Volcano - Knowledge

1012: 2553:. Even then, some eruptions will have no useful warning. An example of this occurred in March 2017, when a tourist group was witnessing a presumed to be predictable Mount Etna eruption and the flowing lava came in contact with a snow accumulation causing a situational phreatic explosion causing injury to ten persons. Other types of significant eruptions are known to give useful warnings of only hours at the most by seismic monitoring. The recent demonstration of a magma chamber with repose times of tens of thousands of years, with potential for rapid recharge so potentially decreasing warning times, under the youngest volcano in central Europe, does not tell us if more careful monitoring will be useful. 1213: 2054: 464: 44: 1766: 234: 2281: 1201: 591: 2545:

volcanic activities. While the science of volcanology may not yet be capable of predicting the exact times and dates of eruptions far into the future, on suitably monitored volcanoes the monitoring of ongoing volcanic indicators is often capable of predicting imminent eruptions with advance warnings minimally of hours, and usually of days prior to any eruptions. The diversity of volcanoes and their complexities mean that eruption forecasts for the foreseeable future will be based on

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ability is derived via such volcanic-activity monitoring programs, through the greater abilities of local officials to facilitate timely evacuations based upon the greater modern-day knowledge of volcanism that is now available, and upon improved communications technologies such as cell phones. Such operations tend to provide enough time for humans to escape at least with their lives before a pending eruption. One example of such a recent successful volcanic evacuation was the

1161: 2289: 4134: 1969: 1185: 7734: 1659: 3011: 7758: 4095: 2667: 770: 1872: 2435: 700: 1349: 7505: 7770: 2604: 7746: 1613: 398:, which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off the plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The 467: 466: 5155: 471: 470: 465: 1417:) are highly hazardous products of such volcanoes since they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as high as 850 °C (1,560 °F) are known to occur in pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in their path, and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid down, often many meters thick. 472: 469: 1164: 1167: 1166: 1162: 2442:) with major historical volcanic eruptions in the 19th and 20th century (VEI 5, 6 and 7). From left to right: Yellowstone 2.1 Ma, Yellowstone 1.3 Ma, Long Valley 6.26 Ma, Yellowstone 0.64 Ma . 19th century eruptions: Tambora 1815, Krakatoa 1883. 20th century eruptions: Novarupta 1912, St. Helens 1980, Pinatubo 1991. 1168: 5574:

Wieczorek, Mark A.; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Khan, Amir; Pritchard, Matthew E.; Weiss, Benjamin P.; Williams, James G.; Hood, Lon L.; Righter, Kevin; Neal, Clive R.; Shearer, Charles K.; McCallum, I. Stewart; Tompkins, Stephanie; Hawke, B. Ray; Peterson, Chris; Gillis, Jeffrey J.; Bussey, Ben (January 1,

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Although volcanic eruptions pose considerable hazards to humans, past volcanic activity has created important economic resources. Tuff formed from volcanic ash is a relatively soft rock, and it has been used for construction since ancient times. The Romans often used tuff, which is abundant in Italy,

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in 2008. Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in the modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style,

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rises into the overlying mantle, lowering its melting point, particularly for the more silica-rich minerals. Fractional crystallization further enriches the magma in silica. It has also been suggested that intermediate magmas are produced by the melting of sediments carried downwards by the subducted

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pointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "he term "dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in the glossaries or index", however the

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words. ʻAʻa is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Pāhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to ʻaʻa

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Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the ocean's surface. In the deep ocean

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Volcanic ash and weathered basalt produce some of the most fertile soil in the world, rich in nutrients such as iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus. Volcanic activity is responsible for emplacing valuable mineral resources, such as metal ores. It is accompanied by high rates of heat

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The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to describe the

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Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by yet higher viscosities and partial crystallization of magma, which is often intermediate in composition. Eruptions take the form of short-lived explosions for several hours, which destroy a central dome and eject large lava blocks and bombs. This is followed

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The form and style of an eruption of a volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma.

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found in East African volcanic ash dated at 3.66 million years old. The association of volcanoes with fire and disaster is found in many oral traditions and had religious and thus social significance before the first written record of concepts related to volcanoes. Examples are: (1) the stories in

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was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were

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The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again. Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but

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is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to

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can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years may be considered dormant instead of extinct. An individual volcano in a monogenetic volcanic field can be extinct but that does not mean a completely new

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A supervolcano is defined as a volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event. Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a

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Thus in many cases, while volcanic eruptions may still cause major property destruction, the periodic large-scale loss of human life that was once associated with many volcanic eruptions, has recently been significantly reduced in areas where volcanoes are adequately monitored. This life-saving

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Many volcanoes near human settlements are heavily monitored with the aim of providing adequate advance warnings of imminent eruptions to nearby populations. Also, a better modern-day understanding of volcanology has led to some better informed governmental and public responses to unanticipated

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are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar

1165: 718:(both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in 484:

A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a

1644:(shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism. 1833:, but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform amongst volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon a graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories. 2556:

Scientists are known to perceive risk, with its social elements, differently from local populations and those that undertake social risk assessments on their behalf, so that both disruptive false alarms and retrospective blame, when disasters occur, will continue to happen.

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Citizens who may be concerned about their own exposure to risk from nearby volcanic activity should familiarize themselves with the types of, and quality of, volcano monitoring and public notification procedures being employed by governmental authorities in their areas.

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posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting

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During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in the theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are

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Felsic magmas are formed within the crust, usually through the melting of crust rock from the heat of underlying mafic magmas. The lighter felsic magma floats on the mafic magma without significant mixing. Less commonly, felsic magmas are produced by extreme

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Aiuppa, Alessandro; Moretti, Roberto; Federico, Cinzia; Giudice, Gaetano; Gurrieri, Sergio; Liuzzo, Marco; Papale, Paolo; Shinohara, Hiroshi; Valenza, Mariano (2007). "Forecasting Etna eruptions by real-time observation of volcanic gas composition".

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and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an

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Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentle

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Magmatic eruptions are driven primarily by gas release due to decompression. Low-viscosity magma with little dissolved gas produces relatively gentle effusive eruptions. High-viscosity magma with a high content of dissolved gas produces violent

468: 2089:(IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations-sponsored 2748:

is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.

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Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalisation is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of the

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Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderate viscosities and dissolved gas levels. They are characterized by frequent but short-lived eruptions that can produce eruptive columns hundreds of meters high, which can also be seen in

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at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behavior of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by

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zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called

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Lawrence, S.J.; Stopar, J.D.; Hawke, B.R.; Greenhagen, B.T.; Cahill, J.T.S.; Bandfield, J.L.; Jolliff, B.L.; Denevi, B.W.; Robinson, M.S.; Glotch, T.D.; Bussey, D.B.J.; Spudis, P.D.; Giguere, T.A.; Garry, W.B. (2013).

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Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.

1624:(long dimension is several mm): the curved shapes of altered glass shards (ash fragments) are well preserved, although the glass is partly altered. The shapes were formed around bubbles of expanding, water-rich gas. 2086: 1506:. These lavas are usually hotter and much less viscous than felsic lavas. Mafic magmas are formed by partial melting of the dry mantle, with limited fractional crystallization and assimilation of crustal material. 2045:

various levels and stages of volcanic activity. Some alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors and words. Some systems use a combination of both.

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Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus. In 2009, a paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such as

1163: 643:. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in 1628:

Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases

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Marcari, G., G. Fabbrocino, and G. Manfredi. "Shear seismic capacity of tuff masonry panels in heritage constructions." Structural Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture X 95 (2007):

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Robinson, Cordula A.; Thornhill, Gill D.; Parfitt, Elisabeth A. (1995). "Large-scale volcanic activity at Maat Mons: Can this explain fluctuations in atmospheric chemistry observed by Pioneer Venus?".

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Berger, Melvin, Gilda Berger, and Higgins Bond. "Volcanoes-why and how ." Why do volcanoes blow their tops?: Questions and answers about volcanoes and earthquakes. New York: Scholastic, 1999. 7. Print.

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Plinian eruptions are the most violent of all volcanic eruptions. They are characterized by sustained huge eruption columns whose collapse produces catastrophic pyroclastic flows. They are named after

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like the one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose

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has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as

253:, and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created). 1562:, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and were probably more fluid than common mafic lavas, with a viscosity less than a tenth that of hot basalt magma. 7305: 1841:

The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater.

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Because of the enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful

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are characterized by superheating of groundwater that comes in contact with hot rock or magma. They are distinguished from phreatomagmatic eruptions because the erupted material is all

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with a central fire connected to numerous others depicting volcanoes as a type of safety valve. Edward Jorden, in his work on mineral waters, challenged this view; in 1632 he proposed

1810:(the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for the same time interval. 849:

that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples include

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Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the

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monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An

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Troll, VR; Deegan, FM; Jolis, EM; Budd, DA; Dahren, B; Schwarzkopf, LM (2015). "Ancient oral tradition describes volcano–earthquake interaction at Merapi volcano, Indonesia".

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Meresse, S.; Costard, F.O.; Mangold, N.; Masson, P.; Neukum, G. (2008). "Formation and evolution of the chaotic terrains by subsidence and magmatism: Hydraotes Chaos, Mars".

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Volcanoes are not distributed evenly over the Earth's surface but active ones with significant impact were encountered early in human history, evidenced by footprints of

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Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness.

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feeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or floating

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Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in the same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes".

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Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon.

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Druitt, T. H.; Costa, F.; Deloule, E.; Dungan, M.; Scaillet, B. (2012). "Decadal to monthly timescales of magma transfer and reservoir growth at a caldera volcano".

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had demonstrated by 1794 that steam explosions could cause explosive eruptions and many geologists held this as the universal cause of explosive eruptions up to the

706:, the youngest volcano in El Salvador. Izalco erupted almost continuously from 1770 (when it formed) to 1958, earning it the nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific". 315:(also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such as 4135:"Descriptive nomenclature and classification of pyroclastic deposits and fragments: recommendations of the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks" 5997: 5805: 4794: 1717:

Peléan eruptions are more violent still, being characterized by dome growth and collapse that produces various kinds of pyroclastic flows. They are named after

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in New Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognise as such and be obscured by geological processes.

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Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of

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of more mafic magmas. This is a process in which mafic minerals crystallize out of the slowly cooling magma, which enriches the remaining liquid in silica.

4911:"Constraints on the pre-eruptive magma storage conditions and magma evolution of the 56–30 ka explosive volcanism of Ciomadul (East Carpathians, Romania)" 2090: 1682:

Hawaiian eruptions are typical of volcanoes that erupt mafic lava with a relatively low gas content. These are almost entirely effusive, producing local

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has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the

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Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. The intensity of explosive volcanism is expressed using the

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research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by the formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of

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Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by

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volcano and a queen resident at a beach 50 km (31 mi) away on what is now known to be an earthquake fault that interacts with that volcano.

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slab. Another process is magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir before emplacement or lava flow.

5538: 5228: 2832:, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the 572:, which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of 6558: 4909:

Cserép, B.; Szemerédi, M.; Harangi, S.; Erdmann, S.; Bachmann, O.; Dunkl, I.; Seghedi, I.; Mészáros, K.; Kovács, Z.; Virág, A; Ntaflos, T. (2023).

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Volcanic eruptions pose a significant threat to human civilization. However, volcanic activity has also provided humans with important resources.

1484:, by several processes. One process is the hydration melting of mantle peridotite followed by fractional crystallization. Water from a subducting 1633:. These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from the volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter ( 4754: 6606: 1908:

depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale. For example, the

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basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by

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was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down the north side of the mountain.

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Berryman, Kelvin; Villamor, Pilar; Nairn, Ian.A.; Begg, John; Alloway, Brent V.; Rowland, Julie; Lee, Julie; Capote, Ramon (July 1, 2022).

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that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today. Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to major extinction events, such as the

669:. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent. 2857:

from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.

