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coming into contact with warmer than air concrete slab and raised floor. According to a modeling study, air temperature rise can be quite significant (as much as 5 °C or 9 °F) and subsequently, compared to an idealized simulated UFAD case with no air temperature rise, elevated diffuser air temperatures can lead to higher supply airflow rate and increased fan and chiller energy consumption. The same study found that air temperature rise in summer is higher than in winter and it also depends on the climate. The ground floor with a slab on grade has less temperature rise compared to middle and top floors, and an increase of the supply air temperature causes a decrease in the temperature rise. The temperature rise is not significantly affected by the perimeter zone orientation, the internal heat gain and the window-to-wall ratio. Supply plenum air temperature rise, thus, has implications on the energy saving potential of UFAD systems and their ability to meet cooling requirements with supply temperatures above those of conventional overhead systems. Current research suggests that both energy and thermal performance can be improved in UFAD systems by ducting air to perimeter zones where loads tend to be the greatest. Critics suggest however that such underfloor ducting reduces the benefit of having a low-pressure plenum space, as well as adding design and installation complications when fitting ducts between floor tile pedestals.
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thereby producing for the system with a raised floor higher peak cooling loads compared to the system without a raised floor. In the OH system, particularly in perimeter zones, part of the incoming solar heat gain is stored in the floor slab during the day, thus reducing peak zone cooling loads, and released at night when the system is off. In a UFAD system, the presence of the raised flooring transforms the solar absorbing massive floor slab into a lighter weight material, leading to relatively higher peak zone cooling loads. A modeling study based on EnergyPlus simulations showed that, generally, UFAD has a peak cooling load 19% higher than an overhead cooling load and 22% and 37% of the total zone UFAD cooling load goes to the supply plenum in the perimeter and interior, respectively.
299:) (0.1 inch of water column) or less. UFAD is particularly suitable for buildings with high height ceilings, where the energy saving effect is more pronounced due to thermal stratification. Because UFAD is accomplished by supplying air through a raised floor using different types of distribution configurations and outlets, the key issue for efficient performance of the system is to ensure thermal stratification. The inefficient operation of the UFAD system virtually deteriorated the potential savings presumed from such a system. Also, the investigation of energy saving has shown that this amount varies for buildings located in different climates, suggesting further studies should investigate this factor prior to designing a suitable HVAC system.
174:. In comparison to classic displacement ventilation (DV) systems that deliver air at low velocities, typical UFAD systems deliver air through floor diffusers with higher supply air velocities. In addition to increasing the amount of mixing (and therefore potentially diminishing the ventilation performance compared to DV systems), these more powerful supply air conditions can have significant impacts on room air stratification and thermal comfort in the occupied zone. Therefore, the control and optimization of this stratification is crucial to system design and sizing, energy-efficient operation, and comfort performance of UFAD systems.
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zone cooling load and the fraction of the cooling load assigned to the underfloor plenum. It also requires users to input the supply air temperature either at the diffuser or at the duct but with the ratio of plenum flowrate to zonal supply flowrate. The tool allows users to select from three type of diffusers and is applicable to seven type of buildings, including office, classroom, workshop, restaurant, retail shop, conference room and auditorium.
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thermostat setpoints compared to traditional overhead systems. The optimal ventilation strategy controls the supply outlets to limit the mixing of supply air with room air to just below the breathing height of the space. Above this height, stratified and more polluted air is allowed to occur. The air that the occupant breathes will have a lower concentration of contaminants compared to conventional uniformly mixed systems.
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64:, and health; reduced energy use and static pressures; and reduced floor-to-floor height in new construction. An under-floor air distribution concept combined with a ceiling-distributed returns ventilation layout (UFAD-CDR) can dramatically reduce the risk of airborne transmission at both high and low ACHs. The UFAD system was originally introduced in the 1950s for rooms with high heat loads and
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such as small non-residential buildings, wet spaces like restrooms and pool areas, kitchens and dining areas and gymnasiums, because UFAD may result in especially difficult or costly in design. UFAD systems may also be used with other HVAC systems, like displacement ventilation, overhead air distribution systems, radiant ceiling or chilled beam systems to get better performance.
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velocity in the occupied zone, while linear diffusers created the highest velocity in the occupied zone, disturbing thermal stratification and posing a potential draft risk. Additionally, floor diffusers add an element of personal control within the reach of the occupant, as users can adjust the amount of air that is delivered by the diffuser though rotating the diffuser top.
