1163:
559:
2638:
2650:
2185:
2270:
348:
25:
122:
2662:
366:. The strike is the line of intersection between the planar feature and a horizontal plane, taken according to the right hand convention, and the dip is the magnitude of the inclination, below horizontal, at right angles to strike. For example; striking 25 degrees East of North, dipping 45 degrees Southeast, recorded as N25E,45SE.
744:
evolution of a structure through time. Without modeling or interpretation of the subsurface, geologists are limited to their knowledge of the surface geological mapping. If only reliant on the surface geology, major economic potential could be missed by overlooking the structural and tectonic history of the area.
863:
Hardness is difficult to quantify. It is a measure of resistance to deformation, specifically permanent deformation. There is precedent for hardness as a surface quality, a measure of the abrasiveness or surface-scratching resistance of a material. If the material being tested, however, is uniform in
772:
Stress is a pressure, defined as a directional force over area. When a rock is subjected to stresses, it changes shape. When the stress is released, the rock may or may not return to its original shape. That change in shape is quantified by strain, the change in length over the original length of the
1033:
is the strain at failure. The modulus is the maximum amount of energy per unit volume a material can absorb without fracturing. From the equation for modulus, for large toughness, high strength and high ductility are needed. These two properties are usually mutually exclusive. Brittle materials have
776:
Elastic deformation refers to a reversible deformation. In other words, when stress on the rock is released, the rock returns to its original shape. Reversible, linear, elasticity involves the stretching, compressing, or distortion of atomic bonds. Because there is no breaking of bonds, the material
717:
Geologists use rock geometry measurements to understand the history of strain in rocks. Strain can take the form of brittle faulting and ductile folding and shearing. Brittle deformation takes place in the shallow crust, and ductile deformation takes place in the deeper crust, where temperatures and
412:
Generally it is easier to record strike and dip information of planar structures in dip/dip direction format as this will match all the other structural information you may be recording about folds, lineations, etc., although there is an advantage to using different formats that discriminate between
310:
is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense structural geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as a framework to analyze and understand global, regional, and
854:
One mechanism of plastic deformation is the movement of dislocations by an applied stress. Because rocks are essentially aggregates of minerals, we can think of them as poly-crystalline materials. Dislocations are a type of crystallographic defect which consists of an extra or missing half plane of
537:
Stretching lineations may be difficult to quantify, especially in highly stretched ductile rocks where minimal foliation information is preserved. Where possible, when correlated with deformations (as few are formed in folds, and many are not strictly associated with planar foliations), they may be
752:
The mechanical properties of rock play a vital role in the structures that form during deformation deep below the earth's crust. The conditions in which a rock is present will result in different structures that geologists observe above ground in the field. The field of structural geology tries to
397:
Rake is measured by placing a protractor flat on the planar surface, with the flat edge horizontal and measuring the angle of the lineation clockwise from horizontal. The orientation of the lineation can then be calculated from the rake and strike-dip information of the plane it was measured from,
1050:
Resilience is a measure of the elastic energy absorbed of a material under stress. In other words, the external work performed on a material during deformation. The area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume. The resilience modulus is
148:
that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock
743:
For economic geology such as petroleum and mineral development, as well as research, modeling of structural geology is becoming increasingly important. 2D and 3D models of structural systems such as anticlines, synclines, fold and thrust belts, and other features can help better understand the
726:
By understanding the constitutive relationships between stress and strain in rocks, geologists can translate the observed patterns of rock deformation into a stress field during the geologic past. The following list of features are typically used to determine stress fields from deformational
899:
Toughness can be described best by a material's resistance to cracking. During plastic deformation, a material absorbs energy until fracture occurs. The area under the stress-strain curve is the work required to fracture the material. The toughness modulus is defined as:
368:
Alternatively, dip and dip direction may be used as this is absolute. Dip direction is measured in 360 degrees, generally clockwise from North. For example, a dip of 45 degrees towards 115 degrees azimuth, recorded as 45/115. Note that this is the same as above.
