Superalloy - Knowledge

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dislocation motion. This high APB energy makes it so that a second dislocation has to undo the APB energy created by the first. In doing so, this significantly reduces the mobility of dislocations in the material which should inhibit dislocation activated creep. These dislocation pairs (also called superdislocations) have been described as being either weakly or strongly coupled, the spacing between the dislocations compared to the size of the particle diameter being the determining factor between weak and strong. A weakly coupled dislocation has a relatively large spacing between the dislocations compared to the particle diameter while a strongly coupled dislocation has a relatively comparable spacing compared to the particle diameter. This is determined not by the dislocation spacing, but by the size of the 𝛾’ particles. A weakly coupled dislocation occurs when the particle size is relatively small while a strongly coupled dislocation occurs when the particle size is relatively large (such as when a superalloy has been aged for too long). Weakly coupled dislocations exhibit pinning and bowing of the dislocation line on the 𝛾’-particles. Strongly coupled dislocation behavior depends greatly on the dislocation line lengths and the resistances benefits they offer disappear once the particle size becomes large enough.

2048:, and nickel-chromium. For aluminide bond coatings, the coating's final composition and structure depends on the substrate composition. Aluminides lack ductility below 750 °C, and exhibit limited thermomechanical fatigue strength. Pt-aluminides are similar to the aluminide bond coats except for a layer of Pt (5—10 μm) deposited on the blade. The Pt aids in oxide adhesion and contributes to hot corrosion, increasing blade lifespan. MCrAlY does not strongly interact with the substrate. Normally applied by plasma spraying, MCrAlY coatings from secondary aluminum oxides. This means that the coatings form an outer chromia layer and a secondary alumina layer underneath. These oxide formations occur at high temperatures in the range of those that superalloys usually encounter. The chromia provides oxidation and hot-corrosion resistance. The alumina controls oxidation mechanisms by limiting oxide growth by self-passivating. The yttrium enhances oxide adherence to the substrate, and limits the growth of grain boundaries (which can lead to coat flaking). Addition of rhenium and tantalum increases oxidation resistance. 351:

dispersion between these known as secondary γ'. In order to improve the oxidation resistance of these alloys, Al, Cr, B, and Y are added. The Al and Cr form oxide layers that passivate the surface and protect the superalloy from further oxidation while B and Y are used to improve the adhesion of this oxide scale to the substrate. Cr, Fe, Co, Mo and Re all preferentially partition to the γ matrix while Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, and V preferentially partition to the γ' precipitates and solid solution strengthen the matrix and precipitates respectively. In addition to solid solution strengthening, if grain boundaries are present, certain elements are chosen for grain boundary strengthening. B and Zr tend to segregate to the grain boundaries which reduces the grain boundary energy and results in better grain boundary cohesion and ductility. Another form of grain boundary strengthening is achieved through the addition of C and a carbide former, such as Cr, Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti, or Hf, which drives precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries and thereby reduces grain boundary sliding.

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temperature (~750 °C), SX alloys exhibits mostly primary creep behavior. Matan et al. concluded that the extent of primary creep deformation depends strongly on the angle between the tensile axis and the <001>/<011> symmetry boundary. At temperatures above 850 °C, tertiary creep dominates and promotes strain softening behavior. When temperature exceeds 1000 °C, the rafting effect is prevalent where cubic particles transform into flat shapes under tensile stress. The rafts form perpendicular to the tensile axis, since γ phase is transported out of the vertical channels and into the horizontal ones. Reed et al. studied unaxial creep deformation of <001> oriented CMSX-4 single crystal superalloy at 1105 °C and 100 MPa. They reported that rafting is beneficial to creep life since it delays evolution of creep strain. In addition, rafting occurs quickly and suppresses the accumulation of creep strain until a critical strain is reached.

2027:(TBCs) are used extensively in gas turbine engines to increase component life and engine performance. A coating of about 1-200 μm can reduce the temperature at the superalloy surface by up to 200 K. TBCs are a system of coatings consisting of a bond coat, a thermally grown oxide (TGO), and a thermally insulating ceramic top coat. In most applications, the bond coat is either a MCrAlY (where M=Ni or NiCo) or a Pt modified aluminide coating. A dense bond coat is required to provide protection of the superalloy substrate from oxidation and hot corrosion attack and to form an adherent, slow-growing surface TGO. The TGO is formed by oxidation of the aluminum that is contained in the bond coat. The current (first generation) thermal insulation layer is composed of 7wt % 2031:(7YSZ) with a typical thickness of 100–300 μm. Yttria-stabilized zirconia is used due to its low thermal conductivity (2.6W/mK for fully dense material), relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion, and high temperature stability. The electron beam-directed vapor deposition (EB-DVD) process used to apply the TBC to turbine airfoils produces a columnar microstructure with multiple porosity levels. Inter-column porosity is critical to providing strain tolerance (via a low in-plane modulus), as it would otherwise spall on thermal cycling due to thermal expansion mismatch with the superalloy substrate. This porosity reduces the thermal coating's conductivity. 1647:, a budget material with compromised temperature range and chemical resistance. It does not contain rhenium or ruthenium and its nickel content is limited. To reduce fabrication costs, it was chemically designed to melt in a ladle (though with improved properties in a vacuum crucible). Conventional welding and casting is possible before heat-treatment. The original purpose was to produce high-performance, inexpensive bomb casings, but the material has proven widely applicable to structural applications, including armor. 1165: 2056:/cobalt can be used due to excellent resistance to abrasion, corrosion, erosion, and heat. These cermet coatings perform well in situations where temperature and oxidation damage are significant concerns, such as boilers. One of cobalt cermet's unique advantages is minimal loss of coating mass over time, due to the strength of carbides. Overall, cermet coatings are useful in situations where mechanical demands are equal to chemical demands. Nickel-chromium coatings are used most frequently in boilers fed by 2287:). They comprise over 50% of the weight of advanced aircraft engines. The widespread use of superalloys in turbine engines coupled with the fact that the thermodynamic efficiency of turbine engines is a function of increasing turbine inlet temperatures has provided part of the motivation for increasing the maximum-use temperature of superalloys. From 1990-2020, turbine airfoil temperature capability increased on average by about 2.2 °C/year. Two major factors have made this increase possible: 900:(Ti,Al) are ordered systems with Ni atoms at the cube faces and either Al or Ti atoms at the cube edges. As particles of γ' precipitates aggregate, they decrease their energy states by aligning along the <100> directions forming cuboidal structures. This phase has a window of instability between 600 °C and 850 °C, inside of which γ' will transform into the HCP η phase. For applications at temperatures below 650 °C, the γ" phase can be utilized for strengthening. 124: 905: 1906: 2347: 2221: 27: 2064:, and waste incineration furnaces, where the danger of oxidizing agents and corrosive compounds in the vapor must be addressed. The specific method of spray-coating depends on the coating composition. Nickel-chromium coatings that also contain iron or aluminum provide better corrosion resistance when they are sprayed and laser glazed, while pure nickel-chromium coatings perform better when thermally sprayed exclusively. 519:, or carbides. GCP phases usually benefit mechanical properties, but TCP phases are often deleterious. Because TCP phases are not truly close packed, they have few slip systems and are brittle. Also they "scavenge" elements from GCP phases. Many elements that are good for forming γ' or have great solid solution strengthening may precipitate TCPs. The proper balance promotes GCPs while avoiding TCPs. 1967:" into a solid object with physically merged grains. Sintering occurs below the melting point, and causes adjacent particles to merge at their boundaries, creating a strong bond between them. In hot isostatic pressing, a sintered material is placed in a pressure vessel and compressed from all directions (isostatically) in an inert atmosphere to affect densification. 1785:, effectively halting further oxidation beneath this layer. In the ideal case, oxidation proceeds through two stages. First, transient oxidation involves the conversion of various elements, especially the majority elements (e.g. nickel or cobalt). Transient oxidation proceeds until the selective oxidation of the sacrificial element forms a complete barrier layer. 1991:

and a new batch of metal powder is rolled over the top. This layer is then sintered with the laser, and the process is repeated until all slices have been processed. Additive manufacturing can leave pores behind. Many products undergo a heat treatment or hot isostatic pressing procedure to densify the product and reduce porosity.

2319:. Because Carnot efficiency is limited by the temperature difference between the hot and cold reservoirs, higher operating temperatures increase energy conversion efficiency. Operating temperatures are limited by superalloys, limiting applications to around 1000 °C-1400 °C. Energy applications include: 2016:(EB-PVD). Thermal barrier coatings provide by far the best enhancement in working temperature and coating life. It is estimated that modern TBC of thickness 300 μm, if used in conjunction with a hollow component and cooling air, has the potential to lower metal surface temperatures by a few hundred degrees. 1615:) and improving high temperature performance and increasing service temperatures by 30 °C and 60 °C in second and third generation superalloys, respectively. Re promotes the formation of rafts of the γ' phase (as opposed to cuboidal precipitates). The presence of rafts can decrease creep rate in the 1640:

studies noted an opposite effect. Chen, et al., found that in two alloys differing significantly only in Ru content (USTB-F3 and USTB-F6) that the addition of Ru increased both the partitioning ratio as well as supersaturation in the γ matrix of Cr and Re, and thereby promoted the formation of TCP phases.