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Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading ridges) and recent sub-aerial volcanoes (mostly at convergent boundaries)

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Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases.

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structure, partial decompression melting of magma, and magma convection. This eventually led to the acceptance of plate tectonics.

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in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough to erupt high into the

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While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano, the USGS defines a volcano as

357:. When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called 4110: 3544:

Brož, P.; Hauber, E. (2012). "A unique volcanic field in Tharsis, Mars: Pyroclastic cones as evidence for explosive eruptions".

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Because felsic magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which leads to explosive volcanism.

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with more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once are

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proposed the core of Earth was incandescent and, by 1785, the works of Decartes and others were synthesised into geology by

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aerosols that can reflect solar radiation and lower surface temperatures significantly. Sulfur dioxide from the eruption of

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the Athabascan subcultures about humans living inside mountains and a woman who uses fire to escape from a mountain, (2)

2257: 2249: 1980: 6346:"Volcano-tectonic interactions at the southern margin of the Okataina Volcanic Centre, Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand" 5365:"Making Moai: Reconsidering Concepts of Risk in the Construction of Megalithic Architecture in Rapa Nui (Easter Island)" 2488:" because of the effect on North American and European weather. The freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread 2268:

ratios in real-time and in high-resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving

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sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano

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blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. This can cause major disruptions to air travel.

915: 341:, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creating 6009: 2663:

near the summit and on the northern flank. However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.

1011: 6239: 6203: 5904: 5263: 4802: 3909: 3469: 3392: 3280: 2004: 1972: 678: 245:, its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to 7330: 7310: 6031:

Zaitsev, AN; Chakhmouradian, AR; Musiba, C (2023). "Laetoli: The Oldest Known Hominin Footprints in Volcanic Ash".

5305: 1921: 1729: 105:, and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a 6403: 3582:"LRO observations of morphology and surface roughness of volcanic cones and lobate lava flows in the Marius Hills" 2910:

However, others proposed more natural (but still incorrect) causes of volcanic activity. In the fifth century BC,

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More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where the flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks.

7774: 7257: 6517: 6189:"Geomythology, theodicy, and the continuing relevance of religious worldviews on responses to volcanic eruptions" 4550: 3045: 2968: 2385: 2269: 5427: 4988: 3657: 2988: 7320: 4527: 4304: 3051: 1817:

ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years. Volcanoes are informally described as

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has erupted continuously for thousands of years, giving rise to its nickname "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".

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where the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the

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spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.

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volcano might not erupt close by with little or no warning as its field may have an active magma supply.

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analyzed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The

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Pedone, M.; Aiuppa, A.; Giudice, G.; Grassa, F.; Francofonte, V.; Bergsson, B.; Ilyinskaya, E. (2014).

4025:"Episodic massive mud eruptions from submarine mud volcanoes examined through topographical signatures" 3035: 1920:

was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected

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Solar radiation graph 1958–2008, showing how the radiation is reduced after major volcanic eruptions

1101:, or (in Iceland) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in 7811: 6536: 6109:

Swanson, DA (2008). "Hawaiian oral tradition describes 400 years of volcanic activity at Kīlauea".

4645: 4604: 4543:"The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism" 3846: 3813: 2471: 2061: 1891: 1800: 1735: 1466: 1404:

in California is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.

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is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

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in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling

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are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new

7826: 7356: 7215: 6577: 6404:"Arthur Holmes: Harnessing the Mechanics of Mantle Convection to the Theory of Continental Drift" 6316: 5333:"The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*" 5187: 5118: 4642: 4601: 3852: 3819: 3183: 2801: 2459: 2253: 2028: 1796: 1331: 937: 534: 288: 168:. It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from which 94: 4634: 3841: 7267: 6506:

This is a reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.

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Sigurdsson, H; Houghton, B; Rymer, H; Stix, J; McNutt, S (2000). "The history of volcanology".

1789: 1753: 6546: 5428:"A message from the 'underground forge of the gods': History and current eruptions at Mt Etna" 5426:

Thomaidis, K; Troll, VR; Deegan, FM; Freda, C; Corsaro, RA; Behncke, B; Rafailidis, S (2021).

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Castro, J.; Dingwell, D. (2009). "Rapid ascent of rhyolitic magma at Chaitén volcano, Chile".

3622: 1863:, ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present. 1813:

Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an

1476:. Intermediate magmas are characteristic of stratovolcanoes. They are most commonly formed at 6628: 5809: 5767:

Mouginis-Mark, Peter J. (October 2016). "Geomorphology and volcanology of Maat Mons, Venus".

5136: 4575: 3439: 3270: 2586: 2485: 1960:

in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE.

1477: 1434: 438: 269:(meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region. 63: 43: 4683: 4100:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

1318:. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example 841:

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and

677:

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The

7831: 7195: 7031: 6357: 6153: 6118: 6040: 5776: 5741: 5706: 5586: 5508: 5442: 5083: 5041: 4976: 4922: 4862: 4825:"Mount Edgecumbe volcanic field changes from 'dormant' to 'active' -- what does that mean?" 4559: 4419: 4200: 4146: 4036: 3987: 3940: 3755: 3712: 3593: 3553: 3518: 3491: 3195: 3140: 3093: 2565:

evacuation of 1991. This evacuation is believed to have saved 20,000 lives. In the case of

2417: 2178: 2031:. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" 1983:

in the Pacific Ocean (although some volcanoes at the eastern end of the chain are active),

1949: 1173: 722:

that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as

370: 362: 114: 5164:

McGee, Kenneth A.; Doukas, Michael P.; Kessler, Richard; Gerlach, Terrence M. (May 1997).

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are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with

8: 7282: 6920: 6753: 5564:

Courthouse News Service. By Candace Cheung. August 17, 2022. Downloaded August 17, 2022.

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by an effusive phase that rebuilds the central dome. Vulcanian eruptions are named after

1670:(VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions. 1022:

Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the

952: 411: 407: 328: 102: 6361: 6188: 6157: 6122: 6044: 5780: 5745: 5710: 5590: 5512: 5446: 5205: 5087: 5045: 4980: 4926: 4866: 4563: 4423: 4204: 4150: 4040: 3991: 3944: 3759: 3716: 3597: 3557: 3522: 3495: 3199: 3144: 3105: 3097: 1275:, particles of solid material of all shapes and sizes ejected and thrown through the air 929:

emplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of

900:. Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 meters (4 ft) across and weigh several tons. 7806: 7796: 7738: 7682: 7469: 7444: 7349: 7292: 6385: 6273: 6256: 6169: 6056: 5874: 5602: 5458: 5165: 5099: 4886: 4162: 3728: 3164: 2922: 2915: 2833: 2598: 2546: 2405: 2326: 2240: 2168: 2076: 1676: 1084: 1006: 881: 872: 458: 278: 204: 110: 98: 5068: 4269: 3724: 2900: 1941: 1765: 7757: 7677: 7536: 7474: 7115: 7071: 7021: 6930: 6895: 6495: 6476: 6457: 6438: 6431: 6389: 6370: 6345: 6278: 6235: 6199: 6173: 6130: 6060: 5878: 5606: 5462: 5349: 5332: 5259: 4878: 4687: 4300: 4237: 4166: 3905: 3789: 3781: 3628: 3465: 3388: 3363: 3276: 3168: 3156: 3109: 2960: 2787: 2722: 2689:, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include 2677:, "Mount Olympus"), located on the planet Mars, is the tallest known mountain in the 2590: 2393: 2300: 2280: 1749: 1725: 1583: 1578: 1568: 1536: 1315: 1311: 1229: 1041: 1000: 980: 885: 640: 446: 403: 391: 386: 366: 354: 250: 138: 118: 47: 5974: 5697:

Bindschadler, D.L. (1995). "Magellan: A new view of Venus' geology and geophysics".

5103: 4962:"Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified" 3999: 2952: 233: 7762: 7692: 7661: 7656: 7439: 7252: 7150: 7046: 6915: 6847: 6375: 6365: 6301: 6268: 6161: 6126: 6048: 5870: 5784: 5749: 5714: 5594: 5516: 5450: 5344: 5091: 5049: 4984: 4940: 4930: 4890: 4870: 4679: 4649: 4608: 4567: 4427: 4208: 4154: 4044: 4003: 3995: 3978:

Mazzini, Adriano; Etiope, Giuseppe (May 2017). "Mud volcanism: An updated review".

3948: 3808: 3771: 3763: 3720: 3601: 3561: 3526: 3148: 3101: 3016: 2996: 2907:

and the concepts of the underworld are aligned to volcanoes in that Greek culture.

2608: 2530: 2505: 2467: 2346: 2158: 2112: 2080: 2024: 1875: 1860: 1686:

and highly fluid lava flows but relatively little tephra. They are named after the

1520: 1516: 1410: 1307: 1256: 1102: 876: 715: 703: 662: 602: 399: 142: 4653: 4612: 3387:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 380–384, 390. 2995:

work had brought together the concepts of radioactive generation of heat, Earth's

2423:

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially

1200: 1040:

air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor.

631: 7631: 7494: 7406: 7396: 7272: 7120: 7041: 7026: 6980: 6960: 6647: 6562: 5788: 5646: 5561: 5542: 5482: 5371: 5280: 4758: 4736: 3565: 3530: 3222: 2972: 2948: 2866: 2809: 2709:. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European 2594: 2569:, a 2021 review found 77 deaths due to eruptions since 1536 but none since 1987. 2550: 2474: 2447: 2388:. Chemical reactions of sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere can also damage the 2342: 2316: 2008: 1807: 1641: 1558:, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at Earth's surface since the 1512: 1438: 1323: 1189: 1134: 542: 509: 300: 284: 228: 208: 200: 157: 126: 106: 59: 6052: 3244: 3182:

Lopes, R. M.; Mitchell, K. L.; Williams, D. A.; Mitri, G.; Gregg, T. K. (2009).

1125:

was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of

576:

volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

7707: 7636: 7454: 7434: 7277: 6965: 6662: 4945: 4935: 4910: 3056: 2984: 2980: 2850: 2737: 2698: 2562: 2409: 2292: 1850: 1773: 1687: 1485: 1481: 1303: 1299: 1248: 1244: 1205: 1130: 960: 858: 755: 731: 622: 590: 477: 476:

Video of lava agitating and bubbling in the volcanic eruption of Litli-Hrútur (

291:

diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath the thinned

6531: 5521: 5496: 5306:"Home Away from Home: Ancestral Pueblo Fieldhouses in the Northern Rio Grande" 4960:

Chesner, C.A.; Rose, J.A.; Deino, W.I.; Drake, R.; Westgate, A. (March 1991).

4824: 4432: 4407: 2087:

International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior

1718: 1679:. The range of observed eruption styles is expressed from historical examples. 1441:

may travel hundreds of kilometers before it falls back to ground as a fallout

7790: 7702: 7606: 7513: 7489: 7464: 7459: 7449: 7051: 6885: 6584: 5159: 4593: 4106: 4101: 3785: 3160: 3113: 2992: 2854: 2783: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2694: 2522: 2481: 2451: 2377: 2164: 2020: 1887:

have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in the future.

1683: 1532: 1492:

If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called

1352: 1068: 897: 854: 836: 775: 739: 690: 292: 165: 149: 83: 4571: 1948:, thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital 968: 627: 546: 7697: 7641: 7479: 7411: 7036: 6733: 6282: 5545:

LiveScience. By Stephanie Pappas. June 15, 2011. Downloaded July 25, 2022.

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Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005).

5143:. trans. Jóhann Hannesson, Pétur Karlsson. Reykjavík: Almenna bókafélagið. 5069:"The significance of volcanic eruption strength and frequency for climate" 3952: 3128: 735: 529:) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on the 148:

Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of

7591: 7546: 7521: 7429: 7401: 7391: 6815: 6810: 6773: 5304:

Dolan, S.G.; Cates, K.M.; Conrad, C.N.; Copeland, S.R. (March 14, 2019).