608:
This branch of structural geology deals mainly with the orientation, deformation and relationships of stratigraphy (bedding), which may have been faulted, folded or given a foliation by some tectonic event. This is mainly a geometric science, from which
444:
Planar structures are named according to their order of formation, with original sedimentary layering the lowest at S0. Often it is impossible to identify S0 in highly deformed rocks, so numbering may be started at an arbitrary number or given a letter
864:
composition and structure, then the surface of the material is only a few atomic layers thick, and measurements are of the bulk material. Thus, simple surface measurements yield information about the bulk properties. Ways to measure hardness include:
753:
relate the formations that humans see to the changes the rock went through to get to that final structure. Knowing the conditions of deformation that lead to such structures can illuminate the history of the deformation of the rock.
525:
Intersection lineations in rocks, as they are the product of the intersection of two planar structures, are named according to the two planar structures from which they are formed. For instance, the intersection lineation of a
385:
are measured in terms of dip and dip direction, if possible. Often lineations occur expressed on a planar surface and can be difficult to measure directly. In this case, the lineation may be measured from the horizontal as a
850:
refers to non-reversible deformation. The relationship between stress and strain for permanent deformation is nonlinear. Stress has caused permanent change of shape in the material by involving the breaking of bonds.
584:
is a method for analyzing the nature and orientation of deformation stresses, lithological units and penetrative fabrics wherein linear and planar features (structural strike and dip readings, typically taken using a
285:
landscapes which reside atop caverns, potential sinkholes, or other collapse features are of particular importance for these scientists. In addition, areas of steep slopes are potential collapse or landslide hazards.
319:
Structural geologists use a variety of methods to (first) measure rock geometries, (second) reconstruct their deformational histories, and (third) estimate the stress field that resulted in that deformation.
968:
205:
deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with
1119:
300:
flow and penetration. For instance, a hydrogeologist may need to determine if seepage of toxic substances from waste dumps is occurring in a residential area or if salty water is seeping into an
1367:
V. Guerriero; et al. (2009). "Quantifying uncertainties in multi-scale studies of fractured reservoir analogues: Implemented statistical analysis of scan line data from carbonate rocks".
379:
Fold axis plunge is measured in dip and dip direction (strictly, plunge and azimuth of plunge). The orientation of a fold axial plane is measured in strike and dip or dip and dip direction.
815:
1151:
is the yield strength of the material and E is the elastic modulus of the material. To increase resilience, one needs increased elastic yield strength and decreased modulus of elasticity.
1031:
1004:
589:) passing through an imagined sphere are plotted on a two-dimensional grid projection, facilitating more holistic analysis of a set of measurements. Stereonet developed by
1149:
838:
510:
Metamorphic events may span multiple deformations. Sometimes it is useful to identify them similarly to the structural features for which they are responsible, e.g.; M
756:
Temperature and pressure play a huge role in the deformation of rock. At the conditions under the earth's crust of extreme high temperature and pressure, rocks are
344:(stretching lineations, in which minerals are ductilely extended; fold axes; and intersection lineations, the trace of a planar feature on another planar surface).
140:
histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (
1035:
879:
874:
247:, which is concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks. Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations and
709:
Microstructural analysis finds application also in multi-scale statistical analysis, aimed to analyze some rock features showing scale invariance.
1265:
Livaccari, Richard F.; Burke, Kevin; Scedilengör, A. M. C. (1981). "Was the
Laramide orogeny related to subduction of an oceanic plateau?".
653:
reflection in three dimensions, providing unrivaled images of the Earth's interior, its faults and the deep crust. Further information from
1522:
777:
springs back when the force is released. This type of deformation is modeled using a linear relationship between stress and strain, i.e. a
891:
Indentation hardness is used often in metallurgy and materials science and can be thought of as resistance to penetration by an indenter.
601:
On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within
906:
855:
atoms in the periodic array of atoms that make up a crystal lattice. Dislocations are present in all real crystallographic materials.
760:. They can bend, fold or break. Other vital conditions that contribute to the formation of structure of rock under the earth are the
518:
formation in cleavages of known deformation age, by identifying metamorphic mineral assemblages created by different events, or via
328:
Primary data sets for structural geology are collected in the field. Structural geologists measure a variety of planar features (
89:
61:
483:
Deformations are numbered according to their order of formation with the letter D denoting a deformation event. For example, D
1334:
V. Guerriero; et al. (2011). "Improved statistical multi-scale analysis of fractures in carbonate reservoir analogues".
2514:
495:. Folds and foliations, because they are formed by deformation events, should correlate with these events. For example, an F
1057:
68:
1765:
42:
1034:
low toughness because low plastic deformation decreases the strain (low ductility). Ways to measure toughness include:
2221:
1482:
1457:
1434:
108:
787:
75:
1515:
1449:
697:, metamorphic minerals, and timing relationships between these structural features and mineralogical features.
