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discussed with others on the phone), specification of goals (e.g., being responsible for setting one's own schedule and priorities), cueing strategies (e.g., putting a checkout board by the exit to remind an employee to let their secretary know where they are going and when they expect to return), rehearsal (e.g., recording one's presentation to clients and making corrections as needed), self-evaluation (e.g., using a chart to keep track of work quality and quantity), and self-reinforcement (accomplished by building intrinsic rewards for the performance of tasks; Bass, 1990; Manz & Sims 1980). These strategies can be understood as being substitutes for leadership. Instead of requiring that a supervisor monitor a subordinate's progress on a work task, a subordinate can self-manage by utilizing one of the strategies listed above. This makes the supervisor's guidance unnecessary for the subordinate.
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petty officers and 240 recruiters at a
Belgium naval training center (Fiedler, 1965). Fiedler found that a leader's fit with the group and the task was more important in predicting outcomes than the leader's characteristics. For example, controlling leaders went best with heterogeneous groups with low position power. (Fiedler, 1965). There are many different theories within the contingency paradigm, which differ on what situational factors change leadership effectiveness. The most influential theory within this model is the path-goal theory (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001).
554:. Intrinsically satisfying work, organizational formulation, and cohesive workgroups were substitutes that were significantly correlated with both job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, they found little evidence that substitutes prevented or replaced a leader's effect on subordinate job satisfaction or organizational commitment. The only substitute that served as a replacement was the organizational formulation, which replaced leader behavior's predictive power in explaining subordinate job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
22:
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variance in job attitudes and role perceptions than in employee performance. They posit the reason for this was that their predictors shared a common source with the job attitudes and role perception criterion measures, but not with the employee performance criterion measures. They suggested that common-source bias may not be the only reason for this, but that it should be controlled in future research.
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509:. They claim that the subscales produce easily interpretable data that describe the extent to which substitutes for leadership are present or absent in a given work situation. They went on to test their subscales in a field setting using police officers and concluded that the subscales met acceptable standards of reliability, and can be used to assess the
638:, or bias occurring when independent and dependent variables are collected from the same person or group of people. In a study sampling 49 organizations, Dionne and colleagues controlled for the effect of common-source bias and found no moderating or mediating effects of substitutes on the relationship between leader behavior and group effectiveness.
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in nature, making it more difficult to discern a causal relationship between substitutes and their effects on employee performance. Cross-sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at a specific point in time, whereas longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures
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The theory originally classified substitutes as characteristics of the subordinate, characteristics of the task, and characteristics of the organization. Howell, Dorfman, & Kerr proposed alteration to the theory in terms of subordinate classification. They argued that moderators should be grouped
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Subordinates that are organizational independents do not feel tied to one company and are internally motivated instead of motivated by the characteristics of the organization, such as leader behavior. Leaders are high on initiating structure to clarify their own roles and their subordinates’ roles in
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of leadership was developed by Fred
Fiedler in the 1960s after Fiedler spent 12 years collecting data from over 800 groups of employees. This model predicts that the most effective method of leadership will vary depending on the situation. A study that supported the model was one Fiedler did with 48
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Yukl (1998) pointed out that it is hard to identify specific substitutes and neutralizers for broad behavior categories, and that an improvement on the theory would be to use more specific behaviors in place of "supportive and instrumental leadership behaviors." Yukl said that recent studies testing
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model and path-goal theory. The contingency model stated that various leadership styles would be more or less effective depending on the situation. (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001; Fiedler, 1965). Path-goal theory proposed that subordinates would be satisfied with their leader if they perceived that
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Self-management is defined by
Thoresen and Mahoney (1974) as occurring when an individual behaves in a way he would not normally behave, and there are no external forces dictating that the person maintains that behavior. Self-management requires self-observation (e.g., keeping a log of what one has
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in which they took the results of 22 studies that examined the main effect of substitutes for leadership on the relationship between leader behaviors and subordinate outcomes. They found evidence supporting the theory taking into account both leader behaviors and the effect of substitutes accounted
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Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, and
Williams noted that studies testing the substitutes for leadership model had not been fully supportive of the theory, and believed that one reason for this may be that the quality of the scale developed by Kerr and Jermier to measure the substitutes constructs may
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would bring them future satisfaction. Subordinates would be motivated by their leader if they perceived that completing work tasks would bring them satisfaction, and if the leader provided proper coaching, support, rewards, and guidance. Frustrations with not being able to find significant results
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predicts that subordinates will be satisfied with their leader if they feel their leader's behavior will lead them to satisfaction. Also, subordinates will be motivated when they feel that their satisfaction depends on their performance and their leader acts in a way to help them reach goals (Den
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In 1973, Kerr was the first to coin substitutes for leadership as elements in the work setting that lessened leader effectiveness on subordinate outcomes. Further publications led to Kerr and
Jermier's 1978 paper, which unveiled substitutes for leadership theory. This paper presented two types of
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were the two heavily researched theories. (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). Proponents of trait leadership theory held that the ability to lead is a characteristic some people innately have and others do not. The effort was put forth to uncover which characteristics and abilities leaders had that
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In a study by
Podsakoff and Mackenzie, the predictor variables, as well as the job attitude and role perception variables, were both taken from individual employees, while the performance measures were taken from supervisors. They found that their predictors accounted for a higher proportion of
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that played a part in the relationship between initiating structure leader behavior and subordinate outcomes. For example, when a task was ambiguous, the relationship between leader initiating structure and subordinate satisfaction was stronger than if the task was clear. These findings made it
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can substitute for formal leadership. In this scenario, employees are divided into groups that are responsible for managing their own day-to-day work (i.e. collective control over the pace, distribution of tasks, organization of breaks, recruitment, and training; Gulowsen, 1972). A
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actively involved in leadership research. Kerr was studying existing proposed subordinate constructs such as organizational independence and proposed leadership constructs such as consideration and initiating structure (put forth by the Ohio State
Leadership Studies).
