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which are shown to produce elliptical boundary basins similar to the structure identified on Mars. Demagnetization resulting from the high heat associated with such an impact can also serve to explain the apparent lack of magnetic anomalies in the northern plains. It also explains the younger surface age of the northern plains, as determined by significantly lesser crater density. Overall, this hypothesis appears to fare better than others that have been proposed.
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in its history. The anomalies are linear in shape and of alternating polarity, which some authors have interpreted as a sequence of reversals and a process akin to seafloor spreading. The stripes are ten times wider than those found on Earth, indicating faster spreading or slower reversal rates. Although no spreading center has been identified, a map of the magnetic anomalies on Mars reveals that the lineations are concentric to the south pole.
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thicknesses, (2) the crust underlying the northern plains is essentially the same age as the crust of the southern highlands, and (3) the northern plains, unlike the southern highlands, contain sparse and weak magnetic anomalies. As will be discussed below, hypotheses for the formation of the dichotomy can largely be divided into endogenic and exogenic processes.
496:. The lack of significant deformation on both sides of the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone over a distance of 500 km suggests that the regions bounded by the fault behave as rigid blocks. This evidence essentially points to a large strike-slip system at a plate boundary, in terrestrial terms known as a
491:
on Earth. The magnitude of displacement across the fault zone is estimated to be 150–160 km, as indicated by the offset rim of an old impact basin. If normalizing the magnitude of the slip to the surface area of the planet, the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone has a displacement value significantly
411:
are weak or absent in the vicinity of large impact basins, the northern plains, and in volcanic regions, indicating that magnetization in these areas have been erased by thermal events. The presence of magnetic anomalies on Mars suggests that the planet maintained an intrinsic magnetic field early on
144:
and separated from the northern plains by the global dichotomy boundary. Strong magnetic stripes with alternating polarity run roughly E-W in the southern hemisphere, concentric with the south pole. These magnetic anomalies are found in rocks dating from the first 500 million years in Mars’s history,
378:
Exogenic hypotheses involve one or more large impacts as being responsible for the lowering of the northern plains. Although a multiple-impact origin has been proposed, it would have required an improbable preferential bombardment of the northern hemisphere. It is also unlikely that multiple impacts
244:
Approximately half of the extensional features on Mars formed during the
Noachian, and have changed very little since, indicating that tectonic activity peaked early on and decreased with time. Wrinkle ridge formation both around Tharsis and in the eastern hemisphere is thought to have peaked in the
283:
data show that crustal thickness on Mars is resolved into two major peaks, with modal thicknesses of 32 km and 58 km in the northern and southern hemispheres, respectively. Regionally, the thickest crust is associated with the
Tharsis plateau, where crustal thickness in some areas exceeds
433:
intrusions due to lithospheric extension. As each dike intrusion cools, it would acquire thermoremanent magnetization from the planet's magnetic field. Successive dikes would be magnetized in the same direction, until the magnetic field reverses its polarity, resulting in the subsequent intrusions
75:
and tectonic characteristics: the northern plains, the southern highlands, and the
Tharsis plateau. Much tectonic study of Mars seeks to explain the processes that led to the planet's division into these three provinces, and how their differing characteristics arose. Hypotheses proposed to explain
369:
in the southern hemisphere, resulting in a thickened crust. It has also been suggested that the formation of a highly viscous melt layer beneath the thickened crust in the southern hemisphere could lead to lithospheric rotation. This may have resulted in the migration of volcanically active areas
420:
A process similar to seafloor spreading has been proposed to explain the presence of the concentric stripes around the
Martian south pole. The process is that of a single large mantle plume rising in one hemisphere and downwelling in the opposite hemisphere. In such a process, new crust produced
382:
Mapping of the northern plains and the dichotomy boundary shows that the crustal dichotomy is elliptical in shape. This suggests that formation of the northern plains was caused by a single oblique mega-impact. This hypothesis is in agreement with numerical models of impacts in the 30-60° range,
240:
at depth. Wrinkle ridges are believed to accommodate small amounts of shortening on the order of 100 m or less. Larger ridges and scarps have also been identified on Mars. These features can be several kilometers high (as opposed to hundreds of meters high for wrinkle ridges), and are thought to
157:
The northern plains are several kilometers lower in elevation than the southern highlands, and have a much lower crater density, indicating a younger surface age. The underlying crust is however thought to be the same age as that of the southern highlands. Unlike the southern highlands, magnetic
291:
The origin of the hemispheric dichotomy, which separates the northern plains from the southern highlands, has been subject to much debate. Important observations to take into account when considering its origin include the following: (1) The northern plains and southern highlands have distinct
54:
features are apparent on the surface. The first is that the northern hemisphere of the planet is much lower than the southern, and has been more recently resurfaced – also implying that the crustal thickness beneath the surface is distinctly bimodal. This feature is referred to as the
236:. These are compressional structures composed of linear asymmetric ridges that can be tens of kilometers wide and hundreds of kilometers long. Many aspects of these ridges appear to be consistent with terrestrial compressional features that involve surface folding overlying
370:
toward the dichotomy boundary, and the subsequent placement and formation of the
Tharsis plateau. The single plume hypothesis is also used to explain the presence of magnetic anomalies in the southern hemisphere, and the lack thereof in the northern hemisphere.