5009: 4049: 4024: 3413: 3152: 2779: 2765:, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the 2389: 2288: 2226: 2220: 2012: 1925: 1739: 1566:

Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced

1559: 1401: 1295: 1177: 1146: 1053: 1036: 694: 666: 569: 553: 442: 242: 212: 180: 153: 5188:"Supervolcano eruption – in Sumatra – deforested India 73,000 years ago" 4874: 3767: 3732: 1968: 1573: 1184: 1180:

is home to 20 Holocene volcanoes, 3 of which have erupted in last 100yrs

7616: 7566: 7541: 7016: 6935: 6763: 6165: 5620: 5251:

Volcanoes in human history: the far-reaching effects of major eruptions

4158: 4008: 3606: 3581: 3184:"What is a Volcano? How planetary volcanism has changed our definition" 2926: 2911: 2904: 2690: 2651: 2636: 2628: 2566: 2358: 2174: 2126: 2098: 1996: 1984: 1953: 1945: 1550: 1414: 1348: 1327: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1094: 1093:. They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and 1064: 1049: 1028: 964: 850: 747: 333: 246: 6380: 5753: 5718: 5485:

National Geographic. By Maya Wei-Haas. 2015. Downloaded June 24, 2022.

5454: 5053: 3776: 2979:

eruptions from dry explosive eruption, of, as it turned out, a basalt

2951:(1571–1630) believed volcanoes were ducts for Earth's tears. In 1650, 2728:

is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of

2611:

volcano erupts a plume 330 km (205 mi) above the surface of

936:

Supervolcano eruptions, while the most dangerous type, are very rare;

538: 437:), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual 137:, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in 7601: 7586: 7571: 7419: 7170: 7061: 7011: 6970: 6880: 6837: 6700: 6679: 5497:"Scientists' views about lay perceptions of volcanic hazard and risk" 5095: 4674:

Martí Molist, Joan (September 6, 2017). "Assessing Volcanic Hazard".

3084:

Rampino, M R; Self, S; Stothers, R B (May 1988). "Volcanic Winters".

2930: 2843: 2774: 2745: 2725: 2656: 2616: 2492:

in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic eruption.

2455: 2401: 2397: 2190: 2142: 2106: 2102: 2057: 1913: 1703: 1658: 1630: 1591: 1555: 1524: 1499: 1472: 1426: 1360: 1343: 1217: 1126: 972: 862: 727: 656: 518: 514: 434: 374: 296: 87: 5832:"Exceptionally bright eruption on Io rivals largest in solar system" 3875:"Origin of mystery humming noises heard around the world, uncovered" 2136: 1742:. They are driven by the resulting rapid buildup of pressure in the 303:

of the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most

7646: 7621: 7596: 7526: 7130: 7094: 7084: 6975: 6657: 6619: 6567: 6196:

Living under the shadow: The cultural impacts of volcanic eruptions

5166:"Impacts of Volcanic Gases on Climate, the Environment, and People" 4761:

Wired. August 15, 2015. By Erik Klimetti. Downloaded July 24, 2022.

3010: 2934: 2872: 2846: 2741: 2666: 2660: 2512: 2362: 2334: 2236: 2194: 1992: 1936: 1917: 1871: 1804: 1695: 1595: 1393: 1319: 1118: 1023: 530: 308: 6855: 3059: – System for uniquely identifying volcanic features on Earth 2732:

interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt

2434: 1912:

volcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and

30:

This article is about the geological feature. For other uses, see

7576: 7561: 7504: 7386: 7207: 6996: 6950: 6940: 6875: 6785: 6669: 5158:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

4633:

Venzke, E. (compiler) (December 19, 2022). Venzke, Edward (ed.).

4592:

Venzke, E. (compiler) (December 19, 2022). Venzke, Edward (ed.).

2896: 2817: 2813: 2791: 2718: 2612: 2450:

is thought to have taken place around 70,000 years ago after the

2428: 2366: 2132: 2116: 2032: 1988: 1929: 1785: 1777: 1711: 1528: 1397: 1370:

Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions:

1090: 1072: 1060: 976: 922: 769: 743: 699: 644: 598: 573: 565: 557: 522: 497: 346: 316: 196: 5536:

Pinatubo: Why the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Wasn't the Deadliest

5116: 4795:"How is a volcano defined as being active, dormant, or extinct?" 3339: 2603: 2536:

Tourism associated with volcanoes is also a worldwide industry.

609:

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which

113:, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the 7626: 7611: 7581: 7556: 7551: 7531: 7484: 7306:

Large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province

7180: 7165: 7160: 7125: 7099: 7079: 7001: 6955: 6945: 6860: 6832: 6822: 6800: 6743: 6715: 6710: 6684: 6550: 5806:"Glacial, volcanic and fluvial activity on Mars: latest images" 5575:

2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior".

3327: 2944: 2919: 2914:

proposed eruptions were caused by a great wind. By 65 CE,

2836: 2825: 2805: 2733: 2647: 2413: 2370: 2338: 2330: 2216: 2120: 2069: 1769: 1699: 1607: 1503: 1418: 1389: 1384: 1379: 1356: 1272: 1221: 941: 889: 846: 842: 711: 561: 350: 156:. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by 130: 5555:

About to blow: Are we ready for the next volcanic catastrophe?

4363: 4313: 4250: 3315: 2918:

proposed combustion as the cause, an idea also adopted by the

1612: 1587:

flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse.

1269:, the name of magma when it emerges and flows over the surface 295:. The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads to 86:

below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called

7155: 7145: 7135: 7006: 6925: 6905: 6870: 6865: 6827: 6805: 6790: 6780: 6758: 6738: 6705: 6674: 6642: 6615: 5909: 5573: 4908: 4500: 3578: 2971:

which allowed in one event differentiation of the concurrent

2729: 2674: 2643: 2632: 2350: 2210: 2204: 2016: 1511:

Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings. These include

1494: 1375: 1240: 893: 710:

Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of

402:

are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the

342: 172:, as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.' 169: 67: 7341: 5376:

Rapa Nui–Easter Island: Cultural and Historical Perspectives

5030: 4709:"Difference Between an Active, Dormant, and Extinct Volcano" 4476: 4440: 4375: 3401: 3129:"A Morphological and Spatial Analysis of Volcanoes on Venus" 2899:. The earliest known such example is a neolithic goddess at 2824:

also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the

2027:

in Scotland is located atop an extinct volcano, which forms

1464:

If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of

1117:

in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such

414:. However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned. 7651: 7424: 7175: 7089: 6795: 6768: 6748: 6652: 6229: 6030: 5945: 4989:

10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2

4464: 4452: 3927:"Tuyas, flat-topped volcanoes in northern British Columbia" 3881: 3684: 3665: 3508: 2892: 2686: 2624: 2517: 2484:

created global climate anomalies that became known as the "

2396:(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) can fall to the ground as 2376:

Volcanic gases can reach the stratosphere, where they form

1890:

In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's

1634: 1617: 1442: 1266: 1098: 926: 723: 610: 594: 501: 423: 410:

being part of the North American plate currently above the

71: 6573: 5254:. Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Donald Theodore Sanders (2002). 4739:

usgs.gov. Updated July 24, 2022. Downloaded July 24, 2022.

3482:

Wood, C.A. (1979). "Cindercones on Earth, Moon and Mars".

3181: 1894:

volcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at the

7140: 6910: 6343: 5425: 5163: 4773:"Volcanic Hazards & Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions" 4186: 2947:"fermentation" as a heat source within Earth, Astronomer 2758: 2439: 2438:

Comparison of major United States prehistoric eruptions (

2329:(steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruptions of high- 1298:

is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by

525:. Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and 5905:"Cassini Finds an Atmosphere on Saturn's Moon Enceladus" 5731: 5303: 4488: 4387: 4351: 3745: 3298:"Do monogenetic volcanoes threaten the southwestern US?" 2458:

on Sumatra island in Indonesia. This may have created a

2400:. Excessive fluoride salts from eruptions have poisoned 2085:

The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the

764: 176: 6556:

U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency Volcano advice

5998:""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io" 4752:

How We Tell if a Volcano Is Active, Dormant, or Extinct

2987:

built upon his other knowledge with his studies on the

2000: 1109:, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the 5863:"Chapter 44 - Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System" 2576: 1738:

are characterized by interaction of rising magma with

1015:

Satellite images of the January 15, 2022, eruption of

50:(Alaska) during its eruptive phase on January 24, 2006 6296:

Williams, Micheal (November 2007). "Hearts of fire".

5330: 5076:

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society

5066: 4959: 4632: 4591: 2802:

fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus

665:, but can also form independently, as in the case of 6143: 5357: 5119:"Volcanic Eruption Of 1600 Caused Global Disruption" 5067:

Miles, M.G.; Grainger, R.G.; Highwood, E.J. (2004).

3904:(Fourth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3006: 2887:

Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to

1662:

Schematic of volcano injection of aerosols and gases

1548:

Some erupted magmas contain ≤45% silica and produce

1294:

can vary considerably from one volcano to the next.

353:

content, so it often does not reach the surface but

241:

According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's

5800: 5798: 5117:University of California – Davis (April 25, 2008). 3083: 2860: 2529:flow from Earth's interior. These can be tapped as 2091:

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

1878:, India, is classified as a dormant volcano by the 1097:. These volcanoes are also called table mountains, 175:This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See 6430: 6225: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6217: 6215: 5494: 4747: 4745: 4229: 3703:Francis, Peter (1983). "Giant Volcanic Calderas". 3668:Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. August 21, 2015. 3065: – Institution that monitors volcano activity 2357:. These can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, 2093:(the 1990s). The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are: 634:, a shield volcano whose name means "broad shield" 556:(or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of 27:Rupture in a planet's crust where material escapes 6146:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography 5324: 5287: 4023:Kioka, Arata; Ashi, Juichiro (October 28, 2015). 3872: 1400:and are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows. 884:that produce great quantities of ash, as well as 605:, has a chain of volcanic cones along its length. 7788: 5795: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5415: 4787: 2761:on the frigid surface. This process is known as 2337:), effusive eruptions of low-silica lava (e.g., 496:The most common perception of a volcano is of a 6428: 6321:. Wellington, New Zealand: Government Printer. 6212: 5869:, Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 763–776, 5297: 4742: 4541:Newhall, Christopher G.; Self, Stephen (1982). 4506: 4294: 4128: 4126: 3800: 3621:Lockwood, John P.; Hazlett, Richard W. (2010). 3620: 3385:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology 3219:Mind over Magma: The Story of Igneous Petrology 3127:Hahn, Rebecca M.; Byrne, Paul K. (April 2023). 93:On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where 6614: 6350:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 6111:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 5867:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition) 5388: 5386: 5384: 4852: 1647: 517:rather than a summit crater while others have 322: 7357: 7223: 6600: 6198:. Walnut Creek: Left Coast. pp. 203–24. 6186: 5766: 5412: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4848: 4846: 4470: 4458: 4446: 4381: 4369: 4333:"Exploring the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes" 4319: 4299:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 210–211. 4295:Fisher, Richard V.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1984). 4256: 3977: 3900:Allaby, Michael, ed. (July 4, 2013). "Tuya". 3887: 3690: 3419: 3382: 3086:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 3048: – Research to predict volcanic activity 1031:and by the discoloration of water because of 272: 6180: 5696: 5279:. Princeton University Press. Archived from 5226: 5135: 5010:"Volcanic Alert Levels of Various Countries" 4673: 4408:"The off-crust origin of granite batholiths" 4123: 4119:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 3460:David S.G. Thomas and Andrew Goudie (eds.), 3383:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009). 734:on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. 361:. Typical examples are the volcanoes in the 6433:Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii 6077:"The volcano in Athabascan oral narratives" 5381: 4953: 4915:Contribribtions to Mineralogy and Petrology 4676:Oxford Handbook Topics in Physical Sciences 4540: 4517: 4515: 3430: 3428: 3360:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy 3296:Hsu-Buffalo, Charlotte (November 4, 2021). 3295: 1498:(because it contains higher percentages of 533:and may give rise to smaller cones such as 394:are volcanic areas thought to be formed by 7364: 7350: 7230: 7216: 6607: 6593: 6489: 6451: 6429:Macdonald, Gordon; Abbott, Agatin (1970). 5653:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012 5627:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012 5495:Donovan, A; Eiser, JR; Sparks, RS (2014). 4897: 4843: 4764: 4626: 4227: 3902:A dictionary of geology and earth sciences 3543: 3454: 1866: 1859:whenever subterranean indicators, such as 938:four are known from the last million years 177:§ Volcanoes on other celestial bodies 6452:Marti, Joan & Ernst, Gerald. (2005). 6379: 6369: 6272: 5967:"Hydrocarbon volcano discovered on Titan" 5520: 5348: 4944: 4934: 4801:. Oregon State University. Archived from 4521: 4494: 4482: 4431: 4393: 4357: 4337:Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska 4212: 4088: 4086: 4048: 4022: 4007: 3775: 3605: 3407: 3345: 3333: 3321: 3268: 3126: 1306:. Other principal volcanic gases include 603:major world climate alteration of 1783–84 493:, typically a volcanic cone or mountain. 6475:. Australian National University Press. 6318:Report on the Tarawera volcanic district 6295: 5860: 5673:"A Lunar Mystery: The Gruithuisen Domes" 4512: 4274:Lassen Volcanic National Park California 4105: 3586:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 3425: 3133:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 3031:List of volcanic eruptions by death toll 2925:(1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions of 2665: 2602: 2539: 2502:Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit 2433: 2287: 2279: 2052: 1967: 1870: 1764: 1657: 1611: 1378:contains a high percentage (>63%) of 1347: 1211: 1199: 1192:. The picture shows overflows of a main 1183: 1159: 1089:Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath 1010: 768: 698: 626: 589: 462: 445:. Examples include the volcanoes of the 232: 160:which have caused catastrophic famines. 42: 6108: 6002:National Geographic web site daily news 5995: 5274: 4706: 4132: 3924: 3833: 3702: 3537: 3357: 3351: 2808:. The ejecta may be composed of water, 2685:There are several extinct volcanoes on 2631:(the darker patches seen on the Moon), 2275: 2039: 1078: 203:of Italy whose name in turn comes from 14: 7789: 6470: 6314: 5996:Jaggard, Victoria (February 5, 2010). 5578:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 5392: 4771:Nelson, Stephen A. (October 4, 2016). 4770: 4639:Volcanoes of the World (Version 5.0.1) 4635:"How many active volcanoes are there?" 4598:Volcanoes of the World (Version 5.0.1) 4585: 4405: 4083: 3899: 3873:Ashley Strickland (January 10, 2020). 3849:Volcanoes of the World (version 4.9.1) 3842:"How many active volcanoes are there?" 3839: 3816:Volcanoes of the World (version 4.9.1) 3806: 3041:Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions 2937:and published his view of an Earth in 1803:database of volcanic eruptions in the 1577: 1567: 1554:lava. Ultramafic flows, also known as 1208:) eruption 2023. View from an airplane 994: 944:and ash released into the atmosphere. 417: 7345: 7211: 6588: 6254: 6194:. In Grattan, J; Torrence, R (eds.). 5935: 4707:Pariona, Amber (September 19, 2019). 4684:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699420.013.32 3572: 3212: 2515:people used tuff to make most of the 1637:or smaller) are called volcanic ash. 1059:In May and June 2018, a multitude of 1044:are common near these volcanoes, and 809:Layers of lava emitted by the volcano 765:Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) 7745: 6325:from the original on August 29, 2023 6074: 5275:Ó Gráda, Cormac (February 6, 2009). 3925:Mathews, W. H. (September 1, 1947). 3481: 3462:The Dictionary of Physical Geography 3275:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 13–20. 2303:, during an eruption in October 2005 1899:USGS still widely employs the term. 1760: 1232:can be classified into three types: 1105:. The origin of the term comes from 986: 896:. Large pieces of tephra are called 803:Layers of ash emitted by the volcano 452: 123:Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field 7769: 5838:. November 13, 2002. Archived from 5393:Kiprop, Joseph (January 18, 2019). 4730:Kilauea eruption confined to crater 4228:Casq, R.A.F.; Wright, J.V. (1987). 3106:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445 2577:Volcanoes on other celestial bodies 2373:often accompany volcanic activity. 2258:Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System 2250:Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project 2048: 1594:flows typically consist largely of 1445:. Volcanic gases may remain in the 1228:The material that is expelled in a 1155: 616: 345:. This magma tends to be extremely 211:. The study of volcanoes is called 24: 7237: 6490:Sigurðsson, Haraldur, ed. (2015). 6421: 6234:. Academic Press. pp. 15–37. 5875:10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00044-4 5861:Geissler, Paul (January 1, 2015), 5227:O'Hanlon, Larry (March 14, 2005). 3026:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes 2583:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes 2412:and thus provide a deep source of 2404:in Iceland on multiple occasions. 2161:, Democratic Republic of the Congo 916:List of largest volcanic eruptions 222: 25: 7843: 6511: 5865:, in Sigurdsson, Haraldur (ed.), 5168:. United States Geological Survey 3725:10.1038/scientificamerican0683-60 3672:from the original on July 3, 2017 1973:Capulin Volcano National Monument 1279: 903: 746:are examples of cinder cones. In 679:1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens 152:obscure the Sun and cool Earth's 7768: 7756: 7744: 7733: 7732: 7503: 6396: 6371:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107552 6337: 6308: 6289: 6248: 6187:Chester, DK; Duncan, AM (2007). 6137: 6131:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.033 6102: 6067: 6024: 5989: 5959: 5936:Smith, Yvette (March 15, 2012). 5929: 5913:. March 16, 2005. Archived from 5897: 5854: 5350:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x 5153: 4406:Castro, Antonio (January 2014). 4236:. Unwin Hyman Inc. p. 528. 4093: 3658:"Questions About Supervolcanoes" 3464:(Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 301. 3009: 2861:History of volcano understanding 1730:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 1290:The concentrations of different 1263:S, depending on the temperature) 1247:, and a sulfur compound (either 1140: 1046:some support peculiar ecosystems 579: 7258:Prediction of volcanic activity 5824: 5760: 5734:Journal of Geophysical Research 5725: 5690: 5665: 5639: 5613: 5567: 5548: 5529: 5488: 5469: 5395:"Why Is Volcanic Soil Fertile?" 5268: 5243: 5220: 5198: 5180: 5147: 5129: 5110: 5060: 5024: 5002: 4817: 4723: 4700: 4667: 4551:Journal of Geophysical Research 4534: 4399: 4325: 4288: 4262: 4221: 4180: 4057: 4016: 4000:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.03.001 3971: 3918: 3893: 3866: 3739: 3696: 3650: 3641: 3614: 3502: 3475: 3376: 3269:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003). 3046:Prediction of volcanic activity 2969:1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera 2891:causes, such as the actions of 2270:prediction of volcanic activity 1981:Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain 1924:, which destroyed the towns of 1220:stratovolcano off the coast of 778:(vertical scale is exaggerated) 684: 552:Other types of volcano include 6494:(2 ed.). Academic Press. 6456:. Cambridge University Press. 6437:. University of Hawaii Press. 6084:Alaska Journal of Anthropology 5973:. June 8, 2005. Archived from 5501:Journal of Applied Volcanology 5206:"When humans faced extinction" 4528:University of California Press 3624:Volcanoes: Global Perspectives 3289: 3262: 3237: 3206: 3175: 3120: 3077: 3052:Timeline of volcanism on Earth 1795:As of December 2022, the 1123:Tuya Mountains Provincial Park 967:(both western United States); 672: 13: 1: 7371: 7326:Quaternary volcanic eruptions 6492:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes 6454:Volcanoes and the Environment 4654:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW5-2022.5.0 4613:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW5-2022.5.0 4522:Heiken, G. & Wohletz, K. 3070: 2933:, then visited the crater of 1728:, who chronicled the Plinian 1423:Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes 1337: 650: 355:cools and solidifies at depth 6537:Resources in other libraries 5789:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.022 5229:"Yellowstone's Super Sister" 4029:Geophysical Research Letters 3566:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030 3531:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.10.023 3422:, pp. 390–394, 396–397. 