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gain for both interior and perimeter zones of a typical multi-story office buildings using UFAD system. The CBE tool allows the user to select from four different plenum configurations (series, reverse series, independent and common) and three floor-diffusers (swirl, square and linear bar grill). An online version of the design tool is publicly available at
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Plenum supply air temperature rise is the increase of the conditioned air due to convective heat gain as it travels through the underfloor supply plenum from the plenum inlet to the floor diffusers. This phenomenon is also named thermal decay. Plenum air temperature rise is caused by cool supply air
55:
and stratification phenomenon: the conditioned air is supplied directly to the occupied zone (OZ). The thermal plumes generated by the occupants and other heat sources introduce the conditioned air to absorb the heat and humidity and then bring the contaminated air to the upper zone (UZ). At a
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usually locate both the supply and return air ducts at the ceiling level. Supply air is supplied at velocities higher than typically acceptable for human comfort and the air temperature may be lower, higher, or the same as desired room temperature depending on the cooling/heating load. High-speed
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The CBE UFAD design tool based on extensive research is able to predict the cooling load for UFAD system with the input of the design cooling load calculated for the same building with an overhead system. It also predicts the airflow rate, room temperature stratification, and the plenum temperature
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Cooling load profiles for UFAD systems and overhead systems are different, mainly due to the thermal storage effect of the lighter-weight raised floor panels compared to the heavier mass of a structural floor slab. The mere presence of the raised floor reduces the ability of the slab to store heat,
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where they are exhausted through the return air ducts. The temperature stratification created by the UFAD system has implication for space setpoints. Most of an occupant's body is in an area that is colder than the temperature at the thermostat height; therefore, current practice recommends raising
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of warm air and the thermal plumes generated by heat sources as cooler air is delivered from lower elevations. While similar, UFAD tends to encourage more mixing within the occupied zone and provide local air supply, which enables it to increase air motion in the space and prevent the sensation of
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cooling load of an overhead (well-mixed) system. UCLR is determined by zone type, floor level and the zone orientation. The Supply Plenum
Fraction (SPF), Zone Fraction (ZF) and Return Plenum Fraction (RPF) are developed similarly to calculate the supply plenum, zone and return plenum cooling load.
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Specific space considerations should be taken when using UFAD systems in laboratories because of its critical room pressurization requirements and potential migration of chemicals into the access floor plenum due to spillage. UFAD systems are not recommended in some specific facilities or spaces,
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Leakage in UFAD supply plenums can be a major cause for inefficiency in a UFAD system. There are two types of leakage—leakage into the space and leakage into pathways that bypass the space. The first category of leakage does not result in an energy penalty because air is getting to the zone it is
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ASHRAE Research
Project (RP-1522) developed a simplified tool that predicts the vertical temperature difference between the head and ankle of occupants, the supply air flow rate for one plenum zone, number of diffusers and the air distribution effectiveness. The tool requires users to specify the
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Center for the Built
Environment developed a new index UFAD cooling load ratio (UCLR), which is defined by the ratio of the peak cooling load calculated for UFAD to the peak cooling load calculated for a well-mixed system, to calculate the UFAD cooling load for each zone with the traditional peak
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Many factors, including the ceiling height, diffuser characteristics, number of diffusers, supply air temperature, total flow rate, cooling load and conditioning mode affect the ventilation efficiency of UFAD systems. Swirl and perforated-floor-panel diffusers have been shown to create a low air
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systems for cable and equipment management (e.g. computer rooms, control centers, etc.). The system was introduced into office buildings in the 1970s in West
Germany, with the addition of occupant-controlled localized supply diffusers. Nowadays UFAD system has achieved considerable acceptance in
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Thermal stratification is the result of processes which layer the internal air in accordance with relative density. The resulting air stratum is a vertical gradient with high-density and cooler air below and low-density and warmer air above. Due to the naturally convective movement of air,
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A well-engineered UFAD systems have several potential advantages over traditional overhead systems, such as layout flexibility, improved thermal comfort, improved ventilation efficiency and indoor air quality, improved energy efficiency in suitable climates and reduced life cycle costs.
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intended to cool. The second category of leakage increases fan energy in order to maintain a constant plenum pressure, resulting in increased energy use. Careful consideration needs to be paid in the construction phase of UFAD systems to ensure a well-sealed plenum.