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About 60% of the temperature increases related to advanced cooling, while 40% have resulted from material improvements. State-of-the-art turbine blade surface temperatures approach 1,150 C. The most severe stress and temperature combinations correspond to an average bulk metal temperature approaching

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Thermal spraying involves heating a feedstock of precursor material and spraying it on a surface. Specific techniques depend on desired particle size, coat thickness, spray speed, desired area, etc. Thermal spraying relies on adhesion to the surface. As a result, the surface of the superalloy must be

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The two major types of austenitic stainless steels are characterized by the oxide layer that forms on the steel surface: either chromia-forming or alumina-forming. Cr-forming stainless steel is the most common type. However, Cr-forming steels do not exhibit high creep resistance at high temperatures,

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Stainless steel alloys remain a research target because of lower production costs, as well as the need for an austenitic stainless steel with high-temperature corrosion resistance in environments with water vapor. Research focuses on increasing high-temperature tensile strength, toughness, and creep

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Failure of thermal barrier coating usually manifests as delamination, which arises from the temperature gradient during thermal cycling between ambient temperature and working conditions coupled with the difference in thermal expansion coefficient of substrate and coating. It is rare for the coating

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or platinum-aluminide, is the most common. MCrAlX-based overlay coatings (M=Ni or Co, X=Y, Hf, Si) enhance resistance to corrosion and oxidation. Compared to diffusion coatings, overlay coatings are more expensive, but less dependent on substrate composition, since they must be carried out by air or

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One of the main strengths of superalloys are their superior creep resistant properties when compared to most conventional alloys. To start, 𝛾’-strengthened superalloys have the benefit of requiring dislocations to move in pairs due to the phase creating a high antiphase boundary (APB) energy during

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Gamma (γ): Fe-based alloys feature a matrix phase of austenite iron (FCC). Alloying elements include: Al, B, C, Co, Cr, Mo, Ni, Nb, Si, Ti, W, and Y. Al (oxidation benefits) must be kept at low weight fractions (wt.%) because Al stabilizes a ferritic (BCC) primary phase matrix, which is undesirable,

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file. A shape is designed and then converted into slices. These slices are sent to a laser writer to print the final product. In brief, a bed of metal powder is prepared, and a slice is formed in the powder bed by a high energy laser sintering the particles together. The powder bed moves downwards,

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is a metallurgical processing technique in which a wax form is fabricated and used as a template for a ceramic mold. A ceramic mold is poured around the wax form and solidifies, the wax form is melted out of the ceramic mold, and molten metal is poured into the void left by the wax. This leads to a

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Jet turbine engines employ both crystalline component types to take advantage of their individual strengths. The disks of the high-pressure turbine, which are near the central hub of the engine are polycrystalline. The turbine blades, which extend radially into the engine housing, experience a much

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Co-based superalloys depend on carbide precipitation and solid solution strengthening for mechanical properties. While these strengthening mechanisms are inferior to gamma prime (γ') precipitation strengthening, cobalt has a higher melting point than nickel and has superior hot corrosion resistance

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Diffusion is also a method of creep, and there are a few ways to limit diffusional creep. One primary way that superalloys can limit diffusional creep is by manipulating grain structure to reduce grain boundaries which tend to be pathways for easy diffusion. Typically this is done by manufacturing

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Single crystal (SX) superalloys have wide application in the high-pressure turbine section of aero- and industrial gas turbine engines due to the unique combination of properties and performance. Since introduction of single crystal casting technology, SX alloy development has focused on increased

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Gamma (γ): This phase composes the matrix of Ni-based superalloy. It is a solid solution fcc austenitic phase of the alloying elements. The alloying elements most found in commercial Ni-based alloys are, C, Cr, Mo, W, Nb, Fe, Ti, Al, V, and Ta. During the formation of these materials, as they cool

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The United States became interested in gas turbine development around 1905. From 1910-1915, austenitic ( γ phase) stainless steels were developed to survive high temperatures in gas turbines. By 1929, 80Ni-20Cr alloy was the norm, with small additions of Ti and Al. Although early metallurgists did

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reported a 3D-printed superalloy composed of 42% aluminum, 25% titanium, 13% niobium, 8% zirconium, 8% molybdenum and 4% tantalum. Most alloys are made chiefly of one primary element, combined with low amounts of other elements. In contrast MPES have substantial amounts of three or more elements.

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At elevated temperature, the free energy associated with the anti-phase boundary (APB) is considerably reduced if it lies on a particular plane, which by coincidence is not a permitted slip plane. One set of partial dislocations bounding the APB cross-slips so that the APB lies on the low-energy

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Al-forming austenitic stainless steels feature a single-phase matrix of austenite iron (FCC) with an Al-oxide at the surface of the steel. Al is more thermodynamically stable in oxygen than Cr. More commonly, however, precipitate phases are introduced to increase strength and creep resistance. In

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Gas phase coating is carried out at higher temperatures, about 1080 °C. The coating material is usually loaded onto trays without physical contact with the parts to be coated. The coating mixture contains active coating material and activator, but usually not thermal ballast. As in the pack

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For Ni-based single-crystal superalloys, upwards of ten different kinds of alloying additions can be seen to improve creep-resistance and overall mechanical properties. Alloying elements include Cr, Co, Al, Mo, W, Ti, Ta, Re, and Ru. Elements such as Co, Re, and Ru have been described to improve

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Plasma spraying offers versatility of usable coatings, and high-temperature performance. Plasma spraying can accommodate a wide range of materials, versus other techniques. As long as the difference between melting and decomposition temperatures is greater than 300 K, plasma spraying is viable.

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Additionally, superalloys exhibit comparatively superior high temperature creep resistance due to thermally activated cross-slip of dislocations. When one of the dislocations in the pair cross-slips into another plane, the dislocations become pinned since they can no longer move as a pair. This

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Such alloys promise improvements on high-temperature applications, strength-to-weight, fracture toughness, corrosion and radiation resistance, wear resistance, and others. They reported ratio of hardness and density of 1.8–2.6 GPa-cm/g, which surpasses all known alloys, including intermetallic

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additions, making them more expensive than prior Re-containing alloys. The effect of Ru on the promotion of TCP phases is not well-determined. Early reports claimed that Ru decreased the supersaturation of Re in the matrix and thereby diminished the susceptibility to TCP phase formation. Later

1149:. An excess of vacancies in one of the sublattices may exist, which leads to deviations from stoichiometry. Sublattices A and B of the γ' phase can solute a considerable proportion of other elements. The alloying elements are dissolved in the γ phase. The γ' phase hardens the alloy through the 1021:

Gamma (γ): This is the matrix phase. While Co-based superalloys are less-used commercially, alloying elements include C, Cr, W, Ni, Ti, Al, Ir, and Ta. As in stainless steels, Chromium is used (occasionally up to 20 wt.%) to improve resistance to oxidation and corrosion via the formation of a

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promote the creation of the γ' phase. The γ' phase size can be precisely controlled by careful precipitation strengthening heat treatments. Many superalloys are produced using a two-phase heat treatment that creates a dispersion of cuboidal γ' particles known as the primary phase, with a fine

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uses a thermal gradient to promote nucleation of metal grains on a low temperature surface, as well as to promote their growth along the temperature gradient. This leads to grains elongated along the temperature gradient, and significantly greater creep resistance parallel to the long grain

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metal form in the same shape as the original wax form. Investment casting leads to a polycrystalline final product, as nucleation and growth of crystal grains occurs at numerous locations throughout the solid matrix. Generally, the polycrystalline product has no preferred grain orientation.

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The creep deformation behavior of superalloy single crystal is strongly temperature-, stress-, orientation- and alloy-dependent. For a single-crystal superalloy, three modes of creep deformation occur under regimes of different temperature and stress: rafting, tertiary, and primary. At low

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Although Cr was great for protecting the alloys from oxidation and corrosion up to 700 °C, metallurgists began decreasing Cr in favor of Al, which had oxidation resistance at much higher temperatures. The lack of Cr caused issues with hot corrosion, so coatings needed to be developed.

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to fail completely – some pieces remain intact, and significant scatter is observed in the time to failure if testing is repeated under identical conditions. Various degradation mechanisms affect thermal barrier coating, and some or all of these must operate before failure finally occurs:

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is a class of modern processing techniques in which metals are first powdered, and then formed into the desired shape by heating below the melting point. This is in contrast to casting, which occurs with molten metal. Superalloy manufacturing often employs powder metallurgy because of its

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creep resistance by facilitating the formation of stacking faults by reducing the stacking fault energy. Increasing number of stacking faults leading to the inhibition of dislocation motion. Other elements (Al, Ti, Ta) can favorably partition into and improve the nucleation of 𝛾’-phase.

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Nickel-based superalloys are used in load-bearing structures requiring the highest homologous temperature of any common alloy system (Tm = 0.9, or 90% of their melting point). Among the most demanding applications for a structural material are those in the hot sections of

247:(Ni)-based superalloys are the material of choice for these applications because of their unique γ' precipitates. The properties of these superalloys can be tailored to a certain extent through the addition of various other elements, common or exotic, including not only 1880:

Casting and forging are traditional metallurgical processing techniques that can be used to generate both polycrystalline and monocrystalline products. Polycrystalline casts offer higher fracture resistance, while monocrystalline casts offer higher creep resistance.

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The bond coat adheres the thermal barrier to the substrate. Additionally, the bond coat provides oxidation protection and functions as a diffusion barrier against the motion of substrate atoms towards the environment. The five major types of bond coats are: the

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Carbide phases: Carbide formation is usually deleterious although in Ni-based superalloys they are used to stabilize the structure of the material against deformation at high temperatures. Carbides form at the grain boundaries, inhibiting grain boundary

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Increasing the lattice misfit between 𝛾/𝛾' has also been shown to be beneficial for creep resistance. This is primarily since a high lattice misfit between the two phases results in a higher barrier to dislocation motion than a low lattice misfit.

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between identical dislocations along the same plane is repulsive, which makes this a less favorable configuration. One possible mechanism involved one of the dislocations being pinned against the γ' phase while the other dislocation in the γ phase

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Although Ni-based superalloys retain significant strength to 980 C, they tend to be susceptible to environmental attack because of the presence of reactive alloying elements. Surface attack includes oxidation, hot corrosion, and thermal fatigue.

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especially in environments with water vapor. Exposure to water vapor at high temperatures can increase internal oxidation in Cr-forming alloys and rapid formation of volatile Cr (oxy)hydroxides, both of which can reduce durability and lifetime.

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Modern superalloys were developed in the 1980s. First generation superalloys incorporated increased Al, Ti, Ta, and Nb content in order to increase the γ' volume fraction. Examples include: PWA1480, René N4 and SRR99. Additionally, the

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Viewed from a <111> direction, this is the effect of a dislocation along <110> passing through the respective structures. Note how the APB swaps the order of the supercell of alternating nickel and aluminum atoms above the

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Al-forming steels, NiAl precipitates are introduced to act as Al reservoirs to maintain the protective alumina layer. In addition, Nb and Cr additions help form and stabilize Al by increasing precipitate volume fractions of NiAl.

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Selective oxidation is the primary strategy used to limit these deleterious processes. The ratio of alloying elements promotes formation of a specific oxide phase that then acts as a barrier to further oxidation. Most commonly,

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phases, which has led to the strategy of reducing Co, W, Mo, and particularly Cr. Later generations of Ni-based superalloys significantly reduced Cr content for this reason, however with the reduction in Cr comes a reduction in

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compounds, titanium aluminides, refractory MPEAs, and conventional Ni-based superalloys. This represents a 300% improvement over Inconel 718 based on measured peak hardness of 4.5 GPa and density of 8.2 g/cm, (0.55 GPa-cm/g).

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The main issue with this phase is that it's not coherent with γ, but it is not inherently weak. It typically forms from decomposing γ'', but sometimes it's intentionally added in small amounts for grain boundary refinement.

543:(pronounced L-one-two), which means it has a certain atom on the face of the unit cell, and a certain atom on the corners of the unit cell. Ni-based superalloys usually present Ni on the faces and Ti or Al on the corners. 3240:

Brady, M. P.; Yamamoto, Y.; Santella, M. L.; Maziasz, P. J.; Pint, B. A.; Liu, C. T.; Lu, Z. P.; Bei, H. (July 2008). "The development of alumina-forming austenitic stainless steels for high-temperature structural use".