3358:Foulger, Gillian R. (2010). 2989:1902 eruption of Mount Pelée 2753:, the smallest of Jupiter's 2406:Explosive volcanic eruptions 1631:when it flows to the surface 1425:, formed by the eruption of 925:-forming eruption. Ash flow 373:, or the eastern islands of 195:is derived from the name of 186: 7: 6053:10.2138/gselements.19.2.104 6006:National Geographic Society 4507:Fisher & Schmincke 1984 3932:American Journal of Science 3484:Lunar and Planetary Science 3002: 2495: 2408:release the greenhouse gas 2386:Russian famine of 1601–1603 2323:types of volcanic eruptions 1836: 1698:. Their primary product is 1654:Types of volcanic eruptions 1648:Types of volcanic eruptions 1382:, the lava is described as 1239:, a mixture made mostly of 1133:near the boundary with the 892:are material for dangerous 730:. Cinder cones may form as 720:monogenetic volcanic fields 380: 323:Convergent plate boundaries 199:, a volcanic island in the 10: 7848: 7316:Largest volcanic eruptions 7301:Extraterrestrial volcanoes 7263:Volcanic explosivity index 7193: 6574:"Global Volcanism Program" 5938:"Enceladus, Saturn's Moon" 5370:November 14, 2022, at the 5256:Princeton University Press 5141:Hekla, A Notorious Volcano 4936:10.1007/s00410-023-02075-z 4829:Alaska Volcano Observatory 3188:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 3036:List of volcanic landforms 2867:Volcanology § History 2864: 2646:has a surface that is 90% 2580: 2499: 2314: 2310: 2074: 1963: 1896:Alaska Volcano Observatory 1880:Geological Survey of India 1848: 1668:Volcanic Explosivity Index 1651: 1616:Light-microscope image of 1605: 1457:fractional crystallization 1341: 1283: 1144: 1082: 1004: 998: 913: 907: 834: 688: 654: 620: 583: 456: 421: 384: 326: 305:divergent plate boundaries 276: 273:Divergent plate boundaries 249:in the underlying ductile 226: 29: 7728: 7670: 7512: 7501: 7379: 7291: 7245: 7189: 7108: 7070: 6989: 6894: 6846: 6724: 6693: 6635: 6626: 6532:Resources in your library 6261:Annals of Medical History 6232:Encyclopedia of volcanoes 5522:10.1186/s13617-014-0015-5 5277:"Famine: A Short History" 4471:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4459:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4447:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4433:10.1016/j.gsf.2013.06.006 4382:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4370:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4320:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4257:Philpotts & Ague 2009 4071:. Smithsonian Institution 3888:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3691:Philpotts & Ague 2009 3420:Philpotts & Ague 2009 2549:, and the application of 2325:and associated activity: 2321:There are many different 2260:instruments to measure CO 1944:volcano on the island of 1916:of around 380,000 years. 1844: 1736:Phreatomagmatic eruptions 1601: 1330:, organic compounds, and 1063:signals were detected by 1017:Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai 957:Yellowstone National Park 951:. Known examples include 845:in alternate layers, the 758:of over 60 cinder cones. 521:features such as massive 36:Volcanic (disambiguation) 7407:Cryptovolcanic structure 7331:Volcanic eruption deaths 7311:Large volcanic eruptions 6561:August 27, 2021, at the 5942:Image of the Day Gallery 5560:August 17, 2022, at the 4646:Global Volcanism Program 4605:Global Volcanism Program 4069:Global Volcanism Program 3847:Global Volcanism Program 3840:Venzke, E., ed. (2013). 3814:Global Volcanism Program 3807:Venzke, E., ed. (2013). 3662:Volcanic Hazards Program 3213:Young, Davis A. (2003). 2903:. The Ancient Greek god 2853:in 2009, suggested that 2849:, which was detected by 2062:Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky 2015:, and many volcanoes in 1801:Global Volcanism Program 1467:intermediate composition 857:in the Philippines, and 774:Cross-section through a 32:Volcano (disambiguation) 7688:Eruptions by death toll 6578:Smithsonian Institution 5363:Richards, Colin. 2016. 4643:Smithsonian Institution 4602:Smithsonian Institution 4572:10.1029/JC087iC02p01231 4339:. National Park Service 4276:. National Park Service 4116:Encyclopædia Britannica 4065:"El Salvador Volcanoes" 3853:Smithsonian Institution 3820:Smithsonian Institution 3809:"Holocene Volcano List" 3348:, pp. 18, 106–107. 3336:, pp. 18, 113–126. 2744:rock, and as a result, 2295:concentration over the 2254:Deep Carbon Observatory 2252:, an initiative of the 2213:, Canary Islands, Spain 2185:Santa Maria/Santiaguito 1867:Dormant and reactivated 1797:Smithsonian Institution 1702:. They are named after 1579:[paːˈho.eˈho.e] 1502:(Mg) and iron (Fe)) or 875:of stratovolcanoes has 7268:Volcanic Seven Summits 6471:Ollier, Cliff (1969). 5541:July 19, 2022, at the 5481:July 25, 2022, at the 5137:Thorarinsson, Sigurdur 4757:July 25, 2022, at the 4735:July 17, 2022, at the 4214:10.5194/se-5-1209-2014 3627:. Wiley. p. 552. 3436:"Anatomy of a Volcano" 3324:, pp. 17–18, 276. 2959:in his writings about 2682: 2620: 2511:for construction. The 2443: 2355:volcanic gas emissions 2304: 2285: 2072: 2060:volcano towering over 1976: 1883: 1792: 1790:House of the Centenary 1756:; no magma is erupted. 1663: 1625: 1363: 1225: 1209: 1197: 1188:Pāhoehoe lava flow on 1181: 1019: 832: 726:explosion craters and 707: 635: 606: 481: 238: 183:for more information. 51: 6315:Hutton, F.W. (1887). 5977:on September 19, 2007 5836:W.M. Keck Observatory 5810:European Space Agency 5699:Reviews of Geophysics 5599:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3 4581:on December 13, 2013. 3980:Earth-Science Reviews 3959:on September 29, 2011 3953:10.2475/ajs.245.9.560 3440:National Park Service 2669: 2606: 2587:Volcanism on the Moon 2540:Safety considerations 2486:Year Without a Summer 2480:The 1815 eruption of 2460:population bottleneck 2437: 2418:biogeochemical cycles 2291: 2283: 2056: 1971: 1874: 1768: 1661: 1615: 1539:; and as continental 1478:convergent boundaries 1355:eruption in 1994, in 1351: 1215: 1203: 1187: 1171: 1014: 772: 702: 630: 593: 475: 457:Further information: 236: 207:, the god of fire in 64:planetary-mass object 46: 7196:Geographical feature 7032:Volcanic crater lake 6300:. No. 11–2007. 6257:"Athanasius Kircher" 5283:on January 12, 2016. 5194:. November 24, 2009. 4412:Geoscience Frontiers 4232:Volcanic Successions 4133:Schmidt, R. (1981). 4050:10.1002/2015GL065713 3225:on November 12, 2015 3153:10.1029/2023je007753 2842:A 2010 study of the 2778:spacecraft observed 2392:, and acids such as 2384:may have caused the 2297:Sierra Negra Volcano 2276:Volcanoes and humans 2179:Kagoshima Prefecture 2105:(grouped together), 2040:Volcanic-alert level 1174:San Miguel (volcano) 1079:Subglacial volcanoes 601:, the source of the 371:Japanese Archipelago 363:Pacific Ring of Fire 349:because of its high 215:, sometimes spelled 135:core–mantle boundary 115:Pacific Ring of Fire 58:is a rupture in the 7822:Volcanoes by status 7283:Volcano observatory 6362:2022JVGR..42707552B 6158:2015GeAnA..97..137T 6123:2008JVGR..176..427S 6045:2023Eleme..19..104Z 6012:on February 9, 2010 5812:. February 25, 2005 5781:2016Icar..277..433M 5746:1995JGR...10011755R 5711:1995RvGeo..33S.459B 5591:2006RvMG...60..221W 5513:2014JApV....3...15D 5476:Volcano Safety Tips 5447:2021GeolT..37..141T 5208:. BBC. June 9, 2003 5088:2004QJRMS.130.2361M 5046:2007Geo....35.1115A 4981:1991Geo....19..200C 4946:20.500.11850/646219 4927:2023CoMP..178...96C 4875:10.1038/nature08458 4867:2009Natur.461..780C 4805:on January 12, 2013 4775:. Tulane University 4564:1982JGR....87.1231N 4485:, pp. 131–132. 4424:2014GeoFr...5...63C 4205:2014SolE....5.1209P 4151:1981GeoRu..70..794S 4041:2015GeoRL..42.8406K 3992:2017ESRv..168...81M 3945:1947AmJS..245..560M 3768:10.1038/nature10706 3760:2012Natur.482...77D 3717:1983SciAm.248f..60F 3705:Scientific American 3598:2013JGRE..118..615L 3558:2012Icar..218...88B 3523:2008Icar..194..487M 3496:1979LPI....10.1370W 3410:, pp. 108–110. 3362:. Wiley-Blackwell. 3200:2009AGUFM.V21H..08L 3145:2023JGRE..12807753H 3098:1988AREPS..16...73R 3063:Volcano observatory 2965:Lazzaro Spallanzani 2940:Mundus Subterraneus 2800:probe photographed 2782:(ice volcanoes) on 2353:(debris flows) and 2231:Nagasaki Prefecture 2066:Kamchatka Peninsula 2007:in New Mexico, US, 1958:Fourpeaked Mountain 1815:eruption recurrence 1677:explosive eruptions 1176:degassing in 2022. 995:Submarine volcanoes 953:Yellowstone Caldera 882:explosive eruptions 785:Large magma chamber 418:Continental rifting 412:Yellowstone hotspot 408:Yellowstone Caldera 329:Convergent boundary 7817:Volcanic landforms 7802:Geological hazards 7683:Lists of volcanoes 7470:Subglacial volcano 7445:Pyroclastic shield 6255:Major, RH (1939). 6166:10.1111/geoa.12099 5677:Moon: NASA Science 5239:on March 14, 2005. 5082:(602): 2361–2376. 4159:10.1007/BF01822152 3607:10.1002/jgre.20060 2961:igneous intrusions 2923:Athanasius Kircher 2916:Seneca the Younger 2834:Kuiper Belt Object 2794:, and in 2005 the 2683: 2621: 2599:Volcanism on Venus 2444: 2327:phreatic eruptions 2305: 2286: 2223:, Papua New Guinea 2077:Lists of volcanoes 2073: 1977: 1884: 1793: 1750:Phreatic eruptions 1688:Hawaiian volcanoes 1664: 1626: 1435:Earth's atmosphere 1364: 1226: 1210: 1198: 1182: 1085:Subglacial volcano 1042:Hydrothermal vents 1020: 1007:Subaqueous volcano 886:pyroclastic surges 873:explosive eruption 833: 708: 641:effusive eruptions 636: 607: 500:mountain, spewing 482: 459:Types of volcanoes 299:expansion and the 279:Divergent boundary 239: 111:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 70:, that allows hot 52: 7784: 7783: 7537:Basaltic andesite 7475:Submarine volcano 7339: 7338: 7205: 7204: 7116:Artificial island 7022:Submarine volcano 6931:Continental shelf 6898:coastal landforms 6694:Continental plain 6629:List of landforms 6518:Library resources 6501:978-0-12-385938-9 6482:978-0-7081-0532-0 6463:978-0-521-59254-3 6444:978-0-870-22495-9 6075:Fast, PA (2008). 5917:on March 10, 2007 5884:978-0-12-385938-9 5842:on August 6, 2017 5754:10.1029/95JE00147 5719:10.1029/95RG00281 5455:10.1111/gto.12362 5233:Discovery Channel 5054:10.1130/G24149A.1 5040:(12): 1115–1118. 5012:. Volcanolive.com 4861:(7265): 780–783. 4693:978-0-19-069942-0 4594:"Database Search" 4558:(C2): 1231–1238. 4372:, pp. 15–16. 4297:Pyroclastic rocks 4243:978-0-04-552022-0 4035:(20): 8406–8414. 3634:978-1-4051-6250-0 3369:978-1-4051-6148-0 2659:, in the form of 2591:Volcanism on Mars 2394:hydrogen chloride 2347:pyroclastic flows 2301:Galapagos Islands 1975:in New Mexico, US 1940:the long-dormant 1922:eruption of 79 CE 1861:earthquake swarms 1761:Volcanic activity 1726:Pliny the Younger 1640:Tephra and other 1537:continental crust 1411:Pyroclastic flows 1334:metal chlorides. 