260:
57:
46:
1369:
844:, which is material dependent. The elastic modulus is, in effect, a measure of the strength of atomic bonds.
1550:
296:
need to apply the tenets of structural geology to understand how geologic sites impact (or are impacted by)
679:
of rocks is studied by structural geologists on a small scale to provide detailed information mainly about
581:
409:, this is recorded as a lineation, with a rake, and annotated as to the indication of throw on the fault.
2688:
2292:
2188:
1508:
731:
In perfectly brittle rocks, faulting occurs at 30° to the greatest compressional stress. (Byerlee's Law)
2476:
251:
are internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the stability of human engineered structures such as
661:
and airborne magnetics can provide information on the nature of rocks imaged to be in the deep crust.
2259:
1850:
1855:
1631:
1336:
1192:
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563:
399:
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material in one dimension. Stress induces strain which ultimately results in a changed structure.
1621:
1555:
1127:
704:
611:
590:
141:
35:
82:
823:
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of a fold is created during folding, and the number convention should match. For example, an F
2555:
2214:
2132:
1936:
1825:
1695:
1675:
1575:
1545:
1182:
289:
137:
2109:
1993:
1710:
1665:
1426:
1382:
1349:
1276:
1168:
884:
546:. For convenience some geologists prefer to annotate them with a subscript S, for example L
1468:
8:
2616:
2580:
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2297:
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2142:
2018:
2003:
1980:
1976:
1755:
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341:
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to differentiate them from intersection lineations, though this is generally redundant.
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1988:
1870:
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1202:
1039:
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197:. Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for
558:
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2127:
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2013:
2008:
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1820:
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174:
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risk can only be investigated by inspecting a combination of structural geology and
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1805:
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1705:
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1390:
1357:
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1267:
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is occasionally used and is the deviation of a plane from vertical i.e. (90°-dip).
282:
170:
2595:
2397:
2371:
2318:
2170:
2066:
1966:
1941:
1913:
1898:
1800:
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1611:
841:
627:
567:
337:
248:
158:
16:
Science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust
1361:
699:
Usually this involves collection of hand specimens, which may be cut to provide
2642:
2590:
2524:
2486:
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2433:
2313:
2071:
2048:
2033:
1903:
1883:
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1570:
1197:
778:
362:
307:
206:
182:
133:
1685:
1394:
2682:
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2402:
2338:
2287:
1961:
1310:
619:
of rocks, regions, terranes and parts of the Earth's crust can be generated.
519:
515:
450:
329:
278:
2504:
2428:
2361:
2356:
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1956:
1616:
1590:
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145:
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1998:
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1177:
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694:
631:
571:
406:
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194:
747:
351:
Illustration of measurement conventions for planar and linear structures
240:, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.
2565:
2540:
2519:
2496:
2423:
2328:
2165:
2152:
1660:
869:
654:
534:
intersection lineation (also known as the cleavage-bedding lineation).
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274:
2637:
2269:
1770:
347:
2611:
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1470:
Earth
Structure - An Introduction to Structural Geology and Tectonics
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190:
24:
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421:
The convention for analysing structural geology is to identify the
256:
217:
201:
fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal
189:
commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as
1496:. Technical Report No AFWL-TR-65-116 Air Force Weapons Laboratory.
1466:
416:
2443:
2230:
1893:
1845:
1790:
658:
650:
635:
623:
602:
405:
If a fault has lineations formed by movement on the plane, e.g.;
301:
186:
169:
The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in
150:
121:
963:{\displaystyle M_{t}={\frac {2}{3}}\sigma _{UTS}\;\epsilon _{f}}
360:
The inclination of a planar structure in geology is measured by
1760:
1725:
1494:
1443:
734:
The greatest compressive stress is normal to fold axial planes.