483:
trough system, referred to as the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone (Fig. 7). The Valles
Marineris trough system, which is over 4000 km long, 600 km wide, and up to 7 km deep, would, if located on Earth, extend all the way across North America.
462:
Satellite imagery of the Valles
Marineris trough system, showing an interpreted large scale strike-slip fault system running along its length. Relative fault motion is suggested in part by the offset rim of an old impact basin. Image modified from
309:
Endogenic hypotheses include the possibility of a very early plate tectonic phase on Mars. Such a scenario suggests that the northern hemispheric crust is a relic oceanic plate. In the preferred reconstruction, a spreading center extended north of
356:
A model for a mantle plume origin for the hemispheric dichotomy. Single plume mantle convection generates new crust in southern hemisphere with alternating bands of normal and reversed remanent magnetism, adapted from Vita-Finzi & Fortes,
46:
are very different when compared to the Earth. Today, Mars is believed to be largely tectonically inactive. However, observational evidence and its interpretation suggests that this was not the case further back in Mars's geological history.
225:, and can extend for distances up to 4000 km. Their relief indicates that they accommodate small amounts of extension on the order of 100 m or less. It has been argued that these graben are surface expressions of deflated subsurface
471:
Recent research claims to have found the first strong evidence for a plate tectonic boundary on Mars. The discovery refers to a large-scale (>2000 km in length and >150 km in slip) and quite narrow (<50 km wide)
349:, which took place immediately after planetary accretion. Nevertheless, such an early origin of the hemispheric dichotomy is challenged by the fact that only minor magnetic anomalies have been detected in the northern plains.
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would be emplaced in concentric circles spreading radially from a single upwelling point, consistent with the pattern observed on Mars. This process has also been invoked to help explain the
Martian hemispheric dichotomy.
304:
A possible plate tectonic explanation for the northern lowlands. The Boreal plate is shown in yellow. Trenches are shown by toothed lines, ridges by double lines, and transform faults by single lines, modified from Sleep,
95:
in the
Martian crust that are linear in shape and of alternating polarity have been detected by orbiting satellites. Some authors have argued that these share an origin with similar stripes found on Earth's
221:
several kilometers wide, and hundreds of meters deep, as well as enormous troughs and rifts up to 600 km wide and several kilometers deep. These graben and rifts are bounded by steeply dipping
241:
represent large lithosphere-scale thrust faults. Displacement ratios for these are ten times those of wrinkle ridges, with shortening estimated to be hundreds of meters to kilometers.
170:
Geological map of the region around the
Tharsis plateau. Extensional and compressional features – e.g., graben and wrinkle ridges – have been mapped and are visible in the image. (
67:
province that has had major tectonic influences both on a regional and global scale in Mars's past. On this basis, the surface of Mars is often divided into three major
338:. However, subsequent investigations of this model show a general lack of evidence for tectonism and volcanism in areas where such activity was initially predicted.
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through collision and accretion of terranes. This hypothesis suggests that the magnetic lineations on Mars are analogous to the banded magnetic anomalies in the
1231:
Fairén, A.; Ruiz, J.; Anguita, F. (2002). "An Origin for the Linear Magnetic Anomalies on Mars through Accretion of Terranes: Implications for Dynamo Timing".