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passive layer, which is critical for use in gas turbines, but also provides solid-solution strengthening due to the mismatch in the atomic radii of Co and Cr, and precipitation hardening due to the formation of MC-type

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processes are common when operating environments include salts and sulfur compounds, or under chemical conditions that change dramatically over time. These issues are also often addressed through comparable coatings.

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cementation process, gaseous aluminium chloride (or fluoride) is transferred to the surface of the part. However, in this case the diffusion is outwards. This kind of coating also requires diffusion heat treatment.

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Pack cementation has reemerged when combined with other chemical processes to lower the temperatures of metal combinations and give intermetallic properties to different alloy combinations for surface treatments.

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not know it yet, they were forming small γ' precipitates in Ni-based superalloys. These alloys quickly surpassed Fe- and Co-based superalloys, which were strengthened by carbides and solid solution strengthening.

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between the two metals. The surface alloy that is formed due to thermal-diffused ion migration has a metallurgical bond to the substrate and an intermetallic layer found in the gamma layer of the surface alloys.

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The researchers acknowledged that the 3D printing process produces microscopic cracks when forming large parts, and that the feedstock includes metals that limit applicability in cost-sensitive applications.

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The most recently discovered family of superalloys was computationally predicted by Nyshadham et al. in 2017, and demonstrated by Reyes Tirado et al. in 2018. This γ' phase is W free and has the composition

1468: 1422: 2096:. The entire apparatus is placed inside a furnace and heated in a protective atmosphere to a lower than normal temperature that allows diffusion, due to the halide salts chemical reaction that causes a 2291:

Processing techniques that improved alloy cleanliness (thus improving reliability) and/or enabled the production of tailored microstructures such as directionally solidified or single-crystal material.

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Rae, C.M.F.; Karunaratne, M.S.A.; Small, C.J.; Broomfield, R.W.; Jones, C.N.; Reed, R.C. (2000). "Topologically Close Packed Phases in an Experimental Rhenium-Containing Single Crystal Superalloy".

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Operating temperatures with oxidation in air and no water vapor are expected to be higher. In addition, an AFA superalloy grade exhibits creep strength approaching that of nickel alloy UNS N06617.

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Oak Ridge National Laboratory is researching austenitic alloys, achieving similar creep and corrosion resistance at 800 °C to that of other austenitic alloys, including Ni-based superalloys.

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that enable grain boundaries to be entirely eliminated. Because the material contains no grain boundaries, carbides are unnecessary as grain boundary strengthers and were thus eliminated.

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Adding elements is usually helpful because of solid solution strengthening, but can result in unwanted precipitation. Precipitates can be classified as geometrically close-packed (GCP),

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between these partial dislocations can further provide another obstacle to the movement of other dislocations, further contributing to the strength of the material. There are also more

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Gell, M.; Vaidyanathan, K.; Barber, B.; Cheng, J.; Jordan, E. (1999). "Mechanism of spallation in platinum aluminide/electron beam physical vapor-deposited thermal barrier coatings".

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direction. In polycrystalline turbine blades, directional solidification is used to orient the grains parallel to the centripetal force. It is also known as dendritic solidification.

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Pack cementation is a widely used CVD technique that consists of immersing the components to be coated in a metal powder mixture and ammonium halide activators and sealing them in a

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Graybill, Benjamin; Li, Ming; Malawey, David; Ma, Chao; Alvarado-Orozco, Juan-Manuel; Martinez-Franco, Enrique (18 June 2018). "Additive Manufacturing of Nickel-Based Superalloys".

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Gamma-prime (γ'): This phase is introduced as precipitates to strengthen the alloy. γ'-Ni3Al precipitates can be introduced with the proper balance of Al, Ni, Nb, and Ti additions.

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refractory elements (including Cr, Co, W, and Mo). These phases form as a result of kinetics after long periods of time (thousands of hours) at high temperatures (>750 °C).

1317: 1230: 1619:(controlled by dislocation climb), but can also potentially increase the creep rate if the dominant mechanism is particle shearing. Re tends to promote the formation of brittle 1508: 1258: 986:

and thermal fatigue. As a result, carbide-strengthened Co-based superalloys are used in lower stress, higher temperature applications such as stationary vanes in gas turbines.

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phase, when present in high volume fractions, increases the strength of these alloys due to its ordered nature and high coherency with the γ matrix. The chemical additions of

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starts with a seed crystal that is used to template growth of a larger crystal. The overall process is lengthy, and machining is necessary after the single crystal is grown.

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plane, and, since this low-energy plane is not a permitted slip plane, the dissociated dislocation is effectively locked. By this mechanism, the yield strength of γ' phase Ni

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Mumm, D. R.; Evans, A. G.; Spitsberg, I. T. (2001). "Characterisation of a cyclic displacement instability for a thermally grown oxide in a thermal barrier coating system".

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Shinagawa, K.; Omori, Toshihiro; Oikawa, Katsunari; Kainuma, Ryosuke; Ishida, Kiyohito (2009). "Ductility Enhancement by Boron Addition in Co–Al–W High-temperature Alloys".

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Alumina-forming stainless steel is weldable and has potential for use in automotive applications, such as for high temperature exhaust piping and in heat capture and reuse.

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Matan, N.; Cox, D. C.; Carter, P.; Rist, M. A.; Rae, C. M. F.; Reed, R. C. (1999). "Creep of CMSX-4 superalloy single crystals: effects of misorientation and temperature".

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Klein, L.; Shen, Y.; Killian, M. S.; Virtanen, S. (2011). "Effect of B and Cr on the high temperature oxidation behaviour of novel γ/γ'-strengthened Co-base superalloys".

2423:, it might be possible to expand research into other aspects of superalloys. Radiolysis produces polycrystalline alloys, which suffer from an unacceptable level of creep. 1264:

instead of FCC due to the substitution of aluminum into the vertices of the unit cell, the perfect burgers vector along that direction in γ' is twice that of γ. For the

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Baufeld, B.; Bartsch, M.; Broz, P.; Schmucker, M. (2004). "Microstructural changes as postmortem temperature indicator in Ni-Co-Cr-Al-Y oxidation protection coatings".

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The next family of Co-based superalloys was discovered in 2015 by Makineni et al. This family has a similar γ/γ' microstructure, but is W-free and has a γ' phase of Co

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Doi, M.; Miki, D.; Moritani, T.; Kozakai, T. (2004). "Gamma/Gamma-Prime Microstructure Formed by Phased Separation of Gamma-Prime Precipitates in a Ni-Al-Ti Alloy".

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Mumm, D. R.; Watanabe, M.; Evans, A. G.; Pfaendtner, J. A. (2004). "The influence of test method on failure mechanisms and durability of a thermal barrier system".

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allowed for fine control of the chemical composition of superalloys and reduction in contamination and in turn led to a revolution in processing techniques such as

1611:, for increased temperature capability. Re is a slow diffuser and typically partitions the γ matrix, decreasing the rate of diffusion (and thereby high temperature 1592:

technologies were introduced in the 1950s. This process significantly improved cleanliness, reduced defects, and increased the strength and temperature capability.

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Schulz, U; Menzebach, M; Leyens, C; Yang, Y.Q (September 2001). "Influence of substrate material on oxidation behavior and cyclic lifetime of EB-PVD TBC systems".

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Kawahara, Yuuzou (January 1997). "Development and application of high-temperature corrosion-resistant materials and coatings for advanced waste-to-energy plants".

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It is thus rather energy prohibitive for the dislocation to enter the γ' phase unless there are two of them in close proximity along the same plane. However, the

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are placed at the vertices of the cubic cell and form sublattice A. Ni atoms are located at centers of the faces and form sublattice B. The phase is not strictly

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Chen, X; Wang, R; Yao, N; Evans, A.G; Hutchinson, J.W; Bruce, R.W (July 2003). "Foreign object damage in a thermal barrier system: mechanisms and simulations".

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In modern gas turbines, the turbine entry temperature (~1750K) exceeds superalloy incipient melting temperature (~1600K), with the help of surface engineering.

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At least 5 grades of alumina-forming austenitic (AFA) alloys, with different operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor have been realized:

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Reed, R. C.; Matan, N.; Cox, D. C.; Rist, M. A.; Rae, C. M. F. (1999). "Creep of CMSX-4 superalloy single crystals: effects of rafting at high temperature".

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Refractory metals, added in small amounts for solid solution strengthening (and carbide formation). They are heavy, but have extremely high melting points.

1046:

Ta, though both W and Al integrate into these cuboidal precipitates. Ta, Nb, and Ti integrate into the γ' phase and are stabilize it at high temperatures.

1000:(Al,Mo,Nb). Since W is heavy, its elimination makes Co-based alloys increasingly viable in turbines for aircraft, where low density is especially valued. 4390:

Tawancy, H.M.; Abbas, N.M.; Bennett, A. (December 1994). "Role of Y during high temperature oxidation of an M-Cr-Al-Y coating on an Ni-base superalloy".

482:

Boron and zirconium provide strength to grain boundaries. This is not essential in single-crystal turbine blades, because there are no grain boundaries.

2080:, and physical vapor deposition. In most cases, after the coating process, near-surface regions of parts are enriched with aluminium in a matrix of the 4603:

Evans, A. G.; Mumm, D. R.; Hutchinson, J. W.; Meier, G. H.; Pettit, F. S. (2001). "Mechanisms controlling the durability of thermal barrier coatings".

4163:

Gu, D D; Meiners, W; Wissenbach, K; Poprawe, R (May 2012). "Laser additive manufacturing of metallic components: materials, processes and mechanisms".

1885:

greater centripetal force, necessitating creep resistance, typically adopting monocrystalline or polycrystalline with a preferred crystal orientation.

1837:

pinning reduces the ability for the dislocations to move in dislocation activated creep and improving the creep resistant properties of the material.

2893:

Dunand, David C. "Materials Science & Engineering 435: High Temperature Materials". Northwestern University, Evanston. 25 February 2016. Lecture.

1788:

The protective effect of selective oxidation can be undermined. The continuity of the oxide layer can be compromised by mechanical disruption due to

2207:

Additionally, TBC life is sensitive to the combination of materials (substrate, bond coat, ceramic) and processes (EB-PVD, plasma spraying) used.

2007:

The three types of coatings are: diffusion coatings, overlay coatings, and thermal barrier coatings. Diffusion coatings, mainly constituted with

2664: 4792:

Mumm, D. R.; Evans, A. G. (2000). "On the role of imperfections in the failure of a thermal barrier coating made by electron beam deposition".

3682:

Chen, J. Y.; Feng, Q.; Sun, Z. Q. (October 2010). "Topologically close-packed phase promotion in a Ru-containing single crystal superalloy".

2294:

Alloy development resulting in higher temperature materials primarily through the additions of refractory elements such as Re, W, Ta, and Mo.