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as well as moderators. Testing a variety of different substitutes and outcomes, the researchers found only very weak evidence that substitutes make a difference and concluded that leader behaviors are the only important variable in predicting employee outcomes.
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Another study looked at 1,235 employees working for 265 leaders in a variety of job settings. Among their findings were that intrinsically satisfying tasks were positively related to subordinate satisfaction, indifference to rewards was negatively related to
566:. The researchers in this study concluded that substitutes for leadership were useful in predicting subordinate outcomes, but leader behaviors and substitutes should always be studied together because together they explained about a third of the total
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A more recent study conducted by Dionne and colleagues collected data from 940 subordinates. Unsatisfied with the fact that prior studies had tested substitutes, enhancers, and neutralizers as moderators, they tested the effect of substitutes as
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over a longer period of time. Keller's longitudinal study of the effect of substitutes on
Research & Development teams found that two of the seven substitutes (ability and intrinsic satisfaction) affected team performance over time.
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The original scale to measure the effects of various substitutes was developed by Kerr and
Jermier. They assessed leadership substitutes via a questionnaire that contained thirteen subscales with a total of 55 items. The items were on a
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found that implementing autonomous workgroups of 8 to 12 shop-floor employees in a manufacturing setting positively affected both the intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction of employees while obviating some supervisory positions.
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Kerr and
Jermier proposed that substitute variables should render leader behaviors unable to predict subordinate outcomes. Researchers that have tested this characteristic of substitutes have found mixed results.
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with anyone's theory resulted in the development of reexaminations and new approaches, including questioning which situations necessitated a leader figure and which did not (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001).
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The theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). It has received criticism for shortcomings due to perceived
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based on their effect on the criterion. The original theory had already proposed moderators that act as substitutes and moderators that act as neutralizers. Howell and colleagues added enhancers to these.
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style was another angle researchers took. Proponents of this approach did not believe the ability to lead was innate, rather it was a set of behaviors anyone could learn (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001).
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Manz, C. C., & Sims, H. P. (1992). The potential for "groupthink" in autonomous work groups. In R. Glaser (Ed.), 'Classic readings in self-managing teamwork: 20 of the most important articles
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be to blame. In response to this, they designed their own 74-item measure of substitutes for leadership. To test their scale, they administered it to 372 business students. Their analyses of the
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Hartog & Koopman, 2001, House, 1971). Path-goal theory predicts that when goals and the paths to those goals are clear, subordinates may not need leader guidance (Kerr & Jermier, 1978).
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elements in the job environment: substitutes and neutralizers. These elements were proposed to serve as moderators in the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate outcomes.
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the theory have used specific behaviors (e.g., contingent reward behavior and role clarification), however, the development of the theory does not reflect these developments.
132:
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Substitutes for leadership theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001).
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apparent that there were variables that affected the relationship between leader behavior and subordinate outcomes, making the relationship stronger or weaker.