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certain plane in the room, the airflow rate returned to the UZ is equal to the supply air. The plane divides the room into OZ and UZ and leads to thermal stratification: the hot and contaminated air is concentrated in the UZ, and the air in the OZ is cool and fresh.
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stagnant air conditions, often associated with poor air quality. The major practical differences are that in UFAD, air is supplied at a higher velocity through smaller-size supply outlets than in DV, and the supply outlets are usually controlled by the occupants.
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are used as the supply outlets. The most common UFAD configuration consists of a central air handling unit delivering air through a pressurized plenum and into the space through floor diffusers. Other approaches may incorporate fan powered
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are desirable for cable management. UFAD is appropriate for a number of different building types including commercials, schools, churches, airports, museums, libraries, etc. Notable buildings using the UFAD system in North
America include
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system to supply conditioned air to supply outlets (usually floor diffusers), located at or near floor level within the occupied space. Air returns from the room at ceiling level or the maximum allowable height above the occupied zone.
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Schematic flow diagram of calculation procedure showing transformation from cooling load calculated for an overhead mixing system into a UFAD cooling load, and then divided between the supply plenum, zone (room), and return
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UFAD can bring several potential advantages over traditional overhead systems, including reduced life-cycle building costs; improved thermal comfort, occupant satisfaction, and productivity; improved ventilation efficiency,
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systems (DV) work on similar principals as UFAD systems. DV systems deliver cool air into the conditioned space at or near the floor level and return air at the ceiling level. This works by utilizing the natural
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Xue, Guangqing; Lee, Kisup; Jiang, Zheng; Chen, Qingyan (2012). "Thermal environment in indoor spaces with under-floor air distribution systems: Part 2. Determination of design parameters (1522-RP)".
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The energy assessment of UFAD systems has not been extensive, but some studies indicates potential energy savings due the lower pressure drop and lower air flow rate. Typical plenum pressures are 25
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1975:
Lee, Kisup; Xue, Guangqing (June 2012). "Establishment of Design
Procedures to Predict Room Airflow Requirements in Partially Mixed Room Air Distribution Systems".
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93:. Careful considerations need to be made in the construction phase of UFAD systems to ensure a well-sealed plenum to avoid air leakage in UFAD supply plenums.
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to filter and condition air to the appropriate supply conditions so it can be delivered to the occupied zone. While overhead systems typically use
158:. In a UFAD design, conditioned air stays in the lower, occupied part of the room, while heat sources such as occupants and equipment generate
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Air stratification capitalizes on thermal buoyancy to layer high quality supply air at occupant level and leave unoccupied air unconditioned.
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Hanzawa, H.; Higuci, M. (1996), "Air flow distribution in a low-height underfloor air distribution plenum of an air conditioning system",
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Professional and Trade groups that provide research funding and publish standards or guides regarding UFAD systems include:
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There are two available design tools for determining zone airflow rate requirements for UFAD system, one is developed at
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that have large cooling loads from electronic equipment and requirements for routing power and data cables. The
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2036:"Thermal decay in underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems: Fundamentals and influence on system performance"
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Lee, K.S.; Jiang, Z.; Chen, Q. (2009), "Air distribution effectiveness with stratified air distribution",
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1947:"Simplified calculation method for design cooling loads in underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems"
1916:"Simplified calculation method for design cooling loads in underfloor air distribution (UFAD) systems"
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121:) above the structural concrete slab, although lower heights are possible. Specially designed floor
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2075:"Laboratory testing of a displacement ventilation diffuser for underfloor air distribution systems"
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2108:"Energy analysis of under-floor air distribution (UFAD) system: An office building case study"
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UFAD systems capitalize on the natural stratification that occurs when warm air rises due to
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1848:, U9513, Department of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University,
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to distribute the air, UFAD systems use the underfloor plenum formed by installation of a
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UFAD leakage that does not contribute to cooling, leading to wasted increased fan energy.
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2011:
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Schiavon, Stefano; Lee, Kwang Ho; Bauman, Fred; Webster, Tom (February–March 2011).
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UFAD GUIDE Design, Construction and
Operation of Underfloor Air Distribution Systems
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Underfloor Air
Distribution Design Guide suggests that any building considering a
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2003:
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Bauman, Fred; Webster, Tom (Jun 2001). "Outloof of underfloor air distribution".
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The Center for the Built
Environment (CBE), University of California, Berkeley.