3927:

Klein, L.; Bauer, S.; Neumeier, S.; Göken, M.; Virtanan, S. (2011). "High temperature oxidation of γ/γ'-strengthened Co-based superalloys".

3567:"Analysis of dislocation structures after double shear creep deformation of CMSX6-superalloy single crystals at temperatures above 1000 °C" 1663:. The mechanical properties of most other alloys depend on the presence of grain boundaries, but at high temperatures, they participate in 5127:

Shahsavari, H. A.; Kokabi, A. H.; Nategh, S. (2007). "Effect of preweld microstructure on HAZ liquation cracking of Rene 80 superalloy".

1061:

Steel superalloys are of interest because some present creep and oxidation resistance similar to Ni-based superalloys, at far less cost.

953:

which, together with order hardening, are the primary strengthening mechanisms. The γ" phase is unstable above approximately 650 °C.

929:(BCT), and the phase precipitates as 60 nm by 10 nm discs with the (001) planes in γ" parallel to the {001} family in γ. These 925:

V and is used to strengthen Ni-based superalloys at lower temperatures (<650 °C) relative to γ'. The crystal structure of γ" is

4870:

Evans, A.G.; He, M.Y.; Hutchinson, J.W. (January 2001). "Mechanics-based scaling laws for the durability of thermal barrier coatings".

4555:

Niranatlumpong, P.; Ponton, C. B.; Evans, H. E. (2000). "The Failure of Protective Oxides on Plasma-Sprayed NiCrAlY Overlay Coatings".

4524: 4367:

Warnes, Bruce Michael (January 2003). "Improved aluminide/MCrAlX coating systems for super alloys using CVD low activity aluminizing".

4341: 2443:

Development of AFA superalloys with a 35 wt.% Ni-base have shown potential for use in operating temperatures upwards to 1,100 °C.

1323:, which will need another such dislocation along the plane to restore order (as the sum of the two dislocations would have the perfect 2197:

Thermal stresses from mismatch in thermal expansion coefficient and growth stress due to the formation of thermally grown oxide layer;

1948:

is a process by which reinforcing particles are incorporated into the superalloy matrix material by repeated fracture and welding.

1719:

phases, generally at the alloy surface. If unmitigated, oxidation can degrade the alloy over time in a variety of ways, including:

1944:- typically much less waste metal must be machined away from the final product—and its ability to facilitate mechanical alloying. 1435: 1389: 1052:

Topologically Close-Packed (TCP) phases may appear in some Co-based superalloys, but embrittle the alloy and are thus undesirable.

5027:"Long-Term Oxidation of Candidate Cast Iron and Stainless Steel Exhaust System Alloys from 650 to 800 °C in Air with Water Vapor" 1383:

into close proximity of the pinned dislocation from another plane, allowing the pair of dislocations to push into the γ' phase.

3437:"On the formation of 〈010〉-dislocations in the γ′-phase of superalloy single crystals during high temperature low stress creep" 896:

structure. The γ' phase is coherent with the matrix of the superalloy having a lattice parameter that varies by around 0.5%. Ni

4413:

D. Chuanxian; H. Bingtang; L. Huiling (24 August 1984). "Plasma-sprayed wear-resistant ceramic and cermet coating materials".

5117: 4223: 3362: 3012:

Nyshadham, Chandramouli; Oses, Corey; Hansen, Jacob E.; Takeuchi, Ichiro; Curtarolo, Stefano; Hart, Gus L.W. (January 2017).

691:

This precipitate is coherent with γ'. It is the main strengthening phase in IN-718, but γ'' dissolves at high temperatures.

385:

Fe and Co have higher melting points than Ni and offer solid solution strengthening. Fe is also much cheaper than Ni or Co.

4742:

Nychka, J.A; Clarke, D.R (September 2001). "Damage quantification in TBCs by photo-stimulated luminescence spectroscopy".

4308:

Clarke, David R. (January 2003). "Materials selection guidelines for low thermal conductivity thermal barrier coatings".

3526:

Dodaran, M.; Ettefagh, A. Hemmasian; Guo, S. M.; Khonsari, M. M.; Meng, W. J.; Shamsaei, N.; Shao, S. (1 February 2020).

3175:

Suzuki, A.; Pollock, Tresa M. (2008). "High-temperature strength and deformation of γ/γ' two-phase Co–Al–W-base alloys".

2480: 864: 764:

This TCP is usually considered to have the worst mechanical properties. It is never desirable for mechanical properties.

197:

Superalloy development relies on chemical and process innovations. Superalloys develop high temperature strength through

91: 1632:

accompanying the decreased Cr contents. Examples of second generation superalloys include PWA1484, CMSX-4 and René N5.

3148:

Coutsouradis, D.; Davin, A.; Lamberigts, M. (April 1987). "Cobalt-based superalloys for applications in gas turbines".

1471: 63: 2985:

Makineni, S. K.; Nithin, B.; Chattopadhyay, K. (March 2015). "A new tungsten-free γ–γ' Co–Al–Mo–Nb-based superalloy".

323:

are some examples of the alloying additions used. Each addition serves a particular purpose in optimizing properties.

4964: 4539: 3759: 3644: 2871: 2765: 2585: 2386: 2260: 1049:

Carbide Phases: Carbides strengthen the alloy through precipitation hardening but decrease low-temperature ductility.

110: 1513: 1260:

slip plane initially in the γ phase, where it is a perfect dislocation in that FCC structure. Since the γ' phase is

4692:

Pint, B.A. (November 2004). "The role of chemical composition on the oxidation performance of aluminide coatings".

1635:

Third generation alloys include CMSX-10, and René N6. Fourth, fifth, and sixth generation superalloys incorporate

70: 2791: 1601: 856:

became commercialized, which allowed metallurgists to create higher purity alloys with more precise composition.

147:

with the ability to operate at a high fraction of its melting point. Key characteristics of a superalloy include

4483:

Longa, Y.; Takemoto, M. (July 1992). "High-Temperature Corrosion of Laser-Glazed Alloys in Na 2 SO 4 -V 2 O 5".

4098: 3917:. DMIC report 214. 1 March 1965. Defense Metals Information Center, Batelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio. 3380:"Dislocation network with pair-coupling structure in {111} γ/γ′ interface of Ni-based single crystal superalloy" 2072:

Several kinds of coating process are available: pack cementation process, gas phase coating (both are a type of

1479: 1034:

Gamma Prime (γ'): Constitutes the precipitate used to strengthen the alloy. It is usually close-packed with a L1

3291:

Muralidharan, G.; Yamamoto, Y.; Brady, M. P.; Walker, L. R.; Meyer III, H. M.; Leonard, D. N. (November 2016).

2368: 2242: 48: 5025:

Brady, M. P.; Muralidharan, G.; Leonard, D. N.; Haynes, J. A.; Weldon, R. G.; England, R. D. (December 2014).

3663:

381: Materials for Energy-Efficient Technology. Northwestern University, Evanston. 3 February 2015. Lecture.

77: 5199: 4120:

Atkinson, H. V.; Davies, S. (December 2000). "Fundamental aspects of hot isostatic pressing: An overview".

2404: 2312: 973: 719:

The phase is not the worst, but it is not as good as γ'. It can be useful in controlling grain boundaries.

379:

These elements form the base matrix γ phase of the superalloy. Ni is necessary because it also forms γ' (Ni

218: 198: 2311:

High temperature materials are valuable for energy conversion and energy production applications. Maximum

1065:

as it is inferior to the high temperature strength exhibited by an austenitic (FCC) primary phase matrix.

993:(Al, W). Mo, Ti, Nb, V, and Ta partition to the γ' phase, while Fe, Mn, and Cr partition to the matrix γ. 2364: 2238: 1267: 1180: 663:

There are many carbides, but they all provide dispersion strengthening and grain boundary stabilization.

202: 44: 4630:

Wright, P. K.; Evans, A. G. (1999). "Mechanisms governing the performance of thermal barrier coatings".

1485: 1235: 539:

The main GCP phase is γ'. Almost all superalloys are Ni-based because of this phase. γ' is an ordered L1

3210: 2028: 1913: 1866: 860: 59: 3527: 3436: 3378:

Ru, Yi; Li, Shusuo; Zhou, Jian; Pei, Yanling; Wang, Hui; Gong, Shengkai; Xu, Huibin (11 August 2016).

1104:

High Performance AFA Grade: (45-55)Fe-(25-30)Ni-(14-15)Cr(3.5-4.5)Al-(1-3)Nb-(0.02-0.1)Hf/Y wt.% base

2073: 2013: 1562: 1115:

750-1100 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor, depending upon Ni wt.%

964:

refers to any member of a family of phases (including the σ phase, the χ phase, the μ phase, and the

5002: 4318: 2467:

The material is stable at 800 °C, hotter than the 570+ °C found in typical coal-based power plants.

546:

Another "good" GCP phase is γ''. It is also coherent with γ, but it dissolves at high temperatures.

335: 2452: 1862: 1586: 989:

Co's γ/γ' microstructure was rediscovered and published in 2006 by Sato et al. That γ' phase was Co

938: 926: 853: 1819:

Oxidation is the most basic form of chemical degradation superalloys may experience. More complex

4029:"Microstructural evolution and creep mechanisms in Ni-based single crystal superalloys: A review" 4028: 3987:

Tian, Sugui; Zhang, Jinghua; Xu, Yongbo; Hu, Zhuangqi; Yang, Hongcai; Wu, Xin (1 December 2001).

3476:"Nucleation of superlattice intrinsic stacking faults via cross-slip in nickel-based superalloys" 2357: 2231: 2061: 2024: 1975: 1320: 1158: 950: 516: 37: 2415:

synthesis to create alloys and superalloys. This process holds promise as a universal method of

884:

Gamma prime (γ'): This phase constitutes the precipitate used to strengthen the alloy. It is an

4997: 4313: 4060: 1983: 1960: 1744:

of key alloying elements, affecting mechanical properties and possibly compromising performance

1150: 969: 221:, which decrease creep resistance (even though they may provide strength at low temperatures). 2683: 2456: 1987: 1849:

the superalloys as single crystals oriented parallel to the direction of the applied force.

1429: 4956: 4345: 3900: 2863: 2757: 2524: 1861:

of cobalt base alloys significantly raised operating temperatures. The 1950s development of

1326: 5194: 5136: 4989: 4836: 4801: 4639: 4457: 4422: 4282: 4172: 4129: 3936: 3862: 3819: 3784: 3487: 3304: 3250: 3184: 3084: 3035: 2943: 2828: 2610: 256: 972:

stacking. TCP phases tend to be highly brittle and deplete the γ matrix of strengthening,

881:

from the melt, carbides precipitate, and at even lower temperatures γ' phase precipitates.

859:

In the 60s and 70s, metallurgists changed focus from alloy chemistry to alloy processing.

