’ bhean
2112:initial
2049:in many
1985:"cow" →
1940:/ˈkɔppa/
1842:/t̪ʰuəx/
1838:/t̪ʰuəh/
1834:/t̪ʰuaθ/
1799:teu̯teh₂
1735:apotheca
1662:/lakasa/
1612:flapping
1602:, where
1596:Canadian
1317:elision
1093:elision
850:y gathod
844:y cathod
683:syllable
561:lenition
549:lenition
528:/ /
524:Help:IPA
414:Iotacism
409:Betacism
399:Fronting
394:Clipping
379:Apophony
131:Paragoge
67:Lenition
4190:Italian
4173:Rendaku
4103:populus
4067:/ˈkaza/
4062:gennaio
3974:/t/→/r/
3904:dubbaan
3887:Finnish
3651:Spanish
3643:ooinney
3639:yn chie
3615:an chéa
3490:'nose')
3407:umaraid
3378:caileag
3370:ad donn
3221:/ʎeʃkʲ/
3184:neulach
3127:coronal
3121:in the
3033:Elision
2981:/tʲiːɲ/
2848:/s̪ɔnə/
2807:glé lag
2802:/l̪ˠak/
2774:glé rag
2732:nàdarra
2656:pongail
2623:meallta
2560:/kʲiaɾ/
2527:/kaɾav/
2490:deiseil
2395:/kʰas̪/
2212:ind ben
2191:am fear
2185:an fear
2170:ind fer
2160:(s)indo
2127:/əmfɛr/
2123:am fear
2104:In the
2089:/ˈbuko/
2084:la casa
2078:in casa
2032:su gupu
2010:sa domu
1988:sa baca
1961:Nuorese
1936:/ˈkopa/
1846:/t̪ʰuə/
1770:/b,d,g/
1748:, e.g.
1690:Spanish
1672:Effects
1645:Luciano
1639:la cena
1348:(zero)
1296:voicing
1239:Spanish
1129:(zero)
1014:Spanish
1010:English
969:elision
947:Opening
847:, not *
723:Italian
688:estamos
659:Spanish
655:waiting
631:tapping
586:voicing
516:in the
404:Raising
340:Elision
307:Liaison
171:Apocope
166:Syncope
154:Elision
4403:
4349:
4298:
4222:
3946:trills
3910:dubata
3807:carreg
3785:, and
3714:carreg
3687:, and
3593:Gwener
3536:copula
3309:air an
3269:group)
3267:labial
3262:group)
3253:dental
3144:, and
2911:seòlta
2815:Harris
2769:/rˠak/
2461:/t̪uh/
2362:/pjɔː/
2218:in ben
2202:(s)ind
2176:in fer
2136:/əvɛn/
2067:/kasa/
1965:sandhi
1924:machen
1918:Wasser
1875:father
1864:tenuis
1809:*toutā
1782:/loba/
1778:/bino/
1758:/lupa/
1754:/loba/
1750:/lupa/
1741:bodega
1666:/buko/
1552:vowel
1506:French
1232:Korean
872:y gath
838:y gath
819:, the
706:patrem
633:: the
580:(as a
532:
424:Merger
419:Fusion
345:Crasis
300:Sandhi
274:umlaut
236:Fusion
4320:(PDF)
4112:or .
4109:poble
4106:>
4098:/bdɡ/
4090:>
4086:>
4059:>
4028:vere-
4016:vete-
4010:vere-
3998:vete-
3950:/ptk/
3926:idgön
3920:itke-
3915:Votic
3898:katon
3892:katto
3851:taigh
3835:ceann
3823:peann
3757:. In
3633:orrys
3521:sgian
3509:sgian
3422:) vs
3325:aigh
3321:air a
3260:velar
3217:leisg
3011:teann
2998:/tʰʲ/
2965:/tʰʲ/
2932:/t̪ʰ/
2786:/l̪ˠ/
2720:/n̪ˠ/
2677:/pʰj/
2523:garbh
2424:ciùin
2412:/kʰʲ/
2324:/pok/
2289:l n r
2264:to a
2262:trill
2242:/n̪ˠ/
2238:/l̪ˠ/
2200:*
2158:*
2047:/ptk/
1903:water
1870:cornu
1858:pater
1830:túath
1752:>
1738:>
1729:ciega
1726:>
1723:caeca
1714:>
1702:>
1688:into
1686:Latin
1658:/ptk/
1654:/d͡ʒ/
1628:/t͡ʃ/
1587:Mixed
996:tsarã
988:terra
984:Latin
977:Greek
894:Types
867:]
863:[
833:]
829:[
794:Welsh
745:]
741:[
728:padre
679:]
675:[
661:show
651:]
647:[
620:]
616:[
612:]
608:[
606:like
569:lēnis
565:Latin
551:is a
520:(IPA)
4401:ISBN
4347:ISBN
4328:2021
4296:ISBN
4220:ISBN
4117:/lː/
4093:fred
4022:vesi
4007:and
4004:vesi
3960:and
3942:taps
3767:and
3665:and
3624:Manx
3619:uine
3609:oras
3515:dubh
3495:sgia
3487:sròn
3465:beul
3295:aigh
3162:and
3154:and
3071:/fj/
3050:fann
3004:/hj/
2977:tinn
2944:tana
2904:/hj/
2844:sona
2832:/s̪/
2792:/lˠ/
2753:/rˠ/
2683:/fj/
2644:/pʰ/
2616:/vj/
2610:/mj/
2589:maol
2556:geur
2544:/kʲ/
2478:/tʲ/
2457:dubh
2445:/t̪/
2379:/kʰ/
2347:/vj/
2341:/pj/
2254:/rˠ/
2204:ā be
2164:iros
2093:buco
2072:casa
2069:as
2026:gupu
2023:→ :
2004:domu
2001:→ :
1982:baca
1979:→ :
1912:reif
1909:vs.