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Bauman, Fred; Daly, Allan (2003), "Underfloor Air
Distribution Design Guide",
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1694:"Influence of indoor airflow on airborne disease transmission in a classroom"
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1605:. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
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The theoretical behavior of UFAD systems is based on the plume theory for
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American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
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How low can you go? Air flow performance of low-height underfloor plenums
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Nielsen, P. V. (1996), "Displacement Ventilation – Theory and Design",
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Schiavon, Stefano; Lee, Kwang Ho; Bauman, Fred; Webster, Tom (2011),
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The Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI)
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Slides from a Center for the Built Environment workshop about UFAD.
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32:
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Kwang Ho, Lee; Stefano Schiavon; Fred Bauman; Tom Webster (2012).
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Zhang, Kai; Zhang, Xiaosong; Li, Shuhong; Jin, Xing (2014-12-01).
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at the outlets, underfloor ducts, desktop vents or connections to
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Alajmi, Ali F.; Abou-Ziyan, Hosny Z.; El-Amer, Wid (2013-09-01).
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Raftery, Paul; Bauman, Fred; Schiavon, Stefano; Epp, Tom (2015).
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ASHRAE Technical Resource Group On Underfloor Air Design (2013).
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311:, particularly highly-reconfigurable and open plan offices where
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76:, particularly highly-reconfigurable and open plan offices where
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Diagram of air movement in an underfloor air distribution system
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Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI)
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turbulent air jets incoming supply air mix with the room air.
345:
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Zabihi, Mojtaba; Li, Ri; Brinkerhoff, Joshua (1 March 2024).
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are desirable for cable management. UFAD is also common in
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stratification is used predominantly in cooling conditions.
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118:
36:
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Research Project (RP-1522). The other one is developed at
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1868:"Underfloor air distribution: thermal stratification"
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UFAD leakage into the space, contributing to cooling.
27:(UFAD) is an air distribution strategy for providing
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1691:
43:located between the structural concrete slab and a
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1791:Bauman, Fred; Pecora, Paolo; Webster, Tom (1999),
1636:"Review of underfloor air distribution technology"
307:Underfloor air distribution is frequently used in
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1797:, Center for the Built Environment, UC Berkeley
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1603:Underfloor Air Distribution (UFAD) Design Guide
209:UFAD design tools for zone airflow requirements
51:The UFAD system takes advantage of the thermal
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39:system. UFAD systems use an underfloor supply
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1866:Webster, T.; Bauman, Fred; Reese, J. (2002).
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338:for cable distribution should consider UFAD.
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397:List of notable buildings using UFAD systems
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346:UFAD compared to other distribution systems
3609:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
2986:High efficiency glandless circulating pump
2235:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
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1600:
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113:. The plenum generally sits 0.3 and 0.46
3420:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
885:Robert E. Coyle United States Courthouse
273:
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138:UFAD air distribution and stratification
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1977:ASHRAE Research Project Report RP-1522
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253:Heat transfer pathways in UFAD system.
132:Personal Environmental Control Systems
3293:Programmable communicating thermostat
2207:
1601:Bauman, Fred S.; Daly, Allan (2003).
96:
3415:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
1765:AIJ Journal of Technology and Design
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903:Moore Ruble Yudell, Gruen Associates
356:
186:
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13:
3276:Minimum efficiency reporting value
2148:. Center for the Built Environment
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286:
14:
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3318:Standard temperature and pressure
3031:Packaged terminal air conditioner
2567:Passive daytime radiative cooling
2296:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
2163:
1591:
227:University of California Berkeley
69:Europe, South Africa, and Japan.