638:
exploration industries as structures such as faults, folds and
264:
229:
225:
178:
1780:
1420:
689:
Textural study involves measurement and characterisation of
1815:
237:
233:
221:
213:
154:
2199:
642:
are primary controls on ore mineralisation and oil traps.
622:
Study of regional structure is important in understanding
1491:
1264:
252:
202:
538:
identified similar to planar surfaces and folds, e.g.; L
645:
Modern regional structure is being investigated using
132:
is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of
1130:
1114:{\displaystyle M_{R}={\frac {(\sigma _{y})^{2}}{2E}}}
1060:
1012:
979:
909:
826:
790:
748:
Characterization of the mechanical properties of rock
1158:
593:
is widely used in the structural geology community.
125:
Originally horizontal strata deformed due to stress
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1143:
1113:
1025:
998:
962:
832:
809:
144:) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the
2680:
503:axial plane foliation would be the result of a D
216:complexes and collapse features such as ancient
1411:
417:Plane, fabric, fold and deformation conventions
810:{\displaystyle \epsilon ={\frac {\sigma }{E}}}
468:, etc. Generally the axial plane foliation or
2215:
1516:
1366:
1333:
566:in structural geology using an example of a
562:Diagram showing the use of lower hemisphere
553:
1467:B.A. van der Pluijm and S. Marshak (2004).
1423:The structural geology of rocks and regions
1234:Structural Geology for Petroleum Geologists
460:If there are folds, these are numbered as F
453:foliation caused by burial metamorphism or
449:, for instance). In cases where there is a
2222:
2208:
1523:
1509:
949:
355:
703:thin sections which are analysed under a
243:Structural geology is a critical part of
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
1444:C.W. Passchier and R.A.J. Trouw (1998).
596:
557:
346:
212:. They often also occur around geologic
120:
1227:
687:, most often if they have been folded.
664:
2681:
1530:
1006:is the ultimate tensile strength, and
767:
2203:
1504:
1421:G.H. Davis and S.J. Reynolds (1996).
437:and, from analysis of these, unravel
164:
514:. This may be possible by observing
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
2661:
1766:List of tectonic plate interactions
1236:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 1.
13:
1492:D.U Deere and R.P. Miller (1966).
1405:
630:and more specifically in the oil,
14:
2700:
2660:
2649:
2648:
2636:
2268:
2184:
2183:
1161:
721:
577:observed within the fault plane.
23:
2119:
605:of rock or geological regions.
457:this may be enumerated as S0a.
34:needs additional citations for
1327:
1303:
1258:
1240:
1221:
1091:
1077:
1:
1370:Journal of Structural Geology
1214:
1045:
1026:{\displaystyle \epsilon _{f}}
999:{\displaystyle \sigma _{UTS}}
840:denotes strain, and E is the
712:
530:cleavage and bedding is the L
323:
1416:. Hafner Publishing Company.
1248:"Plate tectonics and people"
894:
136:units with respect to their
7:
2293:Geological history of Earth
2229:
1362:10.1016/j.tecto.2011.01.003
1228:Russell, William L (1955).
1154:
1144:{\displaystyle \sigma _{y}}
858:
738:
10:
2705:
2266:
1473:(2nd ed.). New York:
668:
314:
2630:
2604:
2533:
2495:
2442:
2416:
2380:
2347:
2307:Composition and structure
2306:
2278:
2260:Index of geology articles
2237:
2179:
2151:
2118:
2100:
2047:
1975:
1912:
1869:
1851:Thick-skinned deformation
1645:
1604:
1538:
1395:10.1016/j.jsg.2009.04.016
1315:Rick Allmendinger's Stuff
833:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
554:Stereographic projections
1856:Thin-skinned deformation
1632:Stereographic projection
1412:M. King Hubbert (1972).
1193:Stereographic projection
820:Where Ï denotes stress,
582:Stereographic projection
564:stereographic projection
413:planar and linear data.
400:stereographic projection
290:Environmental geologists
281:. In addition, areas of
1622:Orthographic projection
1605:Measurement conventions
1551:Lamé's stress ellipsoid
705:petrographic microscope
675:Rock microstructure or
591:Richard W. Allmendinger
429:because this implies a
356:Measurement conventions
1145:
1115:
1027:
1000:
964:
834:
811:
718:pressures are higher.
615:and three-dimensional
578:
352:
311:local scale features.