1513:"Transformational leadership, initiating structure, and substitutes for leadership: A longitudinal study of research and development project team performance"
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Unambiguous and routine task (when all subordinates are performing menial labor, there is little role leadership can play; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001)
1427:"Meta-analysis of the relationships between Kerr and Jermier's substitutes for leadership and employee job attitudes, role perceptions, and performance"
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Steven Kerr and Anne Harlan was one of the researchers publicly expressing his frustrations with current leadership theories. In the 1970s, Kerr was at
35:
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Den Hartog, D. N., & Koopman, P. L. (2002). Leadership in organizations. In N. Anderson, D. S. Ones, H. K. Sinangil, & C. Viswesvaran (Eds.),
1396:"Do Substitutes for Leadership Really Substitute for Leadership? An Empirical Examination of Kerr and Jermier′s Situational Leadership Model"
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Substitutes are variables that make leadership unnecessary for subordinates and reduce the extent to which subordinates rely on their leader
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Organizational formulation (clear job goals that are written down, performance appraisals that are written down; Kerr and Jermier, 1987)
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Neutralizers are variables which serve to weaken, or block leader influence on subordinate outcomes (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001
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Subordinates having experience (those more experienced will be able to translate even the most ambiguous instructions into results
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Dionne and colleagues argued that significant effects of substitutes found in prior studies may be a statistical artifact due to
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Kerr and Jermier tested nine of these subscales in a lab setting and found that they were independent and had adequate internal
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A study involving hospital personnel found that tasks that gave feedback regarding performance were negatively correlated with
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Enhancers are variables that serve to strengthen leaders influence on subordinate outcomes (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001
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properties of the revised measure revealed their scale to be superior to Kerr and Jermier's scale, as evidenced by better
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73:
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1171:"Ability-and willingness-to-leave as moderators of relationships between task and leader variables and satisfaction"
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Fiedler, E. (1965). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. In H. Proshansky, & B. Seidenberg (Eds.),
1045:"Predicting the effects of leadership training and experience from the contingency model: Some remaining problems"
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ranging from 1 (almost always untrue or completely untrue), to 5 (almost always true or almost completely true).
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Cohesive work groups (a tight-knit group of employees has less need for a leader; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001)
140:
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in which he pointed out that the vast majority of studies conducted on substitutes for leadership theory are
1101:"Toward a contingency theory of leadership based upon the consideration and initiating structure literature"
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559:
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Kerr, Steven; Jermier, John M. (1978). "Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement".
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Gulowsen, J. (1972). A measure of work group autonomy. In L. E. Davis, & J. C. Taylor (Eds.),
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for more of the variance in subordinate outcomes than taking into account leader behaviors alone.
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Kerr & Jermier never specified an example of a task characteristic that acts as a neutralizer.
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may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
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Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 2: Organizational psychology
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1331:"Problems with detecting moderators in leadership research using moderated multiple regression"
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601:
510:
258:
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Podsakoff, Philip M.; Niehoff, Brian P.; MacKenzie, Scott B.; Williams, Margaret L. (1993).
1132:"Organizational independence, leader behavior, and managerial practices: A replicated study"
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Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications
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Dionne, Shelley D.; Yammarino, Francis J.; Howell, Jon P.; Villa, Jennifer (January 2005).
853:"Neutralizing substitutes for leadership theory: Leadership effects and common-source bias"
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718:
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Having group norms that encourage cooperation with leaders (Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001)
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Dionne, Shelley D.; Yammarino, Francis J.; Atwater, Leanne E.; James, Lawrence R. (2002).
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Substitutes for leadership theory was a heavily researched area until the late 1980s when
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Kerr, Steven; Schriesheim, Chester A.; Murphy, Charles J.; Stogdill, Ralph M. (1974).
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983:"Fiedler's leadership contingency model: An empirical test in three organizations"
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obtaining a goal. Kerr and colleagues noticed many studies had found significant
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has produced mixed results as to its ability to predict subordinate outcomes.
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Villa, Jennifer R; Howell, Jon P; Dorfman, Peter W; Daniel, David L (2003).
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1014:"Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory"
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any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
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Task that provides its own feedback as to how well the task is being done
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Self-managed work teams (employees rely on each other, not their leader)
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Podsakoff, Philip M.; MacKenzie, Scott B.; Bommer, William H. (1996).
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Wall, T. D.; Kemp, N. J.; Jackson, P. R.; Clegg, C. W. (1986-06-01).
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Whether or not subordinates are rewarded is not the leader's decision
1598:(401-411). King of Prussia, PA: Organization Design and Development.
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first developed by Steven Kerr and John M. Jermier and published in
1224:
949:"Substitutes-for-leadership theory: Development and basic concepts"
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250:
799:
Avolio, Bruce J.; Walumbwa, Fred O.; Weber, Todd J. (2009-01-01).
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House, R. J. (1971). A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness.
1474:"Outcomes of Autonomous Workgroups: A Long-Term Field Experiment"
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In the mid-1970s, a great deal of research was dedicated to the
801:"Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions"
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of the substitutes for leadership construct in future studies.
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1365:"Substitutes for leadership: Their meaning and measurement"
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became the focus of the majority of leadership research.
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Howell, Jon P.; Dorfman, Peter W.; Kerr, Steven (1986).
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Organizational rewards not within the leader's control
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Unambiguous, routine, and methodically invariant tasks
1575:(538-551). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
1568:(166-187). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
550:. Routine repetitive work tasks were correlated with
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Subordinates are indifferent when it comes to rewards
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Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
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Criticisms and methodological problems with research
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905:Podsakoff, Philip M.; MacKenzie, Scott B. (1995).