2387:Absorption-compression heat pump
2112:Energy Conversion and Management
239:Center for the Built Environment
223:Center for the Built Environment
3282:Normal temperature and pressure
2662:Vapor-compression refrigeration
2138:
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1983:
1968:
1427:Kuwabara Payne McKenna Blumberg
302:
2124:10.1016/j.enconman.2013.04.003
2052:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.09.011
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539:San Francisco Federal Building
91:San Francisco Federal Building
1:
3430:Testing, adjusting, balancing
3374:Building information modeling
3369:Building services engineering
2946:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
2474:Demand controlled ventilation
2422:Building insulation materials
2092:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.09.005
1963:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.017
1932:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.017
1652:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.09.011
1585:
1546:Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects
671:Renzo Piano Building Workshop
2991:High-pressure cut-off switch
2542:Ice storage air conditioning
2463:Dedicated outdoor air system
2176:http://www.cbe.berkeley.edu/
2004:10.1080/10789669.2012.710058
1076:B.H. Bocook, Architects, Inc
7:
3334:Thermostatic radiator valve
3136:Thermostatic radiator valve
2647:Underfloor air distribution
2582:Radiant heating and cooling
2500:Energy recovery ventilation
2412:Automobile air conditioning
2276:Domestic energy consumption
653:The New York Times Building
262:Air leakage in UFAD plenums
245:Plenum air temperature rise
182:Application Characteristics
83:The New York Times Building
35:as part of the design of a
25:Underfloor air distribution
10:
3650:
3483:Institute of Refrigeration
3364:Architectural technologist
2836:Electrostatic precipitator
2146:"UFAD Technology Overview"
1568:37.7899000°N 122.3969000°W
1511:49.2790889°N 123.1160222°W
1327:33.6571981°N 117.7469452°W
1269:37.7861556°N 122.4062694°W
1212:33.4715861°N 112.0732889°W
1155:36.1125278°N 115.1759472°W
1098:37.4252417°N 122.1939000°W
1001:Ray and Maria Stata Center
868:37.7901500°N 122.3969500°W
808:38.5759750°N 121.5049028°W
786:Pickard Chilton Architects
750:34.0560417°N 118.2445750°W
579:37.7797472°N 122.4122583°W
522:37.8697139°N 122.2662583°W
377:
349:
31:and space conditioning in
3545:
3536:Volatile organic compound
3511:
3438:
3395:Environmental engineering
3359:Architectural engineering
3342:
3190:
3161:Ultra-low particulate air
2746:Automatic balancing valve
2693:
2674:Variable refrigerant flow
2526:Heat recovery ventilation
2469:Deep water source cooling
2379:
2241:
1710:10.1007/s12273-023-1097-y
1449:49.8927750°N 97.1463056°W
1388:23.126750°N 113.3176000°E
1041:42.3620417°N 71.0897944°W
984:42.2443361°N 83.4329250°W
693:40.7565056°N 73.9903194°W
636:39.0864722°N 94.5839861°W
3583:Template:Home automation
3405:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
3101:Solar-assisted heat pump
2701:Air conditioner inverter
2480:Displacement ventilation
2371:Vapour pressure of water
2356:Thermal destratification
1573:37.7899000; -122.3969000
1516:49.2790889; -123.1160222
1466:Vancouver Public Library
1332:33.6571981; -117.7469452
1274:37.7861556; -122.4062694
1217:33.4715861; -112.0732889
1160:36.1125278; -115.1759472
1103:37.4252417; -122.1939000
873:37.7901500; -122.3969500
813:38.5759750; -121.5049028
755:34.0560417; -118.2445750
596:Internal Revenue Service
584:37.7797472; -122.4122583
527:37.8697139; -122.2662583
465:40.755722°N 73.9841139°W
385:Displacement Ventilation
380:Displacement ventilation
374:Displacement ventilation
3578:World Refrigeration Day
3425:Refrigerant reclamation
3354:Architectural acoustics
3298:Programmable thermostat
3230:Clean air delivery rate
3126:Thermal expansion valve
3041:Pressurisation ductwork
2951:Ground source heat pump
2392:Absorption refrigerator
2199:http://www.ahrinet.org/
1742:. W. Stephen Comstock.