365:
has also been invoked to explain the hemispheric dichotomy. This process would have caused substantial melting and crustal production above a single rising
182:
plateau, which sits in the highland-lowland boundary, is an elevated region that covers roughly one quarter of the planet. Tharsis is topped by the largest
749:
Connerney, J. E.; Acuña, M. H.; Wasilewski, P. J.; Ness, N. F.; Reme, H.; Mazelle, C.; Vignes, D.; Lin, R. P.; Mitchell, D. L.; Cloutier, P. A. (1999).
272:
Histogram of crustal thickness versus area on Mars, adapted from Neumann et al., 2004. The hemispheric dichotomy is clear in the two peaks in the data.
334:. According to this reconstruction, the northern plains would have been generated by a single spreading ridge, with Tharsis Montes qualifying as an
127:
faults. These observations provide some indication that at least some parts of Mars may have undergone plate tectonics deep in its geological past.
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would have been able to strip ejecta from the northern hemisphere, and uniformly strip the crust to a relatively consistent depth of 3 km.
210:, at the northern end of the Tharsis plateau, is 1500 km in diameter, and stands 6 km above the surrounding plains. In comparison,
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Tanaka, K. L.; Skinner, J. A.; Dohm, J. M.; Irwin III, R.P; Kolb, E. J.; Fortezzo, C. M.; Platz, T.; Michael, G. G.; Hare, T. M. (2014).
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Another study assumes a process of crustal convergence instead of generation, arguing that the magnetic lineations on Mars formed at a
1083:
Citron, R. J.; Zhong, S. J. (2012). "Constraints on the Formation of the Martian Crustal Dichotomy from Remnant Crustal Magnetism".
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on Earth. These terrestrial anomalies are of similar geometry and size as those detected on Mars, with widths of 100–200 km.
798:"Tharsis-Radial Graben Systems as the Surface Manifestation of Plume-Related Dike Intrusion Complexes: Models and Implications"
1153:
Andrews-Hanna, J.C.; Banerdt, W.B.; Zuber, M.T. (2008). "The Borealis basin and the origin of the martian crustal dichotomy".
84:(foreign to the planet, e.g., meteorite impact) processes. This distinction occurs throughout the study of tectonics on Mars.
342:
707:"Structural Analysis of the Valles Marineris Fault Zone: Possible Evidence for Large-scale Strike-slip Faulting on Mars"
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The study indicates that the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone is a left-slip transtensional system similar to that of the
922:
20:
Topographic map of Mars showing the highland-lowland boundary marked in yellow, and the Tharsis rise outlined in red (
1118:
Frey, H.; Schultz, R. A. (1988). "Large Impact Basins and the Mega-Impact Origin for the Crustal Dichotomy on Mars".
840:"Localization of Bedding Plane Slip and Backthrust Faults Above Blind Thrust Faults: Keys to Wrinkle Ridge Structure"
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599:
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recording the opposite direction. These periodic reversals would require that the dike intrusions migrate over time.
217:
The load of Tharsis has had both regional and global influences. Extensional features radiating from Tharsis include
1217:
322:. As spreading progressed, the Boreal plate broke into the Acidalia plate with south-dipping subducting beneath
149:. The magnetic anomalies on Mars measure 200 km width, roughly ten times wider than those found on Earth.
881:"Lithospheric-Scale Buckling and Thrust Structures on Mars: The Coprates Rise and South Tharsis Ridge Belt"
42:
have shaped the planet. However, both the ways this change has happened and the properties of the planet's
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Neumann, G. A.; Zuber, M. T.; Wieczorek, M. A.; McGovern, P. J.; Lemoine, F. G.; Smith, D. E. (2004).
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Golombek, M. P.; Phillips, R. J. (2010). "Mars Tectonics". In Watters, T. R.; Schultz, R. A. (eds.).
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An alternative hypothesis claims that the magnetic anomalies on Mars are the result of successive
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Another endogenic process used to explain the hemispheric dichotomy is that of primary crustal
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68:
51:
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Nimmo, F. (2000). "Dike Intrusion as a Possible Cause of Linear Martian Magnetic Anomalies".