1316:hydrogen fluoride 1312:hydrogen chloride 1230:volcanic eruption 1169: 1129:and south of the 1001:Submarine volcano 987:Caldera volcanoes 981:Ngorongoro Crater 979:, Indonesia; and 473: 453:Volcanic features 447:East African Rift 404:Snake River Plain 387:Hotspot (geology) 367:Cascade Volcanoes 139:hotspot volcanism 119:East African Rift 82:to escape from a 48:Augustine Volcano 16:(Redirected from 7839: 7772: 7771: 7760: 7748: 7747: 7736: 7735: 7693:Decade Volcanoes 7671:Lists and groups 7662:Pyroclastic flow 7657:Pyroclastic fall 7507: 7440:Pyroclastic cone 7366: 7359: 7352: 7343: 7342: 7253:Decade Volcanoes 7232: 7225: 7218: 7209: 7208: 7151:Land reclamation 7047:Volcanic plateau 6609: 6602: 6595: 6586: 6585: 6581: 6505: 6486: 6467: 6448: 6436: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6400: 6394: 6393: 6383: 6373: 6341: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6330: 6312: 6306: 6305: 6302:Korean Air Lines 6293: 6287: 6286: 6276: 6252: 6246: 6245: 6227: 6210: 6209: 6193: 6184: 6178: 6177: 6141: 6135: 6134: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6095: 6081: 6071: 6065: 6064: 6028: 6022: 6021: 6019: 6017: 6008:. Archived from 5993: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5963: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5933: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5922: 5901: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5891: 5858: 5852: 5851: 5849: 5847: 5828: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5802: 5793: 5792: 5764: 5758: 5757: 5729: 5723: 5722: 5694: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5683: 5669: 5663: 5662: 5660: 5658: 5647:"Sinuous Rilles" 5643: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5617: 5611: 5610: 5571: 5565: 5552: 5546: 5533: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5492: 5486: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5432: 5423: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5390: 5379: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5328: 5322: 5321: 5319: 5317: 5301: 5295: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5272: 5266: 5247: 5241: 5240: 5235:. Archived from 5224: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5202: 5196: 5195: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5157: 5156: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5133: 5127: 5126: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5096:10.1256/qj.03.60 5073: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5028: 5022: 5021: 5019: 5017: 5006: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4995: 4966: 4957: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4938: 4906: 4895: 4894: 4850: 4841: 4840: 4838: 4836: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4791: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4780: 4768: 4762: 4749: 4740: 4727: 4721: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4711:. WorldAtlas.com 4704: 4698: 4697: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4662: 4660: 4630: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4574:. Archived from 4547: 4538: 4532: 4531: 4519: 4510: 4504: 4498: 4492: 4486: 4480: 4474: 4468: 4462: 4456: 4450: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4403: 4397: 4391: 4385: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4329: 4323: 4322:, p. 73-77. 4317: 4311: 4310: 4292: 4286: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4266: 4260: 4259:, p. 70-72. 4254: 4248: 4247: 4235: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4199:(2): 1209–1221. 4184: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4130: 4121: 4120: 4099: 4097: 4096: 4090: 4081: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4061: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4020: 4014: 4013: 4011: 3975: 3969: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3955:. Archived from 3922: 3916: 3915: 3897: 3891: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3779: 3743: 3737: 3736: 3700: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3679: 3677: 3654: 3648: 3645: 3639: 3638: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3609: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3541: 3535: 3534: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3479: 3473: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3432: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3398: 3380: 3374: 3373: 3355: 3349: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3230: 3221:. Archived from 3210: 3204: 3203: 3179: 3173: 3172: 3124: 3118: 3117: 3081: 3019: 3017:Volcanoes portal 3014: 3013: 2531:geothermal power 2506:Geothermal power 2475:mass extinctions 2468:Permian-Triassic 2343:sector collapses 2159:Mount Nyiragongo 2113:Nevado de Colima 2081:Decade Volcanoes 2049:Decade volcanoes 2025:Edinburgh Castle 1876:Narcondam Island 1581: 1571: 1521:Hawaiian Islands 1517:Shield volcanoes 1513:mid-ocean ridges 1388:. Felsic lavas ( 1308:hydrogen sulfide 1257:hydrogen sulfide 1170: 1156:Erupted material 1103:British Columbia 971:in New Zealand; 949:geologic mapping 871:produced by the 663:Mount St. Helens 617:Shield volcanoes 597:fissure vent in 543:Volcanic craters 491: 490: 489:volcanic edifice 480:), Iceland, 2023 474: 400:Hawaiian Islands 285:mid-ocean ridges 158:volcanic winters 143:Hawaiian hotspot 21: 7847: 7846: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7838: 7837: 7836: 7812:Plate tectonics 7787: 7786: 7785: 7780: 7724: 7666: 7632:Tephriphonolite 7508: 7499: 7495:Harmonic tremor 7397:Complex volcano 7375: 7370: 7340: 7335: 7287: 7273:Volcanic winter 7241: 7236: 7206: 7201: 7198: 7185: 7121:Artificial reef 7104: 7066: 7042:Volcanic island 7027:Volcanic crater 6985: 6981:Volcanic island 6961:Mid-ocean ridge 6897: 6890: 6842: 6720: 6689: 6631: 6622: 6613: 6572: 6563:Wayback Machine 6543: 6542: 6541: 6526: 6525: 6521: 6514: 6509: 6502: 6483: 6464: 6445: 6424: 6422:Further reading 6419: 6418: 6408: 6406: 6402: 6401: 6397: 6342: 6338: 6328: 6326: 6313: 6309: 6294: 6290: 6253: 6249: 6242: 6228: 6213: 6206: 6191: 6185: 6181: 6142: 6138: 6107: 6103: 6093: 6091: 6079: 6072: 6068: 6029: 6025: 6015: 6013: 5994: 5990: 5980: 5978: 5965: 5964: 5960: 5950: 5948: 5934: 5930: 5920: 5918: 5903: 5902: 5898: 5889: 5887: 5885: 5859: 5855: 5845: 5843: 5830: 5829: 5825: 5815: 5813: 5804: 5803: 5796: 5765: 5761: 5730: 5726: 5705:(S1): 459–467. 5695: 5691: 5681: 5679: 5671: 5670: 5666: 5656: 5654: 5645: 5644: 5640: 5630: 5628: 5619: 5618: 5614: 5572: 5568: 5562:Wayback Machine 5553: 5549: 5543:Wayback Machine 5534: 5530: 5493: 5489: 5483:Wayback Machine 5474: 5470: 5430: 5424: 5413: 5403: 5401: 5391: 5382: 5372:Wayback Machine 5362: 5358: 5329: 5325: 5315: 5313: 5302: 5298: 5292: 5288: 5273: 5269: 5248: 5244: 5225: 5221: 5211: 5209: 5204: 5203: 5199: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5171: 5169: 5154: 5152: 5148: 5134: 5130: 5115: 5111: 5071: 5065: 5061: 5029: 5025: 5015: 5013: 5008: 5007: 5003: 4993: 4991: 4964: 4958: 4954: 4907: 4898: 4851: 4844: 4834: 4832: 4823: 4822: 4818: 4808: 4806: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4778: 4776: 4769: 4765: 4759:Wayback Machine 4750: 4743: 4737:Wayback Machine 4728: 4724: 4714: 4712: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4678:. Vol. 1. 4672: 4668: 4658: 4656: 4631: 4627: 4617: 4615: 4590: 4586: 4578: 4545: 4539: 4535: 4520: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4497:, pp. 132. 4493: 4489: 4481: 4477: 4469: 4465: 4457: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4404: 4400: 4392: 4388: 4380: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4356: 4352: 4342: 4340: 4331: 4330: 4326: 4318: 4314: 4307: 4293: 4289: 4279: 4277: 4268: 4267: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4244: 4226: 4222: 4185: 4181: 4171: 4169: 4131: 4124: 4109:, ed. (1911). " 4094: 4092: 4091: 4084: 4074: 4072: 4063: 4062: 4058: 4021: 4017: 3976: 3972: 3962: 3960: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3898: 3894: 3886: 3882: 3871: 3867: 3857: 3855: 3838: 3834: 3824: 3822: 3805: 3801: 3754:(7383): 77–80. 3744: 3740: 3701: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3675: 3673: 3656: 3655: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3635: 3619: 3615: 3577: 3573: 3542: 3538: 3507: 3503: 3480: 3476: 3459: 3455: 3445: 3443: 3434: 3433: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3395: 3381: 3377: 3370: 3356: 3352: 3344: 3340: 3332: 3328: 3320: 3316: 3306: 3304: 3294: 3290: 3283: 3267: 3263: 3253: 3251: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3228: 3226: 3211: 3207: 3180: 3176: 3125: 3121: 3082: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3015: 3008: 3005: 2973:phreatomagmatic 2949:Johannes Kepler 2869: 2863: 2822:Cassini–Huygens 2810:liquid nitrogen 2797:Cassini–Huygens 2601: 2595:Volcanism on Io 2579: 2551:risk management 2542: 2508: 2498: 2448:volcanic winter 2319: 2317:Volcanic hazard 2313: 2278: 2267: 2263: 2246: 2129:, Sicily, Italy 2083: 2075:Main articles: 2051: 2042: 2009:Zuidwal volcano 1966: 1942:Soufrière Hills 1905:Chaitén volcano 1892:Mount Edgecumbe 1869: 1853: 1847: 1839: 1763: 1656: 1650: 1642:volcaniclastics 1610: 1604: 1569:[ˈʔaʔa] 1482:tectonic plates 1439:eruption column 1374:If the erupted 1346: 1340: 1324:carbon monoxide 1288: 1282: 1262: 1254: 1160: 1158: 1149: 1143: 1135:Yukon Territory 1087: 1081: 1009: 1003: 997: 989: 918: 912: 906: 839: 831: 830: 767: 697: 689:Main articles: 687: 675: 659: 653: 625: 619: 588: 582: 488: 487: 463: 461: 455: 426: 420: 389: 383: 331: 325: 301:partial melting 289:tectonic plates 281: 275: 231: 229:Plate tectonics 225: 223:Plate tectonics 209:Roman mythology 201:Aeolian Islands 189: 141:, of which the 127:Rio Grande rift 107:mid-ocean ridge 95:tectonic plates 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7845: 7835: 7834: 7829: 7827:Volcanic rocks 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7782: 7781: 7779: 7778: 7766: 7754: 7742: 7729: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7722: 7721: 7720: 7715: 7708:Volcanic field 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7674: 7672: 7668: 7667: 7665: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7637:Trachyandesite 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7518: 7516: 7514:Volcanic rocks 7510: 7509: 7502: 7500: 7498: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7455:Shield volcano 7452: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7435:Parasitic cone 7432: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7394: 7389: 7383: 7381: 7377: 7376: 7369: 7368: 7361: 7354: 7346: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7321:Earth timeline 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7297: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7278:Volcano Number 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7249: 7247: 7243: 7242: 7239:Volcano topics 7235: 7234: 7227: 7220: 7212: 7203: 7202: 7200: 7199: 7190: 7187: 7186: 7184: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7123: 7118: 7112: 7110: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7097: 7092: 7087: 7082: 7076: 7074: 7068: 7067: 7065: 7064: 7059: 7054: 7049: 7044: 7039: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6993: 6991: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6966:Oceanic trench 6963: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6943: 6938: 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6902: 6900: 6892: 6891: 6889: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6852: 6850: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6819: 6818: 6813: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6777: 6776: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6730: 6728: 6722: 6721: 6719: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6697: 6695: 6691: 6690: 6688: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6666: 6665: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6639: 6637: 6633: 6632: 6627: 6624: 6623: 6612: 6611: 6604: 6597: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6570: 6565: 6553: 6540: 6539: 6534: 6528: 6527: 6516: 6515: 6513: 6512:External links 6510: 6508: 6507: 6500: 6487: 6481: 6468: 6462: 6449: 6443: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6417: 6416: 6395: 6336: 6307: 6288: 6267:(2): 105–120. 6247: 6240: 6211: 6204: 6179: 6136: 6101: 6066: 6023: 5988: 5958: 5928: 5896: 5883: 5853: 5823: 5794: 5759: 5724: 5689: 5664: 5638: 5612: 5585:(1): 221–364. 5566: 5547: 5528: 5487: 5468: 5411: 5399:WorldAtlas.com 5380: 5356: 5343:(3): 485–510. 5323: 5312:. 19–21132: 96 5296: 5286: 5267: 5242: 5219: 5197: 5179: 5146: 5128: 5109: 5059: 5023: 5001: 4975:(3): 200–203. 4952: 4896: 4842: 4816: 4786: 4763: 4741: 4722: 4699: 4692: 4666: 4625: 4584: 4533: 4530:. p. 246. 4511: 4499: 4495:Schmincke 2003 4487: 4483:Schmincke 2003 4475: 4463: 4451: 4449:, p. 377. 4439: 4398: 4396:, p. 143. 4394:Schmincke 2003 4386: 4384:, p. 378. 4374: 4362: 4360:, p. 229. 4358:Schmincke 2003 4350: 4324: 4312: 4305: 4287: 4261: 4249: 4242: 4220: 4179: 4122: 4107:Chisholm, Hugh 4082: 4056: 4015: 3970: 3939:(9): 560–570. 