8: 5189: 1945: 1941: 1793: 1770: 1664: 1620: 1612: 1425: 961: 942: 240: 167: 152: 148: 5171: 5140: 4993: 4840: 4805: 4643: 4461: 4426: 4286: 4176: 4133: 3962: 3940: 3866: 3823: 3788: 3528:"Effect of alloying elements on the γ' antiphase boundary energy in Ni-base superalloys" 3491: 3474:

León-Cázares, F.D.; Schlütter, R.; Monni, F.; Hardy, M.C.; Rae, C.M.F. (December 2022).

3308: 3254: 3188: 3088: 3039: 2947: 2832: 2614: 1757:

are used in this role, because they form relatively thin and continuous oxide layers of

1687:

temperature capability, and major improvements in alloy performance are associated with

84: 5152: 5080: 5054: 4852: 4572: 4229: 4188: 4145: 3835: 3732: 3412: 3379: 3328: 3266: 3053: 3025: 2967: 2485: 2104:

The traditional pack consists of four components at temperatures below (750 °C):

1893: 1858: 1789: 1735: 4933: 4906: 4883: 4813: 4778: 4751: 4678: 4651: 4616: 4376: 4327: 3914: 3874: 3796: 3452: 2551: 2515:

Sims, C.T. (1984). "A History of Superalloy Metallurgy for Superalloy Metallurgists".

396:

Cr is necessary for oxidation and corrosion resistance; it forms a protective oxide Cr

5156: 5113: 5058: 5046: 4960: 4856: 4576: 4535: 4434: 4399: 4233: 4219: 4192: 4149: 4008: 3839: 3755: 3695: 3640: 3605: 3586: 3582: 3547: 3505: 3456: 3417: 3399: 3358: 3332: 3320: 3270: 3161: 2998: 2959: 2867: 2761: 2649: 2581: 1936: 1616: 231:

Superalloys have made much of very-high-temperature engineering technology possible.

3736: 3727: 3710: 3057: 2971: 1643:

The current trend is to avoid very expensive and very heavy elements. An example is

823:

This phase has typical TCP issues. It is never desirable for mechanical properties.

796:

This phase has typical TCP issues. It is never desirable for mechanical properties.

5144: 5038: 5007: 4952: 4929: 4902: 4879: 4844: 4809: 4774: 4747: 4724: 4701: 4697: 4674: 4647: 4612: 4564: 4492: 4469: 4465: 4430: 4395: 4372: 4323: 4290: 4211: 4184: 4180: 4137: 4041: 4000: 3944: 3896: 3870: 3827: 3792: 3722: 3691: 3578: 3543: 3539: 3495: 3448: 3407: 3391: 3312: 3258: 3192: 3157: 3128: 3092: 3043: 2994: 2951: 2904: 2859: 2836: 2753: 2727: 2695: 2645: 2618: 2547: 2520: 2420: 2097: 2081: 2077: 2053: 1782: 968:), which are not atomically close-packed but possess some close-packed planes with 946: 934: 5011: 4045: 3500: 3196: 3097: 3072: 3048: 3013: 2113:

Ferrous and non-ferrous powdered alloy: (Ti and/or Al, Si and/or Zn, B and/ or Cr)

1872:

Processing methods vary widely depending on the required properties of each item.

493:

Nb can form γ'', a strengthening phase at lower (below 700 °C) temperatures.

3948: 3071:

Reyes Tirado, Fernando L.; Perrin Toinin, Jacques; Dunand, David C. (June 2018).

2819:

Sabol, G. P.; Stickler, R. (1969). "Microstructure of Nickel-Based Superalloys".

2622: 2194:

Depletion of aluminum in bond coat due to oxidation and diffusion with substrate;

1680: 1672: 1659:

using a modified version of the directional solidification technique, leaving no

1597: 1261: 1164: 904: 868: 618:

The main strengthening phase. γ' is coherent with γ, which allows for ductility.

4534:. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Pub.; Norwich, NY: William Andrew Pub. pp. 77–107. 3989:"Features and effect factors of creep of single-crystal nickel-base superalloys" 3891:

Pettit, F.S.; Meier, G.H. (1984). "Oxidation and Hot Corrosion of Superalloys".

3672:

O'Hara, K. S., Walston, W. S., Ross, E. W., Darolia, R. US Patent 5482789, 1996.

3475: 2731: 2718:

Belan, Juraj (2016). "GCP and TCP Phases Presented in Nickel-base Superalloys".

1857:

Superalloys were originally iron-based and cold wrought prior to the 1940s when

4947:

Walston, W.S. (2004). "Coating and Surface Technologies for Turbine Airfoils".

4728: 4532:

Handbook of Hard Coatings: Deposition Technologies, Properties and Applications

3566: 3133: 3116: 2280: 2191:

Oxidation at the interface of thermal barrier coating and underlying bond coat;

1925: 1741: 1668: 1656: 1607:

Second and third generation superalloys introduce about 3 and 6 weight percent

1578: 1475: 1174: 1146: 5042: 4848: 4568: 4141: 4004: 3606:"Microstructure development of Nimonic 80A superalloys during hot deformation" 3316: 3262: 5183: 5148: 4294: 4086:

Superalloys II: High Temperature Materials for Aerospace and Industrial Power

4012: 3590: 3551: 3509: 3460: 3403: 2840: 2284: 1905: 1731: 1715:

involves chemical reactions of the alloying elements with oxygen to form new

885: 339: 3988: 2955: 1123:

750-850 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor

1107:

850-900 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor

1091:

750-800 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor

615:

cubes, rounded cubes, spheres, or platelets (depending on lattice mismatch)

330:

motion within a crystal structure. In modern Ni-based superalloys, the γ'-Ni

4059:

Cambridge, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy - University of.

3421: 2963: 2416: 2412: 2316: 2057: 1963:

are processing techniques used to densify materials from a loosely packed "

4215: 535:

usually form sharp plate or needle-like morphologies which nucleate cracks

239:

Because these alloys are intended for high temperature applications their

4665:

Wright, P. K. (1998). "Influence of cyclic strain on life of a PVD TBC".

4210:. College Station, Texas, USA: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 2700: 2323:

Solar thermal power plants (stainless steel rods containing heated water)

1676: 1667:

and require other mechanisms. In many such alloys, islands of an ordered

1660: 1644: 1550: 1154: 965: 327: 228:. Creep is typically the lifetime-limiting factor in gas turbine blades. 225: 123: 1734:

through the introduction of oxide phases, promoting crack formation and

1319:

dislocation to enter the γ' phase, it will have to create a high energy

1099:

650 °C operating temperatures at oxidation in air + 10% water vapor

5081:"Heat-loving lightweight superalloy promises higher turbine efficiency" 3831: 2408: 2371: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2245: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1964: 1557:

series alloys in the 1940s. The early Nimonic series incorporated γ' Ni

1380: 1088:

AFA Grade: (50-60)Fe-(20-25)Ni-(14-15)Cr-(2.5-3.5)Al-(1-3)Nb wt.% base

930: 863:

was developed to allow columnar or even single-crystal turbine blades.

272: 217:. Superalloys are often cast as a single crystal in order to eliminate 171: 5050: 5026: 4496: 3395: 3324: 3292: 1581:

for additional grain boundary strength. Turbine blade components were

590:

The matrix phase, provides ductility and a structure for precipitates

471:⁠= ⁠metal) carbides are the strengthening phase in the absence of γ'. 2538:

Carter, Tim J (April 2005). "Common failures in gas turbine blades".

2041: 2008: 1956: 1820: 1712: 1708: 1692: 1636: 1629: 1625: 292: 284: 252: 210: 175: 160: 156: 3659:

Dunand, David C. "High-Temperature Materials for Energy Conversion"

3014:"A computational high-throughput search for new ternary superalloys" 2346: 2220: 1600:

of the γ' precipitates increased to about 50–70% with the advent of

209:. Oxidation or corrosion resistance is provided by elements such as 26: 5110:

High Temperature Strain of Metals and Alloys: Physical Fundamentals

4208:

Volume 1: Additive Manufacturing; Bio and Sustainable Manufacturing

3030: 2684:"A Review on Superalloys and IN718 Nickel-Based INCONEL Superalloy" 1813: 1809: 1754: 1750: 1724: 423:, which provides oxidation resistance at higher temperature than Cr 347: 343: 308: 288: 280: 276: 260: 224:

The primary application for such alloys is in aerospace and marine

214: 206: 183: 1655:

Single-crystal superalloys (SX or SC superalloys) are formed as a

1096:

Low Nickel AFA Grade: 63Fe-12Ni-14Cr-2.5Al-0.6Nb-5Mn3Cu wt.% base

4509:

G. R. Heath, P. Heimgartner, G. Irons, R. Miller, S. Gustafsson,

4412: 3293:"Development of Cast Alumina-Forming Austenitic Stainless Steels" 3073:"γ+γ' microstructures in the Co-Ta-V and Co-Nb-V ternary systems" 1805: 1801: 1758: 1688: 1608: 1589: 1582: 1566: 1554: 1112:

Cast AFA Grade: (35-50)Fe-(25-35)Ni-14Cr-(3.5-4)Al-1Nb wt.% base

320: 304: 300: 296: 191: 187: 179: 4026:

Xia, Wanshun; Zhao, Xinbao; Yue, Liang; Zhang, Ze (April 2020).

2160:

cleaned and prepared, and usually polished, before application.

326:

Creep resistance is dependent, in part, on slowing the speed of

3473: 3290: 3070: 2093: 2049: 2045: 1679:-pinning behavior of grain boundaries, without introducing any 312: 268: 248: 244: 5024: 1707:

For superalloys operating at high temperatures and exposed to

4273:

Boone, D. H. (1986). "Physical vapour deposition processes".

2747: 1797: 1716: 1671:

phase sit in a matrix of disordered phase, all with the same

1142: 1120:

AFA superalloy (40-50)Fe-(30-35)Ni-(14-19)Cr-(2.5-3.5)Al-3Nb

415:

Al is the main γ' former. It also forms a protective oxide Al

316: 144: 128: 3752:

The Physics of creep : creep and creep-resistant alloys

3239: 2665:"Development of Single Crystal Superalloys: A Brief History" 2446: 1463:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{6}}\left\langle 211\right\rangle } 1417:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{2}}\left\langle 110\right\rangle } 338:

acts as a barrier to dislocation. For this reason, this γ;'

4979: 4826: 4714: 4061:"Designing for Creep Resistance - Nickel Based Superalloys" 3147: 3011: 2984: 2635: 2203:

Various other complicating factors during engine operation.

1986:

procedure used to create intricately detailed forms from a

1157:

dissociate in the γ' phase, leading to the formation of an

264: 4591:

Modelling of Plasma Spraying of Ceramic Films and Coatings

4263:(Materials Park, OH: The ASM Thermal Spray Society, 2004). 4162: 3603: 3525: 205:

from secondary phase precipitates such as gamma prime and

4896: 4593:, Ed. Vinenzini, Pub. Elsevier State Publishers B.V 1991. 4554: 3604:

Bombač, D.; Fazarinc, M.; Kugler, G.; Spajić, S. (2008).