1454:49.8927750; -97.1463056
1247:Bohlin Cywinski Jackson
1046:42.3620417; -71.0897944
989:42.2443361; -83.4329250
698:40.7565056; -73.9903194
641:39.0864722; -94.5839861
363:overhead mixing systems
3568:Glossary of HVAC terms
3530:Sick building syndrome
3410:Mechanical engineering
3121:Smoke exhaust ductwork
2552:Mixed-mode ventilation
2190:http://www.ashrae.org/
1393:23.126750; 113.3176000
1172:Phoenix Public Library
710:Caltrans District 7 HQ
470:40.755722; -73.9841139
279:
271:
254:
197:
151:
72:UFAD is often used in
21:
3588:Template:Solar energy
3266:Intelligent buildings
3225:Carbon dioxide sensor
2612:Room air distribution
2432:Central solar heating
843:Studios Architecture
425:Bank of America Tower
352:Room air distribution
277:
269:
252:
194:
149:
101:UFAD systems rely on
87:Bank of America Tower
19:
3629:Environmental design
3390:Duct leakage testing
3380:Deep energy retrofit
3324:Thermographic camera
3261:Infrared thermometer
2736:Air source heat pump
2685:Water heat recycling
2251:Air changes per hour
2079:Energy and Buildings
1951:Energy and Buildings
1920:Energy and Buildings
1640:Energy and Buildings
1405:Manitoba Hydro Tower
1115:Bellagio Show Palace
925:36.7377°N 119.7838°W
3624:Low-energy building
3256:HVAC control system
3246:Home energy monitor
3220:Building automation
3006:Inverter compressor
2668:Variable air volume
2577:Passive ventilation
2547:Kitchen ventilation
2447:Constant air volume
2417:Autonomous building
1992:HVAC&R Research
1894:ASHRAE Transactions
1698:Building Simulation
1564: /
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1490:& DA architects
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482:David Brower Center
461: /
443:Cook+Fox Architects
3619:Floor construction
3519:Indoor air quality
3463:ASTM International
3400:Hydronic balancing
3177:Wood-burning stove
3056:Radiator reflector
2841:Evaporative cooler
2652:Underfloor heating
2637:Thermal insulation
1778:10.3130/aijt.2.200
1058:Hewlett Foundation
956:Van Buren Township
930:36.7377; -119.7838
500:Solomon E.T.C.-WRT
280:
272:
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103:air handling units
97:System description
62:indoor air quality
22:
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3512:Health and safety
3091:Scroll compressor
3046:Process duct work
2801:Convection heater
2796:Condensing boiler
2726:Air-mixing plenum
2622:Solar combisystem
2458:Cross ventilation
2261:Building envelope
1749:978-1-936504-49-7
1612:978-1-931862-21-9
1583:
1582:
1344:Pearl River Tower
357:Overhead (mixing)
215:Purdue University
187:UFAD cooling load
3641:
3614:Building biology
3558:Building science
3313:Smart thermostat
3308:Room temperature
2891:Fireplace insert
2597:Radon mitigation
2495:Electric heating
2490:District heating
2485:District cooling
2402:Air conditioning
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117:(12 and 18
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3553:ASHRAE Handbook
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3167:Whole-house fan
3081:Run-around coil
3076:Reversing valve
3021:Mechanical room
3011:Kerosene heater
3001:Infrared heater
2931:Gasoline heater
2871:Fan filter unit
2786:Condensate pump
2771:Centrifugal fan
2689:
2592:Radiant heating
2587:Radiant cooling
2562:Passive cooling
2557:Microgeneration
2427:Central heating
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317:command centers
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287:UFAD and energy
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3303:Psychrometrics
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2921:Gas compressor
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2776:Ceramic heater
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2617:Solar air heat
2614:
2609:
2607:Renewable heat
2604:
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2366:Thermodynamics
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2336:Psychrometrics
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2291:Gas compressor
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2286:Fluid dynamics
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2065:
2046:(1): 197–207.
2040:Applied Energy
2017:
1982:
1967:
1957:(2): 517–528,
1937:
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1872:ASHRAE Journal
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1831:
1800:
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1704:(3): 355–370.