126:
2556:Environmental geology
2133:Paleostress inversion
1826:Strike-slip tectonics
1696:Extensional tectonics
1676:Continental collision
1546:Deformation mechanism
1183:List of rock textures
1146:
1116:
1028:
1001:
965:
835:
812:
683:and some features of
597:Rock macro-structures
561:
476:fold should have an S
350:
336:, fold axial planes,
124:
2515:Planetary geophysics
1711:Fold and thrust belt
1169:Earth science portal
1128:
1058:
1010:
977:
907:
885:Indentation hardness
824:
788:
665:Rock microstructures
58:"Structural geology"
43:improve this article
2617:Petroleum geologist
2581:Forensic geophysics
2551:Engineering geology
2298:Timeline of geology
2250:Glossary of geology
2143:Section restoration
2019:Rock microstructure
1681:Convergent boundary
1581:Strain partitioning
1566:Overburden pressure
1556:MohrâCoulomb theory
1387:2010JSG....32.1271G
1354:2011Tectp.504...14G
1281:1981Natur.289..276L
1188:Section restoration
1036:Page impact machine
880:Deval abrasion test
875:Dorry abrasion test
848:Plastic deformation
768:Stress-strain curve
764:and strain fields.
671:rock microstructure
340:, and joints), and
245:engineering geology
149:deformation (e.g.,
2689:Structural geology
2643:Geology portal
2571:Geologic modelling
2510:Geophysical survey
2462:Geodetic astronomy
2388:Structural geology
2349:Historical geology
2280:History of geology
2255:History of geology
2245:Outline of geology
2120:Kinematic analysis
1776:Mountain formation
1691:Divergent boundary
1656:Accretionary wedge
1532:Structural geology
1414:Structural Geology
1203:Vergence (geology)
1141:
1111:
1040:Charpy impact test
1023:
996:
960:
830:
807:
647:seismic tomography
587:compass clinometer
579:
394:upon the surface.
353:
165:Use and importance
130:Structural geology
127:
2676:
2675:
2561:Planetary geology
2477:Planetary geodesy
2197:
2196:
2128:3D fold evolution
2014:Pressure solution
2009:Oblique foliation
1889:Exfoliation joint
1879:Columnar jointing
1539:Underlying theory
1275:(5795): 276â278.
1230:"1. Introduction"
1109:
931:
805:
685:sedimentary rocks
681:metamorphic rocks
480:axial foliation.
435:linear structures
423:planar structures
261:underground mines
185:and faulted rock
175:petroleum geology
151:mountain building
119:
118:
111:
93:
2696:
2664:
2663:
2652:
2651:
2641:
2640:
2576:Forensic geology
2546:Economic geology
2472:Gravity of Earth
2367:Paleoclimatology
2272:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2187:
2186:
1932:Detachment fault
1927:Cataclastic rock
1861:Thrust tectonics
1831:Structural basin
1806:Pull-apart basin
1746:Horst and graben
1525:
1518:
1511:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1488:
1463:
1440:
1425:(2nd ed.).
1417:
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1289:10.1038/289276a0
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839:
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334:foliation planes
273:risk, including
171:economic geology
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
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2672:
2635:
2626:
2600:
2596:Mineral physics
2529:
2491:
2438:
2412:
2398:Plate tectonics
2376:
2372:Palaeogeography
2343:
2319:Crystallography
2302:
2274:
2273:
2264:
2233:
2228:
2198:
2193:
2175:
2147:
2114:
2096:
2067:Detachment fold
2043:
1971:
1967:Transform fault
1942:Fault mechanics
1908:
1865:
1801:Plate tectonics
1751:Intra-arc basin
1641:
1612:Brunton compass
1600:
1534:
1529:
1485:
1477:. p. 656.