532:

are surrounded by a "depletion zone" where there is no γ'

4602: 2600: 1546:

Al increases with temperature up to about 1000 °C.

3926: 3810:

Nabarro, Frank R. N. (1996). "Rafting in Superalloys".

2934:

Sato, J (2006). "Cobalt-Base High-Temperature Alloys".

2419:

formation. By developing an understanding of the basic

2052:-cermet-based coatings consisting of materials such as 1951: 5126: 3711:"New single crystal superalloys – overview and update" 3639:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 121. 3211:"Review: precipitation in austenitic stainless steels" 2853: 1549:

Initial material selection for blade applications in

1516: 1488: 1438: 1392: 1329: 1270: 1238: 1183: 194:, MP98T, TMS alloys, and CMSX single crystal alloys. 4632:

Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science

2315:

is desired in such applications, in accord with the

2123:

Relatively inert filler powder (Al2O3, SiO2, or SiC)

1424:

family of dislocations are likely to decompose into

243:

and oxidation resistance are of primary importance.

4389: 4205: 3117:"A New Co-Base Superalloy Strengthened by γ' Phase" 917:

Gamma double prime (γ"): This phase typically is Ni

51:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4764: 4027: 3915:"Oxidation of Nickel- and Cobalt-Base Superalloys" 3774: 3749: 2326:Steam turbines (turbine blades and boiler housing) 2012:vacuum plasma spraying (APS/VPS) or electron beam 1530: 1502: 1462: 1432:, such as dislocations with burgers vector of the 1416: 1363: 1311: 1252: 1224: 1173:To give an example, consider a dislocation with a 960:Topologically close-packed (TCP) phases: The term 4869: 3564: 2432:resistance to compete with Ni-based superalloys. 1628:. Advanced coating techniques offset the loss of 522:TCP phase formation areas are weak because they: 5181: 4949:Superalloys 2004 (Tenth International Symposium) 4919: 3963:"Nickel based superalloy: dislocation structure" 3893:Superalloys 1984 (Fifth International Symposium) 3852: 3565:Mayr, C.; Eggeler, G.; Dlouhy, A. (March 1996). 2856:Superalloys 2004 (Tenth International Symposium) 2750:Superalloys 2000 (Ninth International Symposium) 2517:Superalloys 1984 (Fifth International Symposium) 584:Ni, Co, Fe and other elements in solid solution 4525:"Thermal Spraying and Detonation Gun Processes" 4025: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2688:Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences 2200:Imperfections near thermally grown oxide layer; 1711:environments, oxidation behavior is a concern. 1565:in a γ matrix, as well as various metal-carbon 16:Alloy with higher durability than normal metals 5107: 4250:(Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 2002). 4119: 3750:Nabarro, F. R. N.; de Villiers, H. L. (1995). 3637:The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications 3110: 3108: 2578:The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications 1531:{\displaystyle \left\langle 110\right\rangle } 4482: 3986: 3434: 3174: 2818: 1900: 1792:or may be disrupted as a result of oxidation 1650: 4741: 3352: 2922: 2118:Halide salt activator: Ammonium halide salts 1723:sequential surface oxidation, cracking, and 716:may form cellular or Widmanstätten patterns 4629: 4099:"PIM International Vol. 7 No. 1 March 2013" 3890: 3681: 3377: 3353:Laughlin, David E.; Hono, Kazuhiro (2014). 3105: 2329:Heat exchangers for nuclear reactor systems 2019: 660:string-like clumps, like strings of pearls 4829:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 4122:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 3993:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 3812:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 3708: 3634: 3435:Eggeler, G.; Dlouhy, A. (1 October 1997). 2681: 2575: 2044:, the platinum-aluminides, MCrAlY, cobalt- 1869:of alloys and single crystal superalloys. 829: 526:have inherently poor mechanical properties 5001: 4791: 4317: 4101:. Powder Injection Moulding International 3886: 3884: 3726: 3653: 3499: 3411: 3132: 3096: 3047: 3029: 2902: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2785: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2699: 2580:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2447:Multi-principal-element superalloy (MPES) 2387:Learn how and when to remove this message 2261:Learn how and when to remove this message 1970: 111:Learn how and when to remove this message 4447: 4344:. University of Virginia. Archived from 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2789: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 1920: 1904: 1163: 903: 122: 4946: 4589:P. Fauchais, A. Vardelle, M. Vardelle, 3809: 1909:Schematic of directional solidification 1781:), respectively. They offer low oxygen 234: 5182: 4664: 4522: 4366: 4307: 4248:Protective Coatings for Turbine Blades 3881: 3709:Wahl, Jacqueline; Harris, Ken (2014). 3348: 3346: 3344: 3342: 2903:Institute, Cobalt (14 February 2018). 2880: 2774: 2662: 2537: 1875: 587:The background for other precipitates 5078: 5074: 5072: 5070: 5068: 4957:10.7449/2004/Superalloys_2004_579_588 4272: 4058: 3901:10.7449/1984/Superalloys_1984_651_687 3666: 3521: 3519: 3357:(5th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3235: 3233: 3231: 2864:10.7449/2004/Superalloys_2004_109_114 2805: 2758:10.7449/2000/Superalloys_2000_767_776 2717: 2671:: 26–30 – via asminternational. 2558: 2525:10.7449/1984/Superalloys_1984_399_419 2181: 1888: 1602:monocrystal solidification techniques 4922:Materials Science and Engineering: A 4691: 4261:Handbook of Thermal Spray Technology 3571:Materials Science and Engineering: A 2933: 2743: 2741: 2713: 2711: 2514: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2369:adding citations to reliable sources 2340: 2306: 2243:adding citations to reliable sources 2214: 1952:Sintering and hot isostatic pressing 1931: 1808:to superalloys promotes oxide layer 892:(Ti,Al) which have an ordered FCC L1 49:adding citations to reliable sources 20: 3661:Materials Science & Engineering 3339: 3114: 2792:"Superalloys: A Primer and History" 2481:Oxide dispersion strengthened alloy 2426: 2154: 2087: 1312:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{2}}\left} 1225:{\displaystyle {\frac {a}{2}}\left} 1132: 166:The crystal structure is typically 155:resistance, surface stability, and 13: 5065: 4334: 3516: 3277: 3228: 3064: 2978: 2669:Advanced Materials & Processes 2663:Giamei, Anthony (September 2013). 2438: 2163: 2067: 1503:{\displaystyle \left\{111\right\}} 1253:{\displaystyle \left\{111\right\}} 867:could obtain very fine grains and 510: 14: 5211: 5176:Extensive bibliography and links. 5164: 4717:Materials Science and Engineering 4667:Materials Science and Engineering 3150:Materials Science and Engineering 2738: 2708: 2552:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2004.07.004 2497: 1553:engines included alloys like the 1071: 355:Ni-based superalloy compositions 5129:Materials Science and Technology 4275:Materials Science and Technology 3696:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2010.06.019 2999:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2014.11.009 2682:Akca, Enes; Gursel, Ali (2015). 2650:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2009.05.037 2411:for making superalloys. It uses 2345: 2219: 1482:that can be involved beyond the 1386:Furthermore, the burgers vector 529:are incoherent with the γ matrix 517:topologically close-packed (TCP) 25: 5101: 5079:Blain, Loz (10 February 2023). 5018: 4973: 4940: 4913: 4899:Surface and Coatings Technology 4890: 4863: 4820: 4785: 4758: 4744:Surface and Coatings Technology 4735: 4708: 4694:Surface and Coatings Technology 4685: 4658: 4623: 4596: 4583: 4548: 4516: 4503: 4476: 4441: 4406: 4392:Surface and Coatings Technology 4383: 4369:Surface and Coatings Technology 4360: 4310:Surface and Coatings Technology 4301: 4266: 4253: 4240: 4199: 4165:International Materials Reviews 4156: 4113: 4091: 4084:C. Sims, N. Stoloff, W. Hagel, 4078: 4052: 4034:Journal of Alloys and Compounds 4019: 3980: 3955: 3920: 3907: 3846: 3803: 3768: 3754:. London: Talylor and Francis. 3743: 3702: 3675: 3628: 3597: 3558: 3467: 3428: 3371: 3203: 3168: 3141: 3005: 2896: 2847: 2356:needs additional citations for 2230:needs additional citations for 2210: 820:coarse Widmanstätten platelets 36:needs additional citations for 4702:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2004.08.007 4470:10.1080/09603409.1997.11689552 4450:Materials at High Temperatures 4185:10.1179/1743280411Y.0000000014 3544:10.1016/j.intermet.2019.106670 2675: 2656: 2629: 2594: 2531: 1347: 1295: 1208: 912:Nb) (Body Centered Tetragonal) 865:Oxide dispersion strengthening 174:. Examples of such alloys are 127:Nickel superalloy jet engine ( 1: 5012:10.1016/j.actamat.2003.10.045 4934:10.1016/S0921-5093(02)00905-X 4907:10.1016/S0257-8972(01)01481-5 4884:10.1016/S0079-6425(00)00007-4 4872:Progress in Materials Science 4814:10.1016/s1359-6454(99)00473-5 4779:10.1016/s1359-6454(01)00071-4 4752:10.1016/S0257-8972(01)01455-4 4679:10.1016/S0921-5093(97)00850-2 4652:10.1016/s1359-0286(99)00024-8 4617:10.1016/s0079-6425(00)00020-7 4605:Progress in Materials Science 4377:10.1016/S0257-8972(02)00602-3 4328:10.1016/S0257-8972(02)00593-5 4088:, 1987, John Wiley & Sons 4046:10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.152954 3967:www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk 3875:10.1016/S1359-6454(99)00217-7 3797:10.1016/s1359-6454(99)00029-4 3728:10.1051/matecconf/20141417002 3501:10.1016/j.actamat.2022.118372 3453:10.1016/S1359-6454(97)00084-0 3215:www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk 3197:10.1016/j.actamat.2007.11.014 3098:10.1016/j.actamat.2018.03.057 3049:10.1016/j.actamat.2016.09.017 2491: 2399: 1852: 1727:, eroding the alloy over time 1472:Shockley partial dislocations 1428:in this alloy due to its low 4435:10.1016/0040-6090(84)90277-3 4400:10.1016/0257-8972(94)90130-9 3949:10.1016/j.corsci.2011.02.033 3610:Materials and Geoenvironment 3583:10.1016/0921-5093(96)80002-5 3162:10.1016/0025-5416(87)90061-9 2720:Materials Today: Proceedings 2623:10.1016/j.corsci.2011.04.020 2540:Engineering Failure Analysis 2451:Researchers at Sandia Labs, 2405:Sandia National Laboratories 2313:energy conversion efficiency 2172: 2034: 1816:and maintaining continuity. 1702: 908:Crystal structure for γ" (Ni 199:solid solution strengthening 7: 4530:. In Bunshah, R. F. (ed.). 2732:10.1016/j.matpr.2016.03.024 2704:– via pen.ius.edu.ba. 2474: 2336: 2273: 1994: 1056: 1015: 980: 834: 203:precipitation strengthening 10: 5216: 4729:10.1016/j.msea.2004.05.052 3134:10.2320/matertrans.47.2099 2029:yttria-stabilized zirconia 2014:physical vapour deposition 1914:Directional solidification 1901:Directional solidification 1867:directional solidification 1651:Single-crystal superalloys 933:discs form as a result of 861:Directional solidification 839: 5043:10.1007/s11085-014-9496-1 4849:10.1007/s11661-999-0332-1 4342:"Wadley Research Group '" 4142:10.1007/s11661-000-0078-2 4005:10.1007/s11661-001-0169-8 3624:– via ResearchGate. 