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1675:ASHRAE Journal
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3383:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3341:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3280:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3236:Control valve
3234:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3156:Turning vanes
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3131:Thermal wheel
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3096:Solar chimney
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2866:Fan coil unit
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2811:Cooling tower
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2672:
2669:
2666:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2657:Vapor barrier
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2632:Solar heating
2630:
2628:
2627:Solar cooling
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2602:Refrigeration
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2572:Passive house
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2442:Chilled water
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2341:Sensible heat
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:Noise control
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2301:Heat transfer
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2217:
2215:
2210:
2209:
2206:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2187:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2147:
2141:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2093:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1908:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1886:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1828:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1796:
1795:
1787:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1751:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1688:
1680:
1676:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1595:
1590:
1577:
1556:37°47′23.64″N
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1541:San Francisco
1539:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1520:
1502:123°6′57.68″W
1499:49°16′44.72″N
1492:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1458:
1437:49°53′33.99″N
1430:
1428:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1397:
1379:113°19′3.36″E
1369:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1278:
1257:37°47′10.16″N
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1242:San Francisco
1240:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1203:112°4′23.84″W
1200:33°28′17.71″N
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1086:37°25′30.87″N
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1050:
1029:42°21′43.35″N
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
998:
993:
975:83°25′58.53″W
972:42°14′39.61″N
965:
962:
959:
957:
954:
952:
949:
946:
943:
940:
939:
934:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
888:
886:
883:
882:
877:
856:37°47′24.54″N
849:
847:
846:
841:
839:
838:San Francisco
836:
834:
831:
828:
826:
823:
822:
817:
796:38°34′33.51″N
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
764:
759:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
713:
711:
708:
707:
702:
684:73°59′25.15″W
681:40°45′23.42″N
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
656:
654:
651:
650:
645:
617:
615:
612:
610:
607:
605:
602:
599:
597:
594:
593:
588:
567:37°46′47.09″N
560:
558:
555:
553:
552:San Francisco
550:
548:
545:
542:
540:
537:
536:
531:
510:37°52′10.97″N
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
474:
446:
444:
441:
439:
438:New York City
436:
434:
431:
428:
426:
423:
422:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
402:
394:
391:
386:
381:
371:
367:
364:
361:Conventional
353:
343:
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
322:
318:
314:
313:raised floors
310:
300:
298:
295:(0.0036
294:
284:
276:
268:
259:
251:
242:
240:
234:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
206:
202:
193:
179:
175:
173:
168:
165:
161:
157:
148:
144:
135:
133:
129:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
94:
92:
88:
84:
79:
78:raised floors
75:
70:
67:
66:raised floors
63:
57:
54:
49:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
18:
3563:Fireproofing
3347:and services
3343:Professions,
3241:Gas detector
3141:Trickle vent
3116:Smoke damper
3111:Smoke canopy
3106:Space heater
3036:Plenum space
2971:Heating film
2851:Exhaust hood
2821:Dehumidifier
2761:Blast damper
2756:Barrier pipe
2731:Air purifier
2646:
2642:Thermosiphon
2521:Free cooling
2437:Chilled beam
2361:Thermal mass
2346:Stack effect
2331:Particulates
2311:Infiltration
2242:Fundamental
2180:
2150:. Retrieved
2140:
2115:
2111:
2101:
2082:
2078:
2068:
2043:
2039:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1976:
1970:
1954:
1950:
1940:
1923:
1919:
1897:
1893:
1875:
1871:
1861:
1845:
1826:
1793:
1786:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1738:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1643:
1639:
1629:
1602:
1488:Moshe Safdie
1440:97°8′46.70″W
1288:Headquarters
1143:36°6′45.10″N
1032:71°5′23.26″W
844:
738:34°3′21.75″N
627:94°35′2.35″W
624:39°5′11.30″N
456:73°59′2.81″W
453:40°45′20.6″N
419:Coordinates
384:
383:
368:
362:
360:
340:
336:raised floor
328:Server rooms
324:data centers
306:
303:Applications
290:
281:
256:
235:
231:
212:
203:
199:
176:
169:
153:
141:
111:raised floor
100:
71:
58:
50:
45:raised floor
24:
23:
3634:Ventilation
3573:Warm Spaces
3215:Blower door
3193:and control
3191:Measurement
3172:Windcatcher
3146:Trombe wall
3086:Sail switch
3066:Refrigerant
3061:Recuperator
2936:Grease duct
2896:Freeze stat
2881:Fire damper
2751:Back boiler
2721:Air ionizer
2716:Air handler
2680:Ventilation
2532:Hybrid heat
2397:Air barrier
2316:Latent heat
2188:, (ASHRAE)
1771:: 200–205,
1646:: 180–186.
1571: /
1514: /
1452: /
1391: /
1376:23°7′36.3″N
1330: /
1318:117°44′49″W
1272: /
1229:Apple Store
1215: /
1190:Will Bruder
1158: /
1133:Will Bruder
1101: /
1044: /
1019:Frank Gehry
987: /
928: /
916:119°47′02″W
871: /
811: /
753: /
723:Los Angeles
696: /
639: /
609:Kansas City
582: /
525: /
468: /
416:Architects
29:ventilation
3603:Categories
3329:Thermostat
3251:Humidistat
3182:Zone valve
3151:TurboSwing
3026:Oil heater
2996:Humidifier
2926:Gas heater
2876:Fan heater
2846:Evaporator
2831:Economizer
2806:Compressor
2711:Air filter
2694:Components
2511:Forced-air
2407:Antifreeze
2380:Technology
2326:Outgassing
2266:Convection
1586:References
1315:33°39′26″N
1071:Menlo Park
961:SmithGroup
913:36°44′16″N
781:Sacramento
728:Thom Mayne
404:Structure
172:DV systems
3439:Industry
3288:OpenTherm
2966:Heat pump
2961:Heat pipe
2911:Fume hood
2886:Fireplace
2791:Condenser
2741:Attic fan
2537:Hydronics
2132:0196-8904
2118:: 78–85.