1460:
1437:
1408:
1406:Further reading
1403:
1402:
1332:
1328:
1319:
1317:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1263:
1259:
1246:
1245:
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1167:
1162:
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1125:
1101:
1094:
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1065:
1061:
1059:
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1048:
1017:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1007:
984:
980:
978:
975:
974:
954:
950:
937:
933:
923:
914:
910:
908:
905:
904:
897:
889:
861:
842:elastic modulus
825:
822:
821:
797:
789:
786:
785:
770:
750:
741:
724:
715:
708:
698:
688:
673:
667:
628:plate tectonics
599:
556:
549:
545:
541:
533:
529:
513:
506:
502:
499:fold, with an S
498:
494:
490:
486:
479:
475:
467:
463:
448:
433:formation, the
425:, often called
419:
367:
358:
342:linear features
326:
317:
308:Plate tectonics
294:hydrogeologists
167:
159:plate tectonics
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2702:
2692:
2691:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2670:
2658:
2646:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2601:
2599:
2598:
2593:
2591:Mining geology
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2525:Tectonophysics
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2501:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2487:Geopositioning
2484:
2482:Remote sensing
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2448:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2434:Marine geology
2431:
2426:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2314:Cosmochemistry
2310:
2308:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2282:
2276:
2275:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2227:
2226:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2195:
2194:
2192:
2191:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2106:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2036:
2034:Tectonic phase
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1985:
1983:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1918:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1907:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1796:Passive margin
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1721:Foreland basin
1718:
1716:Fold mountains
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1671:Back-arc basin
1668:
1663:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1637:Strike and dip
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1571:Rock mechanics
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1528:
1527:
1520:
1513:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1489:
1483:
1464:
1458:
1446:Microtectonics
1441:
1435:
1418:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1337:Tectonophysics
1326:
1302:
1257:
1239:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1198:Tectonophysics
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1156:
1153:
1138:
1134:
1122:
1121:
1107:
1104:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1047:
1044:
1020:
1016:
993:
990:
987:
983:
971:
970:
957:
953:
946:
943:
940:
936:
930:
927:
922:
917:
913:
896:
893:
888:
887:
882:
877:
872:
866:
860:
857:
829:
818:
817:
804:
801:
796:
793:
781:relationship.
769:
766:
749:
746:
740:
737:
736:
735:
732:
723:
720:
714:
711:
669:Main article:
666:
663:
640:unconformities
612:cross sections
598:
595:
555:
552:
547:
543:
539:
531:
527:
511:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
477:
473:
465:
461:
446:
427:planar fabrics
418:
415:
363:strike and dip
357:
354:
330:bedding planes
325:
322:
316:
313:
220:. Deposits of
179:mining geology
166:
163:
117:
116:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2701:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2669:
2668:
2659:
2657:
2656:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2629:
2623:
2622:Volcanologist
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2532:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2457:Earth's orbit
2455:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2403:Geomorphology
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2381:Dynamic Earth
2379:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2340:
2339:Sedimentology
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2288:Geochronology
2286:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2220:
2218:
2213:
2211:
2206:
2205:
2202:
2190:
2182:
2181:
2178:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1962:Transfer zone
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1822:
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1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
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1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
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1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1561:Mohr's circle
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1507:
1506:
1503:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1484:0-393-92467-X
1480:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1465:
1461:
1459:3-540-58713-6
1455:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1438:
1436:0-471-52621-5
1432:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1409:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1381:: 1271â1278.
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1338:
1330:
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1306:
1298:
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1269:
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1253:
1249:
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1235:
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1224:
1220:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1159:
1152:
1136:
1132:
1105:
1102:
1095:
1085:
1081:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1018:
1014:
991:
988:
985:
981:
955:
951:
944:
941:
938:
934:
928:
925:
920:
915:
911:
903:
902:
901:
892:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
865:
856:
852:
849:
845:
843:
827:
802:
799:
794:
791:
784:
783:
782:
780:
774:
765:
763:
759:
754:
745:
733:
730:
729:
728:
722:Stress fields
719:
710:
706:
702:
696:
692:
686:
682:
678:
672:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
643:
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637:
633:
629:
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620:
618:
614:
613:
606:
604:
594:
592:
588:
583:
576:
573:
569:
565:
560:
551:
535:
523:
521:
520:geochronology
517:
516:porphyroblast
508:
507:deformation.