3317:10.1007/s11837-016-2094-8 3263:10.1007/s11837-008-0083-2 2074:chemical vapor deposition 874: 153:thermal creep deformation 5149:10.1179/174328407x179539 4295:10.1179/mst.1986.2.3.220 3715:MATEC Web of Conferences 2841:10.1002/pssb.19690350102 2453:Ames National Laboratory 2025:Thermal barrier coatings 2020:Thermal barrier coatings 2002: 1827: 1675:. This approximates the 927:body-centered tetragonal 5174:. Cambridge University. 5108:Levitin, Valim (2006). 4569:10.1023/A:1004549219013 4511:Materials Science Forum 2956:10.1126/science.1121738 2909:www.cobaltinstitute.org 2821:Physica Status Solidi B 2127:This process includes: 1976:Selective laser melting 830:Families of superalloys 740:acicular (needle-like) 3121:Materials Transactions 1984:additive manufacturing 1971:Additive manufacturing 1961:hot isostatic pressing 1910: 1532: 1504: 1464: 1418: 1365: 1364:{\displaystyle a\left} 1313: 1254: 1226: 1170: 1151:yield strength anomaly 913: 793:globules or platelets 141:high-performance alloy 132: 4216:10.1115/MSEC2018-6666 2457:Iowa State University 1926:Single crystal growth 1921:Single crystal growth 1908: 1533: 1505: 1465: 1430:stacking fault energy 1419: 1366: 1314: 1255: 1227: 1167: 907: 126: 4951:. pp. 579–588. 4901:. 146–147: 117–123. 4746:. 146–147: 110–116. 4371:. 163–164: 106–111. 3895:. pp. 651–687. 2858:. pp. 109–114. 2801:– via tms.org. 2752:. pp. 767–776. 2701:10.21533/pen.v3i1.43 2519:. pp. 399–419. 2365:improve this article 2239:improve this article 1683:into the structure. 1630:oxidation resistance 1626:oxidation resistance 1514: 1486: 1436: 1426:partial dislocations 1390: 1327: 1268: 1236: 1181: 941:precipitate and the 235:Chemical development 45:improve this article 5200:Aerospace materials 5141:2007MatST..23..547S 5031:Oxidation of Metals 4994:2004AcMat..52.1123M 4841:1999MMTA...30..427G 4806:2000AcMat..48.1815M 4644:1999COSSM...4..255W 4557:Oxidation of Metals 4523:Knotek, O. (2001). 4462:1997MaHT...14..261K 4427:1984TSF...118..485C 4287:1986MatST...2..220B 4177:2012IMRv...57..133G 4134:2000MMTA...31.2981A 3941:2011Corro..53.2027K 3867:1999AcMat..47.3367R 3824:1996MMTA...27..513N 3789:1999AcMat..47.1549M 3635:Reed, R. C (2006). 3492:2022AcMat.24118372L 3355:Physical metallurgy 3309:2016JOM....68k2803M 3255:2008JOM....60g..12B 3189:2008AcMat..56.1288S 3089:2018AcMat.151..137R 3040:2017AcMat.122..438N 2948:2006Sci...312...90S 2833:1969PSSBR..35...11S 2615:2011Corro..53.2713K 2576:Reed, R. C (2008). 1946:Mechanical alloying 1942:material efficiency 1876:Casting and forging 1376:Peach-Koehler force 1321:anti-phase boundary 1159:anti-phase boundary 761:elongated globules 758:FeCr, FeCrMo, CrCo 551: 356: 168:face-centered cubic 149:mechanical strength 4696:. 188–189: 71–78. 4348:on 7 December 2015 4312:. 163–164: 67–74. 4259:J. R. Davis, ed., 4065:www.doitpoms.ac.uk 3832:10.1007/BF02648942 3684:Scripta Materialia 3384:Scientific Reports 2987:Scripta Materialia 2638:Scripta Materialia 2486:Titanium aluminide 2182:Failure mechanisms 2108:Substrate or parts 1911: 1894:Investment casting 1889:Investment casting 1859:investment casting 1528: 1500: 1460: 1414: 1361: 1309: 1250: 1232:traveling along a 1222: 1171: 914: 550:Superalloy phases 549: 498:Re, W, Hf, Mo, Ta 354: 133: 5119:978-3-527-31338-9 4773:(12): 2329–2340. 4513:1997, 251–54, 809 4497:10.5006/1.3315978 4225:978-0-7918-5135-7 4128:(12): 2981–3000. 3999:(12): 2947–2957. 3929:Corrosion Science 3913:Lund and Wagner. 3861:(12): 3367–3381. 3447:(10): 4251–4262. 3396:10.1038/srep29941 3364:978-0-444-53770-6 3303:(11): 2803–2810. 2603:Corrosion Science 2397: 2396: 2389: 2307:Energy production 2271: 2270: 2263: 1980:powder bed fusion 1937:Powder metallurgy 1932:Powder metallurgy 1447: 1401: 1371:burgers vector). 1350: 1298: 1279: 1211: 1192: 951:coherency strains 888:phase based on Ni 827: 826: 727:not close-packed 688:very small disks 508: 507: 363:Composition range 121: 120: 113: 95: 5207: 5175: 5160: 5123: 5096: 5095: 5093: 5091: 5076: 5063: 5062: 5037:(5–6): 359–381. 5022: 5016: 5015: 5005: 4988:(5): 1123–1131. 4977: 4971: 4970: 4944: 4938: 4937: 4928:(1–2): 221–231. 4917: 4911: 4910: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4878:(3–4): 249–271. 4867: 4861: 4860: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4800:(8): 1815–1827. 4789: 4783: 4782: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4723:(1–2): 162–171. 4712: 4706: 4705: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4600: 4594: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4563:(3–4): 241–258. 4552: 4546: 4545: 4529: 4520: 4514: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4415:Thin Solid Films 4410: 4404: 4403: 4394:. 68–69: 10–16. 4387: 4381: 4380: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4321: 4305: 4299: 4298: 4270: 4264: 4257: 4251: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4203: 4197: 4196: 4160: 4154: 4153: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4095: 4089: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4031: 4023: 4017: 4016: 3984: 3978: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3935:(5): 2027–2034. 3924: 3918: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3888: 3879: 3878: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3783:(5): 1549–1563. 3772: 3766: 3765: 3747: 3741: 3740: 3730: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3664: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3601: 3595: 3594: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3523: 3514: 3513: 3503: 3471: 3465: 3464: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3415: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3350: 3337: 3336: 3288: 3275: 3274: 3237: 3226: 3225: 3223: 3221: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3145: 3139: 3138: 3136: 3127:(8): 2099–2102. 3112: 3103: 3102: 3100: 3068: 3062: 3061: 3051: 3033: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2931: 2920: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2900: 2894: 2891: 2878: 2877: 2851: 2845: 2844: 2816: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2787: 2772: 2771: 2745: 2736: 2735: 2715: 2706: 2705: 2703: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2633: 2627: 2626: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2573: 2556: 2555: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2512: 2427:Austenitic steel 2421:material science 2392: 2385: 2381: 2378: 2372: 2349: 2341: 2266: 2259: 2255: 2252: 2246: 2223: 2215: 2155:Thermal spraying 2088:Pack cementation 2082:nickel aluminide 2078:thermal spraying 2054:tungsten carbide 1661:grain boundaries 1617:power-law regime 1587:vacuum induction 1579:grain boundaries 1538:slip direction. 1537: 1535: 1534: 1529: 1527: 1509: 1507: 1506: 1501: 1499: 1469: 1467: 1466: 1461: 1459: 1448: 1440: 1423: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1402: 1394: 1370: 1368: 1367: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1343: 1318: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1299: 1291: 1280: 1272: 1259: 1257: 1256: 1251: 1249: 1231: 1229: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1212: 1204: 1193: 1185: 947:lattice mismatch 935:lattice mismatch 552: 548: 365:(weight %) 357: 353: 219:grain boundaries 116: 109: 105: 102: 96: 94: 53: 29: 21: 5215: 5214: 5210: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5205: 5204: 5180: 5179: 5170: 5167: 5120: 5104: 5099: 5089: 5087: 5077: 5066: 5023: 5019: 5003:10.1.1.514.3611 4982:Acta Materialia 4978: 4974: 4967: 4945: 4941: 4918: 4914: 4895: 4891: 4868: 4864: 4825: 4821: 4794:Acta Materialia 4790: 4786: 4767:Acta Materialia 4763: 4759: 4740: 4736: 4713: 4709: 4690: 4686: 4663: 4659: 4628: 4624: 4601: 4597: 4588: 4584: 4553: 4549: 4542: 4527: 4521: 4517: 4508: 4504: 4481: 4477: 4446: 4442: 4411: 4407: 4388: 4384: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4319:10.1.1.457.1304 4306: 4302: 4271: 4267: 4258: 4254: 4245: 4241: 4226: 4204: 4200: 4161: 4157: 4118: 4114: 4104: 4102: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4083: 4079: 4069: 4067: 4057: 4053: 4024: 4020: 3985: 3981: 3971: 3969: 3961: 3960: 3956: 3925: 3921: 3912: 3908: 3889: 3882: 3855:Acta Materialia 3851: 3847: 3808: 3804: 3777:Acta Materialia 3773: 3769: 3762: 3748: 3744: 3707: 3703: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3667: 3658: 3654: 3647: 3633: 3629: 3619: 3617: 3602: 3598: 3563: 3559: 3524: 3517: 3480:Acta Materialia 3472: 3468: 3441:Acta Materialia 3433: 3429: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3351: 3340: 3289: 3278: 3238: 3229: 3219: 3217: 3209: 3208: 3204: 3177:Acta Materialia 3173: 3169: 3146: 3142: 3115:Cui, C (2006). 3113: 3106: 3077:Acta Materialia 3069: 3065: 3018:Acta Materialia 3010: 3006: 2983: 2979: 2942:(5770): 90–91. 2932: 2923: 2913: 2911: 2901: 2897: 2892: 2881: 2874: 2852: 2848: 2817: 2806: 2796: 2794: 2788: 2775: 2768: 2746: 2739: 2716: 2709: 2680: 2676: 2661: 2657: 2634: 2630: 2609:(9): 2713–720. 2599: 2595: 2588: 2574: 2559: 2536: 2532: 2513: 2498: 2494: 2477: 2449: 2441: 2439:AFA superalloys 2429: 2402: 2393: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2362: 2350: 2339: 2309: 2281:turbine engines 2276: 2267: 2256: 2250: 2247: 2236: 2224: 2213: 2184: 2175: 2166: 2164:Plasma spraying 2157: 2090: 2070: 2068:Process methods 2037: 2022: 2005: 1997: 1978:(also known as 1973: 1954: 1934: 1923: 1903: 1891: 1878: 1855: 1830: 1780: 1776: 1768: 1764: 1705: 1681:amorphous solid 1673:crystal lattice 1653: 1598:volume fraction 1576: 1572: 1560: 1545: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1511: 1510:slip plane and 1489: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1476:stacking faults 1449: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1433: 1403: 1393: 1391: 1388: 1387: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1290: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1265: 1262:primitive cubic 1239: 1237: 1234: 1233: 1203: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1178: 1140: 1135: 1074: 1059: 1045: 1041: 1038:structure of Co 1037: 1029: 1025: 1018: 1011: 1007: 999: 992: 983: 924: 920: 911: 899: 895: 891: 877: 869:superplasticity 842: 837: 832: 817: 813: 789: 785: 781: 736: 712: 705: 684: 677: 652: 645: 641: 611: 604: 581:disordered FCC 564:Composition(s) 558:Classification 542: 513: 511:Phase formation 466: 462: 430: 426: 422: 418: 403: 399: 384: 382: 364: 333: 237: 226:turbine engines 131:) turbine blade 117: 106: 100: 97: 54: 52: 42: 30: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5213: 5203: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5178: 5177: 5166: 5165:External links 5163: 5162: 5161: 5135:(5): 547–555. 