1907:make
1899:ripe
1883:horn
1879:thin
1873:vs.
1820:tōθā
1784:→ .
1717:loba
1711:lupa
1705:vida
1699:vita
1633:cena
1620:raid
1618:and
1616:rate
1606:and
1598:and
1521:/au/
1514:/al/
1258:stop
1032:stop
920:The
799:cath
756:père
750:pare
643:wait
352:and
36:and
4188:of
4057:/j/
3993:/i/
3989:/s/
3985:/t/
3978:/t/
3970:/r/
3966:/ð/
3641:d d
3631:n d
3617:d d
3607:n d
3587:nos
3579:s d
3563:bu
3553:bu
3506:' (
3499:ubh
3497:n-d
3481:cam
3475:ron
3473:msh
3459:cam
3453:eul
3449:Cai
3435:mac
3427:cDh
3413:mac
3349:aon
3329:onn
3323:n t
3293:n t
3279:aon
3211:/l/
3205:/ʎ/
3178:/n/
3172:/ɲ/
3164:/ʎ/
3160:/ɲ/
3156:/l/
3152:/n/
3125:of
3077:/j/
3045:→ Ø
3041:/f/
2971:/h/
2938:/h/
2898:/ʃ/
2871:/h/
2865:/ʃ/
2838:/h/
2798:lag
2765:rag
2759:/ɾ/
2726:/n/
2650:/f/
2583:/v/
2577:/m/
2550:/ʝ/
2517:/ɣ/
2511:/k/
2484:/ʝ/
2451:/ɣ/
2418:/ç/
2391:cas
2385:/x/
2358:beò
2320:bog
2314:/v/
2308:/p/
2292:).
2274:/v/
2272:to
2270:/m/
2266:tap
2258:/ɾ/
2246:/n/
2244:to
2162:s w
2141:-os
2065:of
2063:/k/
2053:of
2019:/ɡ/
1997:/d/
1975:/b/
1942:).
1794:in
1791:-t-
1774:/b/
1762:/p/
1624:-er
1608:/d/
1604:/t/
1532:/o/
1012:or
990:to
959:or
935:or
869:in
861:to
788:or
762:pai
721:in
673:to
665:of
614:or
543:In
4420::
4276:^
4247:^
3987:→
3956:,
3940:,
3936:,
3929:.
3907:→
3901:,
3895:→
3779:,
3708:th
3705:,
3702:ph
3699:,
3696:ch
3681:,
3605:ao
3577:no
3565:mh
3540:bu
3484:+
3471:Ca
3451:mb
3438:+
3425:Ma
3416:+
3405:cG
3403:Ma
3358:ad
3291:ao
3209:→
3176:→
3166:.
3138:,
3075:→
3002:→
2969:→
2936:→
2902:→
2869:→
2836:→
2790:→
2757:→
2724:→
2681:→
2648:→
2614:→
2581:→
2548:→
2515:→
2482:→
2449:→
2416:→
2383:→
2345:→
2312:→
2256:→
2206:nā
2179:→
2147:-a
2041:A
1927:.
1921:,
1915:,
1905:,
1901:,
1881:,
1877:,
1867:,
1861:,
1848:.
1824:,
1812:,
1776:,
1732:,
1720:,
1708:,
1508:,
1483:→
1473:→
1468:→
1461:→
1456:→
1451:→
1444:→
1435:→
1430:→
1425:→
1416:→
1411:→
1406:→
1397:→
1392:→
1385:→
1376:→
1371:→
1362:→
1353:→
1345:→
1336:→
1329:→
1324:→
1314:→
1308:→
1302:→
1292:→
1281:→
1275:→
1267:→
1261:→
1215:→
1201:or
1193:or
1187:→
1172:→
1158:or
1150:or
1144:→
1107:or
1099:or
994::
986::
971:.
883:.
743:ð̞
739:→
547:,
309:,
272:,
4409:.
4355:.
4330:.
4304:.
4228:.
4080:(
3794:h
3788:c
3782:t
3776:p
3770:f
3764:s
3742:h
3690:t
3684:p
3678:c
3673:h
3629:u
3581:a
3555:d
3502:'
3444:)
3393:)
3373:)
3338:)
3327:d
3304:)
3147:n
3141:r
3135:l
3132:(
2353:)
2283:h
1817:*
1796:*
1578:→
1573:→
1565:→
1559:→
1549:→
1543:→
1510:l
1500:L
1479:,
1241:)
1234:)
1210:→
1205:→
1197:→
1182:→
1177:→
1167:→
1162:→
1154:→
1139:→
1134:→
1126:→
1121:→
1116:→
1111:→
1103:→
1090:→
1084:→
1076:→
1070:→
1064:→
1053:→
1047:→
1041:→
1035:→
1029:→
1016:)
1005:)
998:)
979:)
881:/
879:k
877:/
865:ɡ
859:/
857:k
855:/
831:ɡ
825:/
823:k
821:/
816:y
808:/
806:k
804:/
771:/
769:t
767:/
737:/
735:d
733:/
719:/
717:d
715:/
701:/
699:t
697:/
677:h
671:/
669:s
667:/
649:ɾ
639:/
637:t
635:/
618:ʔ
610:h
538:.
498:e
491:t
484:v
276:)
268:(
20:)
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