481:
471:
458:
456:
452:
451:bedding-plane
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
414:
410:
408:
403:
401:
395:
393:
389:
384:
380:
377:
375:
370:
365:
364:
349:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
321:
312:
309:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
284:
280:
279:geomorphology
276:
272:
268:
266:
262:
258:
255:, road cuts,
254:
250:
246:
241:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
210:igneous rocks
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
162:
160:
156:
152:
147:
143:
139:
138:deformational
135:
131:
123:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: â
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2665:
2653:
2634:
2534:Applications
2505:Geomagnetism
2429:Hydrogeology
2387:
2362:Paleontology
2357:Stratigraphy
2324:Geochemistry
1957:Thrust fault
1646:Large-scale
1617:Inclinometer
1591:Stress field
1531:
1493:
1475:W. W. Norton
1469:
1445:
1422:
1413:
1374:
1368:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1318:. Retrieved
1314:
1305:
1272:
1266:
1260:
1251:
1242:
1233:
1223:
1208:Hydrogeology
1123:
1051:defined as:
1049:
972:
898:
890:
862:
853:
846:
819:
775:
771:
755:
751:
742:
727:structures.
725:
716:
701:petrographic
695:crenulations
676:
674:
644:
621:
617:block models
616:
610:
607:
600:
580:
570:plane and a
536:
524:
509:
482:
459:
443:
439:deformations
438:
434:
426:
422:
420:
411:
407:slickensides
404:
396:
391:
387:
381:
378:
373:
371:
361:
359:
338:fault planes
327:
318:
306:
288:
271:Geotechnical
269:
242:
199:hydrothermal
168:
146:stress field
129:
128:
105:
99:October 2008
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2605:Occupations
2586:Meteoritics
2452:Cartography
2408:Volcanology
2393:Geodynamics
2138:Paleostress
2024:Slickenside
1999:Crenulation
1952:Fault trace
1947:Fault scarp
1937:Disturbance
1922:Cataclasite
1811:Rift valley
1731:Half-graben
1701:Fault block
1686:DĂ©collement
1311:"Stereonet"
1178:Crenulation
572:slickenside
298:groundwater
195:natural gas
2566:Geobiology
2541:Biogeology
2520:Seismology
2497:Geophysics
2424:Glaciology
2329:Mineralogy
2166:Pure shear
2153:Shear zone
2110:Competence
1994:Compaction
1871:Fracturing
1666:Autochthon
1661:Allochthon
1448:. Berlin:
1320:2022-12-23
1215:References
1046:Resilience
870:Mohs Scale
713:Kinematics
691:foliations
655:geophysics
455:diagenesis
383:Lineations
324:Geometries
275:earthquake
259:mines and
69:newspapers
2612:Geologist
2467:Geomatics
2334:Petrology
2238:Overviews
2102:Boudinage
2082:Monocline
2077:Homocline
2057:Anticline
2039:Tectonite
2029:Stylolite
2004:Fissility
1981:lineation
1977:Foliation
1841:Syneclise
1786:Obduction
1756:Inversion
1648:tectonics
1348:: 14â24.
1133:σ
1082:σ
1015:ϵ
982:σ
952:ϵ
935:σ
895:Toughness
828:ϵ
800:σ
792:ϵ
575:lineation
372:The term
218:sinkholes
207:intrusive
191:petroleum
157:) due to
2683:Category
2189:Category
2161:Mylonite
2092:Vergence
2087:Syncline
1989:Cleavage
1914:Faulting
1450:Springer
1379:Elsevier
1346:Elsevier
1297:27153755
1155:See also
859:Hardness
739:Modeling
657:such as
603:terranes
470:cleavage
431:textural
398:using a
263:or road
257:open pit
2667:Geology
2655:Geology
2444:Geodesy
2231:Geology
2062:Chevron
2049:Folding
1894:Fissure
1846:Terrane
1791:Orogeny
1771:MĂ©lange
1706:Fenster
1596:Tension
1383:Bibcode
1350:Bibcode
1277:Bibcode
779:Hookean
758:ductile
677:texture
659:gravity
651:seismic
636:mineral
624:orogeny
315:Methods
302:aquifer
265:tunnels
173:, both
155:rifting
83:scholar
1836:Suture
1821:Saddle
1761:Klippe
1726:Graben
1586:Stress
1576:Strain
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1268:Nature
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187:strata
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142:strain
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283:karst
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1884:Dike
1816:Rift
1627:Rake
1479:ISBN
1454:ISBN
1431:ISBN
1252:USGS
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374:hade
292:and
253:dams
238:zinc
234:lead
222:gold
214:reef
193:and
177:and
134:rock
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1391:doi
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