5124: 5118: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5097: 5064: 5017: 4972: 4965: 4939: 4912: 4889: 4862: 4835:(2): 427–435. 4819: 4784: 4757: 4734: 4707: 4684: 4673:(2): 191–200. 4657: 4638:(3): 255–265. 4622: 4611:(5): 505–553. 4595: 4582: 4547: 4540: 4515: 4502: 4491:(7): 599–607. 4475: 4456:(3): 261–268. 4440: 4421:(4): 485–493. 4405: 4382: 4359: 4333: 4300: 4281:(3): 220–224. 4265: 4252: 4239: 4224: 4198: 4171:(3): 133–164. 4155: 4112: 4090: 4077: 4051: 4018: 3979: 3954: 3919: 3906: 3880: 3845: 3818:(3): 513–530. 3802: 3767: 3760: 3742: 3701: 3690:(8): 795–798. 3674: 3665: 3652: 3645: 3627: 3596: 3557: 3532:Intermetallics 3515: 3466: 3427: 3370: 3363: 3338: 3276: 3227: 3202: 3183:(6): 1288–97. 3167: 3140: 3104: 3063: 3004: 2977: 2921: 2895: 2879: 2872: 2846: 2804: 2790:Randy Bowman. 2773: 2766: 2737: 2726:(4): 936–941. 2707: 2674: 2655: 2628: 2593: 2586: 2557: 2546:(2): 237–247. 2530: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2488: 2483: 2476: 2473: 2448: 2445: 2440: 2437: 2428: 2425: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2353: 2351: 2344: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2330: 2327: 2324: 2308: 2305: 2296: 2295: 2292: 2275: 2272: 2269: 2268: 2227: 2225: 2218: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2204: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2183: 2180: 2174: 2171: 2165: 2162: 2156: 2153: 2148: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2125: 2124: 2120: 2119: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2109: 2089: 2086: 2069: 2066: 2036: 2033: 2021: 2018: 2004: 2001: 1996: 1993: 1972: 1969: 1953: 1950: 1933: 1930: 1922: 1919: 1902: 1899: 1890: 1887: 1877: 1874: 1863:vacuum melting 1854: 1851: 1829: 1826: 1778: 1774: 1766: 1762: 1746: 1745: 1739: 1728: 1704: 1701: 1657:single crystal 1652: 1649: 1574: 1570: 1558: 1543: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1458: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1443: 1412: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1397: 1359: 1355: 1349: 1346: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1307: 1303: 1297: 1294: 1288: 1284: 1278: 1275: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1220: 1216: 1210: 1207: 1201: 1197: 1191: 1188: 1175:burgers vector 1147:stoichiometric 1138: 1134: 1133:Microstructure 1131: 1127: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1118: 1117: 1116: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1102: 1101: 1100: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1073: 1072:Microstructure 1070: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1032: 1027: 1023: 1017: 1014: 1009: 1005: 997: 990: 982: 979: 978: 977: 974:solid solution 958: 954: 949:leads to high 922: 918: 909: 902: 901: 897: 893: 889: 882: 876: 873: 854:vacuum melting 841: 838: 836: 833: 831: 828: 825: 824: 821: 818: 815: 811: 808: 805: 802: 798: 797: 794: 791: 787: 783: 779: 776: 773: 770: 766: 765: 762: 759: 756: 753: 750: 746: 745: 741: 738: 734: 731: 728: 725: 721: 720: 717: 714: 710: 707: 706:(ordered HCP) 703: 700: 697: 693: 692: 689: 686: 682: 679: 678:(ordered BCT) 675: 672: 669: 665: 664: 661: 658: 650: 643: 639: 630: 627: 624: 620: 619: 616: 613: 609: 606: 605:(ordered FCC) 602: 599: 596: 592: 591: 588: 585: 582: 579: 576: 572: 571: 568: 565: 562: 559: 556: 540: 537: 536: 533: 530: 527: 512: 509: 506: 505: 502: 499: 495: 494: 491: 488: 484: 483: 480: 477: 473: 472: 464: 460: 451: 448: 444: 443: 440: 437: 433: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 413: 410: 406: 405: 401: 397: 394: 391: 387: 386: 380: 377: 374: 370: 369: 366: 361: 331: 236: 233: 119: 118: 33: 31: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5212: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5173: 5172:"Superalloys" 5169: 5168: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5115: 5112:. WILEY-VCH. 5111: 5106: 5105: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5021: 5013: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4968: 4966:0-87339-576-X 4962: 4958: 4954: 4950: 4943: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4916: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4761: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4738: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4711: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4599: 4592: 4586: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4543: 4541:9780815514381 4537: 4533: 4526: 4519: 4512: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4311: 4304: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4262: 4256: 4249: 4243: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4100: 4094: 4087: 4081: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4030: 4022: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3968: 3964: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3923: 3916: 3910: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3885: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3849: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3806: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3763: 3761:9780850668520 3757: 3753: 3746: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3705: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3678: 3669: 3662: 3656: 3648: 3646:9780521070119 3642: 3638: 3631: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3522: 3520: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3374: 3366: 3360: 3356: 3349: 3347: 3345: 3343: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3216: 3212: 3206: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3171: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3135: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3111: 3109: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3067: 3059: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2910: 2906: 2905:"Superalloys" 2899: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2884: 2875: 2873:0-87339-576-X 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2850: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2793: 2786: 2784: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2769: 2767:0-87339-477-1 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2744: 2742: 2733: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2712: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2651: 2647: 2644:(6): 612–15. 2643: 2639: 2632: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2597: 2589: 2587:9780521070119 2583: 2579: 2572: 2570: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2534: 2526: 2522: 2518: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2496: 2487: 2484: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2472: 2468: 2465: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2444: 2436: 2433: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2391: 2388: 2380: 2370: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2354:This section 2352: 2348: 2343: 2342: 2334: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2321: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2304: 2300: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2288: 2286: 2285:turbine blade 2282: 2265: 2262: 2254: 2244: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2228:This section 2226: 2222: 2217: 2216: 2208: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2188: 2179: 2170: 2161: 2152: 2146:Titaniumizing 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2122: 2121: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2111: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2098:eutectic bond 2095: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2017: 2015: 2010: 2000: 1992: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1929: 1927: 1918: 1915: 1907: 1898: 1895: 1886: 1882: 1873: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1825: 1822: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1786: 1784: 1783:diffusivities 1772: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1733: 1732:embrittlement 1729: 1726: 1722: 1721: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1700: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1684: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1669:intermetallic 1666: 1662: 1658: 1648: 1646: 1641: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1568: 1564: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1539: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1496: 1493: 1490: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1444: 1441: 1431: 1427: 1410: 1407: 1404: 1398: 1395: 1384: 1382: 1377: 1372: 1357: 1353: 1344: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1322: 1305: 1301: 1292: 1286: 1282: 1276: 1273: 1263: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1218: 1214: 1205: 1199: 1195: 1189: 1186: 1176: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1130: 1122: 1121: 1119: 1114: 1113: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1095: 1090: 1089: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1078: 1069: 1066: 1062: 1051: 1048: 1033: 1020: 1019: 1013: 1008:(Nb,V) and Co 1001: 994: 987: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 952: 948: 945:matrix. This 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 916: 915: 906: 887: 886:intermetallic 883: 879: 878: 872: 870: 866: 862: 857: 855: 852:Around 1950, 850: 846: 822: 819: 809: 807:rhombohedral 806: 803: 800: 799: 795: 792: 777: 774: 771: 768: 767: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 748: 747: 742: 739: 732: 730:orthorhombic 729: 726: 723: 722: 718: 715: 708: 701: 698: 695: 694: 690: 687: 680: 673: 670: 667: 666: 662: 659: 656: 649: 638: 634: 631: 628: 625: 622: 621: 617: 614: 607: 600: 597: 594: 593: 589: 586: 583: 580: 577: 574: 573: 569: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 553: 547: 544: 534: 531: 528: 525: 524: 523: 520: 518: 503: 500: 497: 496: 492: 489: 486: 485: 481: 478: 475: 474: 470: 459: 455: 452: 449: 446: 445: 442:Ti forms γ'. 441: 438: 435: 434: 414: 411: 408: 407: 395: 392: 389: 388: 378: 375: 372: 371: 367: 362: 359: 358: 352: 349: 345: 341: 340:intermetallic 337: 329: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 232: 229: 227: 222: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 195: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 164: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 130: 125: 115: 112: 104: 93: 90: 86: 83: 79: 76: 72: 69: 65: 62: – 61: 57: 56:Find sources: 50: 46: 40: 39: 34:This article 32: 28: 23: 22: 19: 5132: 5128: 5109: 5102:Bibliography 5088:. 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