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498:Spatial distance between superior and subordinates
1613:(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
1284:"Substitutes for Leadership: Test of a Construct"
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492:Close-knit, cohesive, interdependent work groups
477:Task-provided feedback concerning accomplishment
392:Leader having the ability to reward subordinates
223:Over the years, researchers have developed many
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1602:Thoreson, C. E., & Mahoney, M. J. (1974).
1369:Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
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1105:Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
987:Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
771:Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
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582:Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Bommer conducted a
201:Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
1606:New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
1282:Howell, J. P.; Dorfman, P. W. (1981-12-01).
1209:"Moderator Variables in Leadership Research"
465:Ability, experience, training, and knowledge
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946:
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517:Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, and Williams
471:Indifference towards organizational rewards
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50:Learn how and when to remove these messages
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177:Learn how and when to remove this message
159:Learn how and when to remove this message
100:Learn how and when to remove this message
714:Industrial and organizational psychology
570:insubordinate outcomes in their sample.
364:
1363:Kerr, Steven; Jermier, John M. (1978).
1130:House, Robert J.; Kerr, Steven (1973).
1635:
1582:(374-390). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
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817:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621
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322:Subordinate's professional orientation
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336:Task that is intrinsically satisfying
1561:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
1248:"Substitutes for leadership, or not"
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420:Characteristics of the organization
386:Characteristics of the organization
341:Characteristics of the organization
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1043:Kerr, Steven; Harlan, Anne (1973).
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412:Characteristics of the subordinate
370:Characteristics of the subordinate
316:Characteristics of the subordinate
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1573:Basic studies in social psychology
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694:Proposed by Robert House in 1971,
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72:tone or style may not reflect the
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501:Subordinate need for independence
295:Substitutes for leadership theory
236:separated them from non-leaders.
190:Substitutes for leadership theory
31:This article has multiple issues.
1587:Administrative Science Quarterly
1213:The Academy of Management Review
947:Schriesheim, Chester A. (1997).
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82:guide to writing better articles
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39:or discuss these issues on the
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480:Intrinsically satisfying tasks
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1517:Journal of Applied Psychology
1478:Academy of Management Journal
1431:Journal of Applied Psychology
1347:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00184-4
1288:Academy of Management Journal
1187:10.1016/S0148-2963(73)80002-5
1136:Journal of Applied Psychology
1049:Journal of Applied Psychology
1030:10.1016/S1048-9843(96)90024-7
965:10.1016/S1048-9843(97)90009-6
857:Journal of Applied Psychology
734:
461:The subscales included were:
1381:10.1016/0030-5073(78)90023-5
1264:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.012
1175:Journal of Business Research
1117:10.1016/0030-5073(74)90037-3
999:10.1016/0030-5073(67)90023-2
923:10.1016/1048-9843(95)90011-X
783:10.1016/0030-5073(78)90023-5
646:Lack of longitudinal studies
489:Advisory and staff functions
486:Organizational inflexibility
483:Organizational formalization
378:Characteristics of the task
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327:Characteristics of the task
141:Knowledge's inclusion policy
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1611:Leadership in organizations
805:Annual Review of Psychology
702:
600:Bass (1990) suggested that
284:transformational leadership
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1626:SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP
1529:10.1037/0021-9010.91.1.202
1511:Keller, Robert T. (2006).
1443:10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.380
869:10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.454
672:Closely related constructs
218:
1012:House, Robert J. (1996).
729:Fiedler contingency model
560:organizational commitment
552:organizational commitment
1604:Behavioral self-control.
1335:The Leadership Quarterly
1252:The Leadership Quarterly
1018:The Leadership Quarterly
953:The Leadership Quarterly
911:The Leadership Quarterly
468:Professional orientation
407:Examples of neutralizers
311:Examples of substitutes
1412:10.1006/obhd.1993.1001
602:autonomous work groups
596:Autonomous work groups
534:of the revised scale.
433:Scales used to measure
227:. Prior to the 1970s,
1169:Kerr, Steven (1973).
365:Examples of enhancers
259:Ohio State University
1557:Bass, B. M. (1990).
981:Hunt, J.G. (1967).
663:Conceptual weakness
650:Keller conducted a
381:Task is non-routine
319:Subordinate ability
225:leadership theories
1643:Leadership studies
652:longitudinal study
635:common-source bias
628:Common-source bias
213:Empirical research
203:in December 1978.
1609:Yukl, G. (1998).
724:Contingency Model
683:contingency model
677:Contingency model
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719:Path–goal theory
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690:Path-goal theory
607:quasi-experiment
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233:path-goal theory
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36:improve it
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