3917: 3910: 3892: 3880: 3865: 3832: 3799: 3738: 3695: 3683: 3649: 3640: 3633: 3613: 3571: 3536: 3501: 3474: 3453: 3442:. July 5, 2023 3424: 3412: 3408:Schmincke 2003 3400: 3393: 3375: 3368: 3350: 3346:Schmincke 2003 3338: 3334:Schmincke 2003 3326: 3322:Schmincke 2003 3314: 3288: 3281: 3261: 3249:Dictionary.com 3236: 3205: 3174: 3119: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3066: 3060: 3057:Volcano Number 3054: 3049: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3022: 3021: 3020: 3004: 3001: 2991:, and by 1928 2985:Alfred Lacroix 2953:René Descartes 2865:Main article: 2862: 2859: 2755:Galilean moons 2738:sulfur dioxide 2699:Hecates Tholus 2578: 2575: 2563:Mount Pinatubo 2541: 2538: 2497: 2494: 2464:End-Ordovician 2410:carbon dioxide 2315:Main article: 2312: 2309: 2293:Sulfur dioxide 2277: 2274: 2265: 2261: 2245: 2244: 2234: 2224: 2214: 2208: 2198: 2188: 2182: 2172: 2162: 2156: 2146: 2140: 2130: 2124: 2110: 2095: 2068:, Far Eastern 2050: 2047: 2041: 2038: 1965: 1962: 1868: 1865: 1851:Active volcano 1849:Main article: 1846: 1843: 1838: 1835: 1774:Mount Vesuvius 1762: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1747: 1733: 1722: 1715: 1707: 1691: 1684:lava fountains 1680: 1652:Main article: 1649: 1646: 1606:Main article: 1603: 1600: 1564: 1563: 1545: 1544: 1508: 1507: 1490: 1461: 1460: 1451: 1450: 1406: 1405: 1342:Main article: 1339: 1336: 1304:sulfur dioxide 1300:carbon dioxide 1292:volcanic gases 1284:Main article: 1281: 1280:Volcanic gases 1278: 1277: 1276: 1270: 1264: 1260: 1252: 1249:sulfur dioxide 1245:carbon dioxide 1237:Volcanic gases 1206:Fagradalsfjall 1204:Litli-Hrútur ( 1157: 1154: 1145:Main article: 1142: 1139: 1131:Jennings River 1083:Main article: 1080: 1077: 1033:volcanic gases 999:Main article: 996: 993: 988: 985: 961:Valles Caldera 908:Main article: 905: 904:Supervolcanoes 902: 898:volcanic bombs 859:Mount Vesuvius 835:Main article: 829: 828: 825: 822: 819: 816: 815:Parasitic cone 813: 810: 807: 804: 801: 798: 795: 792: 791:Conduit (pipe) 789: 786: 782: 781: 766: 763: 756:volcanic field 738:in Mexico and 704:Izalco volcano 686: 683: 674: 671: 655:Main article: 652: 649: 623:Shield volcano 621:Main article: 618: 615: 584:Main article: 581: 578: 537:on a flank of 504:and poisonous 478:Fagradalsfjall 454: 451: 422:Main article: 419: 416: 385:Main article: 382: 379: 365:, such as the 327:Main article: 324: 321: 277:Main article: 274: 271: 227:Main article: 224: 221: 188: 185: 109:, such as the 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7844: 7833: 7830: 7828: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7777: 7776: 7767: 7765: 7764: 7759: 7755: 7753: 7752: 7743: 7741: 7740: 7731: 7730: 7727: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7703:Volcanic belt 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7669: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7607:Phonotephrite 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7519: 7517: 7515: 7511: 7506: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7490:Volcanic cone 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7465:Stratovolcano 7463: 7461: 7460:Somma volcano 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7450:Rootless cone 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7367: 7362: 7360: 7355: 7353: 7348: 7347: 7344: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7298: 7296: 7294: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7233: 7228: 7226: 7221: 7219: 7214: 7213: 7210: 7197: 7192: 7191: 7188: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7101: 7098: 7096: 7093: 7091: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7081: 7078: 7077: 7075: 7073: 7069: 7063: 7060: 7058: 7055: 7053: 7052:Volcanic plug 7050: 7048: 7045: 7043: 7040: 7038: 7035: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6988: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6903: 6901: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6886:Tunnel valley 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6849: 6845: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6775: 6772: 6771: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6723: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6698: 6696: 6692: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6664: 6661: 6660: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6640: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6610: 6605: 6603: 6598: 6596: 6591: 6590: 6587: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6569: 6568:Volcano World 6566: 6564: 6560: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6503: 6497: 6493: 6488: 6484: 6478: 6474: 6469: 6465: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6440: 6435: 6434: 6427: 6426: 6405: 6399: 6391: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6340: 6324: 6320: 6319: 6311: 6303: 6299: 6292: 6284: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6241:9780123859396 6237: 6233: 6226: 6224: 6222: 6220: 6218: 6216: 6207: 6205:9781315425177 6201: 6197: 6190: 6183: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6152:(1): 137–66. 6151: 6147: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6117:(3): 427–31. 6116: 6112: 6105: 6090:(1–2): 131–40 6089: 6085: 6078: 6070: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6039:(2): 104–10. 6038: 6034: 6027: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5992: 5976: 5972: 5971:New Scientist 5968: 5962: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5932: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5906: 5900: 5886: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5857: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5827: 5811: 5807: 5801: 5799: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5763: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5740:(E6): 11755. 5739: 5735: 5728: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5693: 5678: 5674: 5668: 5652: 5651:Volcano World 5648: 5642: 5626: 5625:Volcano World 5622: 5616: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5570: 5563: 5559: 5556: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5537: 5532: 5523: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5491: 5484: 5480: 5477: 5472: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5435:Geology Today 5429: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5400: 5396: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5366: 5360: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5327: 5316:September 29, 5311: 5307: 5300: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5271: 5265: 5264:0-691-05081-3 5261: 5257: 5253: 5252: 5246: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5207: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5183: 5167: 5161: 5160:public domain 5150: 5142: 5138: 5132: 5124: 5120: 5113: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5070: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5027: 5011: 5005: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4970: 4963: 4956: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4849: 4847: 4831:. May 9, 2022 4830: 4826: 4820: 4804: 4800: 4799:Volcano World 4796: 4790: 4774: 4767: 4760: 4756: 4753: 4748: 4746: 4738: 4734: 4731: 4726: 4710: 4703: 4695: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4670: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4629: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4544: 4537: 4529: 4525: 4518: 4516: 4509:, p. 89. 4508: 4503: 4496: 4491: 4484: 4479: 4473:, p. 24. 4472: 4467: 4461:, p. 16. 4460: 4455: 4448: 4443: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4402: 4395: 4390: 4383: 4378: 4371: 4366: 4359: 4354: 4338: 4334: 4328: 4321: 4316: 4308: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4275: 4271: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4245: 4239: 4234: 4233: 4224: 4215: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4183: 4172:September 27, 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4129: 4127: 4118: 4117: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4102:public domain 4089: 4087: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4019: 4010: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3974: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3933: 3928: 3921: 3913: 3911:9780199653065 3907: 3903: 3896: 3890:, p. 66. 3889: 3884: 3876: 3869: 3854: 3850: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3821: 3817: 3815: 3810: 3803: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3699: 3693:, p. 77. 3692: 3687: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3653: 3644: 3636: 3630: 3626: 3625: 3617: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3490:: 1370–1372. 3489: 3485: 3478: 3471: 3470:0-631-20473-3 3467: 3463: 3457: 3441: 3437: 3431: 3429: 3421: 3416: 3409: 3404: 3396: 3394:9780521880060 3390: 3386: 3379: 3371: 3365: 3361: 3354: 3347: 3342: 3335: 3330: 3323: 3318: 3303: 3299: 3292: 3284: 3282:9783540436508 3278: 3274: 3273: 3265: 3250: 3246: 3245:"Vulcanology" 3240: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3209: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3076: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3055: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3012: 3007: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2993:Arthur Holmes 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2868: 2858: 2856: 2855:tidal heating 2852: 2848: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2798: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2780:cryovolcanoes 2777: 2776: 2772:In 1989, the 2770: 2768: 2764: 2763:cryovolcanism 2760: 2756: 2752: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2714: 2713: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2695:Ascraeus Mons 2692: 2688: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2640: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2574: 2570: 2568: 2564: 2558: 2554: 2552: 2548: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2526: 2524: 2523:Easter Island 2520: 2519: 2514: 2507: 2503: 2493: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2482:Mount Tambora 2478: 2476: 2473: 2472:Late Devonian 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2452:supereruption 2449: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2421: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2378:sulfuric acid 2374: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2318: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2282: 2273: 2271: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2242: 2238: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2209: 2207:, Philippines 2206: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2166: 2165:Mount Rainier 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2111: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2097: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2082: 2078: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2046: 2037: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2021:Monte Vulture 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1974: 1970: 1961: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1906: 1900: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1852: 1842: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1791: 1787: 1784:, as seen in 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1755: 1751: 1748: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1713: 1708: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1678: 1673: 1672: 1671: 1669: 1660: 1655: 1645: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1632: 1623: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1599: 1597: 1593: 1588: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1570: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1552: 1547: 1546: 1542: 1541:flood basalts 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1468: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1396:) are highly 1395: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1372: 1371: 1368: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1353:Mount Rinjani 1350: 1345: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1287: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1258: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1231: 1223: 1219: 1214: 1207: 1202: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1179: 1175: 1172:Timelapse of 1153: 1148: 1141:Mud volcanoes 1138: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1086: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1069:oceanographic 1066: 1062: 1057: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1002: 992: 984: 983:in Tanzania. 