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indicating that an intrinsic magnetic field would have ceased to exist before the early
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1035:; Lee, Der-Chuen (1997). "Core Formation on Mars and Differentiated Asteroids".
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how the two primary tectonic events may have occurred are usually divided into
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larger than that of the Dead Sea Fault, and slightly larger than that of the
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100:, which have been attributed to gradual production of new crust at spreading
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345:. This process would have been associated with the formation of the Martian
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stands 24 km tall and is nearly 600 km in diameter. The adjoining
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are thought to have evolved through time; in other words, as on Earth,
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is merely 120 km wide but stands 9 km above the sea floor.
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In general, Mars lacks unambiguous evidence that terrestrial-style
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Map of crustal magnetic anomaly distribution on Mars, courtesy of
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collectively make up a small histogram peak from 5 to 20 km.
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1012:"The Martian northern plains did not result from plate tectonics"
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80 km, and the thinnest crust with impact basins. The major
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10.1130/0091-7613(2000)028<0391:DIAAPC>2.3.CO;2
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32:, the crustal properties and structure of the surface of
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The southern highlands of Mars display zones of intense
923:"Crustal Structure of Mars from Gravity and Topography"
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can be identified on the surface of Mars (e.g., in the
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anomalies in the northern plains are sparse and weak.
751:"Magnetic Lineations in the Ancient Crust of Mars"
50:At the scale of the whole planet, two large scale
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115:trough), which can be likened to plate-bounding
91:has shaped its surface. However, in some places
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104:. Other authors have argued that large-scale
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387:Tectonic implications of magnetic anomalies
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454:Tectonic implications of Valles Marineris
232:Circumferential to Tharsis are so-called
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796:Wilson, L.; Head III, J. W. (2002).
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140:The southern highlands are heavily
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679:Planetary Geology: An Introduction
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1019:Lunar and Planetary Institute
542:Scientific Investigations Map
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1120:Geophysical Research Letters
775:10.1126/science.284.5415.794
592:10.1017/CBO9780511691645.006
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186:known in the solar system.
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1105:10.1016/j.pepi.2012.09.008
621:Cambridge University Press
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970:"Martian Plate Tectonics"
681:(2 ed.). Edinburgh:
615:Carr, Michael H. (2006).
448:North American Cordillera
1140:10.1029/GL015i003p00229
838:Schultz, R. A. (2000).
444:convergent plate margin
131:Physiographic provinces
69:physiographic provinces
1253:10.1006/icar.2002.6942
683:Dunedin Academic Press
538:"Geologic map of Mars"
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71:, each with different
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968:Sleep, N. H. (1994).
936:(E8): E08002–E08017.
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438:Accretion of terranes
425:Dike intrusion origin
405:crustal magnetization
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253:Hemispheric dichotomy
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119:on Earth such as the
59:". The second is the
57:hemispheric dichotomy
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951:10.1029/2004JE002262
865:10.1029/1999JE001212
825:10.1029/2001JE001593
586:. pp. 183–232.
1245:2002Icar..160..220F
1175:10.1038/nature07011
1167:2008Natur.453.1212A
1161:(7199): 1212–1215.
1132:1988GeoRL..15..229F
1097:2012PEPI..212...55C
989:1994JGR....99.5639S
942:2004JGRE..109.8002N
897:1994JGR....99.8371S
856:2000JGR...10512035S
850:(E5): 12035–12052.
817:2002JGRE..107.5057W
767:1999Sci...284..794C
723:2012Lsphe...4..286Y
617:The surface of Mars
584:Planetary Tectonics
489:Dead Sea fault zone
467:/MOLA Science Team.
416:Mantle plume origin
238:blind thrust faults
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409:magnetic anomalies
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136:Southern highlands
93:magnetic anomalies
39:tectonic processes
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905:10.1029/94JE00277
891:(E4): 8371–8385.
811:(E8): 5057–5080.
761:(5415): 794–798.
510:Crustal magnetism
494:San Andreas Fault
363:mantle convection
296:Endogenic origins
259:Martian dichotomy
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264:Hypsometry
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1091:: 55–63.
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