2085:: 82–91.
1854:0902-8005
1718:1996-8744
1660:0378-7788
1479:Vancouver
1357:Guangzhou
1286:Taco Bell
557:Morphosis
225:(CBE) at
123:diffusers
33:buildings
3546:See also
3271:LonWorks
3205:Aquastat
3071:Register
3051:Radiator
2706:Air door
2506:Firestop
2306:Humidity
2281:Enthalpy
2271:Dilution
2256:Bake-out
2244:concepts
2060:54035654
2012:15848165
1621:54615153
1418:Winnipeg
1128:Paradise
666:New York
495:Berkeley
410:Country
390:buoyancy
3345:trades,
2916:Furnace
2781:Chiller
2453:Coolant
1185:Phoenix
942:Visteon
767:CalPERS
293:pascals
196:plenum.
164:ceiling
3498:SMACNA
3458:ASHRAE
3278:(MERV)
3232:(CADR)
3210:BACnet
3163:(ULPA)
3016:Louver
2941:Grille
2816:Damper
2766:Boiler
2664:(VCRS)
2465:(DOAS)
2152:27 Nov
2130:
2058:
2010:
1852:
1827:ASHRAF
1746:
1716:
1658:
1619:
1609:
1474:Canada
1413:Canada
1300:Irvine
1014:Boston
898:Fresno
845:et al.
332:ASHRAE
219:ASHRAE
115:metres
41:plenum
3538:(VOC)
3532:(SBS)
3521:(IAQ)
3478:CIBSE
3473:BSRIA
3376:(BIM)
3320:(STP)
3284:(NTP)
2906:Freon
2676:(VRF)
2670:(VAV)
2528:(HRV)
2502:(ERV)
2476:(DCV)
2449:(CAV)
2056:S2CID
2008:S2CID
1366:AS+GG
1352:China
1348:2011
413:City
407:Year
107:ducts
53:plume
3493:LEED
3453:AMCA
3448:AHRI
2981:HEPA
2901:Flue
2826:Duct
2154:2013
2128:ISSN
1878:(5).
1850:ISSN
1744:ISBN
1714:ISSN
1681:(6).
1656:ISSN
1617:OCLC
1607:ISBN
1532:2017
1470:1995
1409:2009
1364:and
1291:2009
1233:1993
1176:1995
1119:1998
1062:2002
1005:2003
947:2004
889:2005
829:2005
772:2005
714:2005
657:2007
614:BNIM
600:2007
543:2007
486:2009
429:2009
326:and
89:and
37:HVAC
3503:UMC
3488:IIR
3468:BRE
2861:Fan
2120:doi
2087:doi
2083:108
2048:doi
2000:doi
1959:doi
1928:doi
1900:(2)
1898:115
1773:doi
1706:doi
1648:doi
1362:SOM
963:JJR
297:psi
3605::
2126:.
2116:73
2114:.
2110:.
2081:.
2077:.
2054:.
2044:91
2042:.
2038:.
2020:^
2006:.
1996:18
1994:.
1955:43
1953:,
1949:,
1924:43
1922:.
1918:.
1906:^
1896:,
1884:^
1876:44
1874:.
1870:.
1834:^
1803:^
1767:,
1726:^
1712:.
1702:17
1700:.
1696:.
1679:43
1677:.
1654:.
1644:85
1642:.
1638:.
1615:.
1593:^
1536:CA
1483:BC
1481:,
1422:MB
1420:,
1295:CA
1237:CA
1180:AZ
1123:NV
1066:CA
1009:MA
951:MI
944:HQ
893:CA
833:CA
776:CA
769:HQ
718:CA
661:NY
604:MO
547:CA
490:CA
433:NY
321:IT
319:,
241:.
229:.
134:.
119:in
85:,
2227:e
2220:t
2213:v
2156:.
2134:.
2122::
2095:.
2089::
2062:.
2050::
2014:.
2002::
1979:.
1961::
1934:.
1930::
1846:U
1775::
1769:3
1752:.
1720:.
1708::
1662:.
1650::
1623:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