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 945: 943: 939: 934: 932: 931:flood basalts 928: 924: 921:catastrophic 917: 911: 901: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 878: 874: 870: 866: 864: 860: 856: 855:Mayon Volcano 852: 848: 844: 838: 837:Stratovolcano 826: 823: 820: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 799: 796: 793: 790: 787: 784: 783: 779: 777: 776:stratovolcano 771: 762: 759: 757: 753: 749: 745: 741: 740:Sunset Crater 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 705: 701: 696: 692: 691:volcanic cone 682: 680: 670: 668: 664: 658: 648: 646: 642: 633: 632:Skjaldbreiður 629: 624: 614: 612: 604: 600: 596: 592: 587: 580:Fissure vents 577: 575: 571: 570:mud volcanoes 567: 563: 559: 555: 554:cryovolcanoes 550: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 511: 507: 503: 499: 494: 492: 479: 460: 450: 448: 444: 440: 436: 431: 430:flood basalts 425: 415: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 396:mantle plumes 393: 388: 378: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 359:volcanic arcs 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 335: 330: 320: 318: 314: 313:Black smokers 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 293:oceanic crust 290: 286: 280: 270: 268: 267: 262: 261: 254: 252: 248: 244: 235: 230: 220: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 184: 182: 178: 173: 171: 167: 166:cryovolcanism 161: 159: 155: 151: 150:sulfuric acid 146: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 91: 89: 85: 84:magma chamber 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 49: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7773: 7761: 7749: 7737: 7698:Volcanic arc 7642:Trachybasalt 7480:Supervolcano 7412:Fissure vent 7372: 7238: 7056: 7037:Volcanic dam 6734:Alluvial fan 6522: 6491: 6472: 6453: 6432: 6409:November 12, 6407:. Retrieved 6398: 6353: 6349: 6339: 6327:. Retrieved 6317: 6310: 6304:. p. 6. 6298:Morning Calm 6297: 6291: 6264: 6260: 6250: 6231: 6195: 6182: 6149: 6145: 6139: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6094:November 11, 6092:. Retrieved 6087: 6083: 6069: 6036: 6032: 6026: 6014:. Retrieved 6010:the original 6001: 5991: 5979:. Retrieved 5975:the original 5970: 5961: 5949:. Retrieved 5941: 5931: 5919:. Retrieved 5915:the original 5908: 5899: 5888:, retrieved 5866: 5856: 5844:. Retrieved 5840:the original 5835: 5826: 5814:. Retrieved 5772: 5768: 5762: 5737: 5733: 5727: 5702: 5698: 5692: 5680:. Retrieved 5676: 5667: 5657:November 17, 5655:. Retrieved 5650: 5641: 5631:November 12, 5629:. Retrieved 5624: 5615: 5582: 5576: 5569: 5550: 5531: 5504: 5500: 5490: 5471: 5441:(4): 141–9. 5438: 5434: 5404:November 27, 5402:. Retrieved 5398: 5378:, pp.150-151 5375: 5359: 5340: 5337:Archaeometry 5336: 5326: 5314:. Retrieved 5309: 5299: 5289: 5281:the original 5270: 5249: 5245: 5237:the original 5232: 5222: 5210:. Retrieved 5200: 5192:ScienceDaily 5191: 5182: 5170:. Retrieved 5149: 5140: 5131: 5123:ScienceDaily 5122: 5112: 5079: 5075: 5062: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5014:. Retrieved 5004: 4992:. Retrieved 4972: 4968: 4955: 4918: 4914: 4858: 4854: 4833:. Retrieved 4828: 4819: 4809:September 5, 4807:. Retrieved 4803:the original 4798: 4789: 4779:September 5, 4777:. Retrieved 4766: 4725: 4715:November 27, 4713:. Retrieved 4702: 4675: 4669: 4657:. Retrieved 4638: 4628: 4616:. Retrieved 4597: 4587: 4576:the original 4555: 4549: 4536: 4524:Volcanic Ash 4523: 4502: 4490: 4478: 4466: 4454: 4442: 4418:(1): 63–75. 4415: 4411: 4401: 4389: 4377: 4365: 4353: 4343:November 27, 4341:. Retrieved 4336: 4327: 4315: 4296: 4290: 4280:November 27, 4278:. Retrieved 4273: 4264: 4252: 4231: 4223: 4196: 4192: 4182: 4170:. Retrieved 4145:(2): 41–43. 4142: 4138: 4114: 4073:. Retrieved 4068: 4059: 4032: 4028: 4018: 3983: 3979: 3973: 3963:November 27, 3961:. Retrieved 3957:the original 3936: 3930: 3920: 3901: 3895: 3883: 3868: 3858:November 18, 3856:. Retrieved 3845: 3835: 3825:November 18, 3823:. Retrieved 3812: 3802: 3751: 3747: 3741: 3711:(6): 60–73. 3708: 3704: 3698: 3686: 3674:. Retrieved 3661: 3652: 3643: 3623: 3616: 3589: 3585: 3574: 3549: 3545: 3539: 3514: 3510: 3504: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3461: 3456: 3444:. Retrieved 3415: 3403: 3384: 3378: 3359: 3353: 3341: 3329: 3317: 3305:. Retrieved 3301: 3291: 3271: 3264: 3254:November 27, 3252:. Retrieved 3248: 3239: 3227:. Retrieved 3223:the original 3218: 3208: 3191: 3187: 3177: 3136: 3132: 3122: 3092:(1): 73–99. 3089: 3085: 3079: 2977:hydrothermal 2957:James Hutton 2938: 2909: 2889:supernatural 2886: 2882:Mount Merapi 2870: 2841: 2821: 2804:, a moon of 2795: 2773: 2771: 2767:Solar System 2717: 2712:Mars Express 2710: 2707:Pavonis Mons 2703:Olympus Mons 2684: 2679:Solar System 2671:Olympus Mons 2641: 2622: 2571: 2559: 2555: 2543: 2535: 2527: 2516: 2509: 2479: 2445: 2425:jet aircraft 2422: 2382:Huaynaputina 2375: 2333:lava (e.g., 2320: 2306: 2247: 2201:Taal Volcano 2153:Central Java 2149:Mount Merapi 2145:, Hawaii, US 2084: 2043: 1978: 1934: 1901: 1889: 1885: 1856: 1854: 1840: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1812: 1794: 1782:Agathodaemon 1754:country rock 1746:groundwater. 1665: 1639: 1627: 1622:thin section 1589: 1565: 1549: 1523:, including 1493: 1471: 1465: 1447:stratosphere 1383: 1369: 1365: 1289: 1286:Volcanic gas 1227: 1194:lava channel 1150: 1088: 1058: 1054:pumice rafts 1021: 990: 946: 935: 919: 910:Supervolcano 877:historically 867: 840: 773: 760: 752:Caja del Rio 716:pyroclastics 709: 685:Cinder cones 676: 660: 637: 608: 586:Fissure vent 551: 495: 486: 483: 443:carbonatites 427: 390: 339:flux melting 332: 282: 264: 258: 255: 240: 216: 192: 190: 174: 162: 147: 92: 76:volcanic ash 55: 53: 40: 7832:Volcanology 7775:WikiProject 7718:polygenetic 7713:monogenetic 7592:Nephelinite 7547:Blairmorite 7522:Agglomerate 7430:Mud volcano 7402:Cryovolcano 7392:Cinder cone 6896:Oceanic and 6636:Mountainous 5981:October 24, 5775:: 433–441. 5507:(1): 1–14. 4994:January 20, 4659:January 12, 4618:January 12, 4270:"Volcanoes" 4193:Solid Earth 4075:November 8, 4009:10852/61234 3446:November 3, 3229:January 11, 2820:compounds. 2816:, dust, or 2642:The planet 2547:probability 2521:statues in 2440:VEI 7 and 8 2390:ozone layer 2359:hot springs 2227:Mount Unzen 2221:New Britain 2187:, Guatemala 2155:, Indonesia 2029:Castle Rock 2013:Netherlands 1926:Herculaneum 1910:Yellowstone 1744:superheated 1740:groundwater 1719:Mount Pelée 1620:as seen in 1560:Proterozoic 1531:), on both 1415:ignimbrites 1402:Lassen Peak 1328:halocarbons 1296:Water vapor 1178:El Salvador 1147:Mud volcano 1050:chemotrophs 1037:Pillow lava 1029:hydrophones 732:flank vents 695:Cinder cone 673:Cryptodomes 667:Lassen Peak 647:, as well. 541:in Hawaii. 439:alkali lava 406:, with the 266:monogenetic 260:polygenetic 243:lithosphere 217:vulcanology 213:volcanology 181:cryovolcano 154:troposphere 7791:Categories 7617:Rhyodacite 7567:Ignimbrite 7542:Benmoreite 7194:See also: 7109:Artificial 7017:Lava field 6936:Coral reef 6764:Floodplain 6381:2292/59681 6356:: 107552. 6329:August 30, 5890:January 6, 5682:January 6, 5258:. p. 155. 5212:January 5, 5016:August 22, 4306:3540127569 3986:: 81–112. 3777:10220/7536 3676:August 22, 3592:(4): 615. 3517:(2): 487. 3071:References 2963:of magma. 2927:Mount Etna 2912:Anaxagoras 2905:Hephaistos 2901:Çatalhöyük 2691:Arsia Mons 2652:Lava flows 2581:See also: 2567:Mount Etna 2500:See also: 2175:Sakurajima 2169:Washington 2139:, Colombia 2127:Mount Etna 2099:Avachinsky 1997:New Mexico 1985:Hohentwiel 1954:ghost town 1946:Montserrat 1696:a gas slug 1635:sand-sized 1556:komatiites 1551:ultramafic 1519:(such the 1449:for years. 1338:Lava flows 1115:Tuya Range 1111:Tuya River 1107:Tuya Butte 1095:palagonite 1065:earthquake 1005:See also: 969:Lake Taupō 965:New Mexico 914:See also: 865:in Italy. 853:in Japan, 851:Mount Fuji 748:New Mexico 728:tuff rings 651:Lava domes 547:Lake Taupō 515:lava domes 334:Subduction 247:convection 125:, and the 103:converging 66:, such as 7807:Volcanism 7797:Volcanoes 7602:Phonolite 7587:Leucitite 7572:Komatiite 7420:Lava dome 7416:Lava cone 7373:Volcanoes 7171:Reservoir 7062:Wall rock 7012:Lava dome 6971:Peninsula 6881:Ice field 6838:Waterfall 6701:Ice sheet 6680:Tableland 6620:landforms 6547:Volcanoes 6473:Volcanoes 6390:248111450 6174:129186824 6061:259423377 6016:March 11, 5607:130734866 5463:238802288 5172:August 9, 4167:128375559 3786:0028-0836 3552:(1): 88. 3272:Volcanism 3215:"Volcano" 3169:257745255 3161:2169-9097 3114:0084-6597 2931:Stromboli 2844:exoplanet 2826:Saturnian 2775:Voyager 2 2661:ash flows 2657:Maat Mons 2456:Lake Toba 2402:livestock 2398:acid rain 2363:fumaroles 2191:Santorini 2143:Mauna Loa 2107:Kamchatka 2103:Koryaksky 2058:Koryaksky 1704:Stromboli 1592:Rhyolitic 1525:Mauna Loa 1500:magnesium 1473:andesitic 1427:Novarupta 1394:rhyolites 1361:Indonesia 1344:Lava flow 1218:Stromboli 1127:Tuya Lake 1048:based on 973:Lake Toba 863:Stromboli 827:Ash cloud 818:Lava flow 736:Parícutin 657:Lava dome 613:emerges. 595:Lakagigar 535:Puʻu ʻŌʻō 519:landscape 435:aulacogen 375:Indonesia 297:adiabatic 191:The word 187:Etymology 133:from the 99:diverging 88:volcanism 7739:Category 7647:Trachyte 7622:Rhyolite 7597:Obsidian 7527:Andesite 7131:Building 7095:Sandhill 7085:Dry lake 6990:Volcanic 6976:Seamount 6658:Mountain 6559:Archived 6323:Archived 6283:33943407 6033:Elements 5816:July 21, 5558:Archived 5539:Archived 5479:Archived 5368:Archived 5139:(1970). 5104:53005926 4883:19812671 4755:Archived 4733:Archived 3794:22297973 3733:24968920 3670:Archived 3307:July 21, 3302:Futurity 3003:See also 2935:Vesuvius 2897:demigods 2873:hominina 2847:COROT-7b 2742:silicate 2623:Earth's 2615:'s moon 2609:Tvashtar 2513:Rapa Nui 2496:Benefits 2367:mud pots 2335:rhyolite 2237:Vesuvius 2197:, Greece 2195:Cyclades 2123:, Mexico 2109:, Russia 2033:calderas 2019:such as 1993:Shiprock 1950:Plymouth 1937:Pinatubo 1918:Vesuvius 1837:Erupting 1819:erupting 1805:Holocene 1596:obsidian 1584:Hawaiian 1582:), both 1574:pāhoehoe 1504:basaltic 1480:between 1332:volatile 1320:hydrogen 1119:landform 1091:ice caps 1024:Holocene 531:landform 523:plateaus 392:Hotspots 381:Hotspots 309:seafloor 18:Volcanic 7751:Commons 7678:Hotspot 7577:Lapilli 7562:Felsite 7387:Caldera 7072:Aeolian 7057:Volcano 6997:Caldera 6951:Isthmus 6941:Estuary 6921:Channel 6876:Glacier 6848:Glacial 6786:Meander 6754:Channel 6726:Fluvial 6670:Plateau 6523:Volcano 6358:Bibcode 6274:7939598 6154:Bibcode 6119:Bibcode 6041:Bibcode 5951:July 4, 5921:July 4, 5777:Bibcode 5742:Bibcode 5707:Bibcode 5587:Bibcode 5509:Bibcode 5443:Bibcode 5310:Lanl-Ur 5084:Bibcode 5042:Bibcode 5034:Geology 4977:Bibcode 4969:Geology 4923:Bibcode 4891:4339493 4863:Bibcode 4835:June 2, 4560:Bibcode 4420:Bibcode 4201:Bibcode 4147:Bibcode 4139:Geology 4104:: 4037:Bibcode 3988:Bibcode 3941:Bibcode 3756:Bibcode 3713:Bibcode 3594:Bibcode 3554:Bibcode 3519:Bibcode 3492:Bibcode 3196:Bibcode 3141:Bibcode 3094:Bibcode 2851:transit 2818:methane 2814:ammonia 2792:Neptune 2719:Jupiter 2613:Jupiter 2429:turbine 2371:geysers 2311:Hazards 2243:, Italy 2233:, Japan 2181:, Japan 2133:Galeras 2117:Jalisco 2011:in the 2005:Capulin 1989:Germany 1964:Extinct 1952:into a 1930:Pompeii 1831:extinct 1827:dormant 1786:Pompeii 1778:Bacchus 1776:behind 1712:Vulcano 1533:oceanic 1529:Kilauea 1398:viscous 1390:dacites 1073:Mayotte 1061:seismic 977:Sumatra 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