669:, then species could be subject to selection and thus could change their occurrence over geological time, much as heritable selected-for traits change theirs over generations. For evolution to be driven by species selection, differential success must be the result of selection upon species-intrinsic properties, rather than for properties of genes, cells, individuals, or populations within species. Such properties include, for example, population structure, their propensity to speciate, extinction rates, and geological persistence. While the fossil record shows differential persistence of species, examples of species-intrinsic properties subject to natural selection have been much harder to document.
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by what the group does to the rabbit. Indeed, the proper, directly selected group property is that of "not killing the rabbit too early" rather than individual virulence. In situations such as these, we would expect there to be selection for cooperation amongst the viruses in a group in such a way that the group will not "kill the rabbit too early". It is of course true that any group behavior is the result of individual traits, such as individual viruses suppressing the virulence of their neighbours, but the causes of phenotypes are rarely the causes of fitness differences.
336:
with the environment ("vehicles"). Genes are "replicators" whereas individuals and groups of individuals are "vehicles". Dawkins argues that, although they are both aspects of the same process, "replicators" rather than "vehicles" should be preferred as units of selection. This is because replicators, owing to their permanence, should be regarded as the ultimate beneficiaries of adaptations. Genes are replicators and therefore the gene is the unit of selection. Dawkins further expounded this view in an entire chapter called '
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bitten it, since otherwise all the viruses inside the dead rabbit would rot with it. And indeed in natural systems such viruses display much lower virulence levels than do mutants of the same viruses that in laboratory culture readily outcompete non-virulent variants (or than do tick-transmitted viruses since ticks do bite dead rabbits).
498:
fight off infecting pathogens is a case of programmed and exquisitely contained cellular proliferation, it represents a case of the individual manipulating selection at the level of the cell to enhance its own fitness. In the case of the vertebrate immune system, selection at the level of the cell and individual are not in conflict.
600:
In the previous passage, the group is assumed to have "lower virulence", i.e., "virulence" is presented as a group trait. One could argue then that the selection is in fact against individual viruses that are too virulent. In this case, however, the fitness of all viruses within a rabbit is affected
497:
This selection for unconstrained proliferation is in conflict with the fitness interests of the individual, and thus there is tension between selection at the level of the cell and selection at the level of the individual. Since the proliferation of specific cells of the vertebrate immune system to
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Some mosquito-transmitted rabbit viruses are only transmitted to uninfected rabbits from infected rabbits which are still alive. This creates a selective pressure on every group of viruses already infecting a rabbit not to become too virulent and kill their host rabbit before enough mosquitoes have
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has written several books popularizing and expanding the idea. According to
Dawkins, genes cause phenotypes and a gene is 'judged' by its phenotypic effects. Dawkins distinguishes entities which survive or fail to survive ("replicators") from entities with temporary existence that interact directly
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are DNA sequences that, once replicated by the cellular machinery, insert themselves in the genome more or less randomly. Such insertions can be very mutagenic and thus reduce drastically individual fitness, so that there is strong selection against elements that are very active. Meiotic-drive
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The generality of the principles of natural selection means that any entities in nature that have variation, reproduction, and heritability may evolve. ...the principles can be applied equally to genes, organisms, populations, species, and at opposite ends of the scale, prebiotic molecules and
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Specific syndromes of selective factors can create situations in which groups are selected because they display group properties which are selected-for. Many common examples of group traits are reducible to individual traits, however. Selection of these traits is thus more simply explained as
365:) manipulate the machinery of chromosomal segregation so that chromosomes carrying the mutation are later found in more than half of the gametes produced by individuals heterozygous for the mutation, and for this reason the frequency of the mutation increases in the population.
588:
If a group of organisms, owing to their interactions or division of labor, provides superior fitness compared to other groups, where the fitness of the group is higher or lower than the mean fitness of the constituent individuals, group selection can be declared to occur.
549:, and is well understood and considered common. If a relatively faster gazelle manages to survive and reproduce more, the causation of the higher fitness of this gazelle can be fully accounted for if one looks at how individual gazelles fare under predation.
215:
Two useful introductions to the fundamental theory underlying the unit of selection issue and debate, which also present examples of multi-level selection from the entire range of the biological hierarchy (typically with entities at level
552:
The speed of the faster gazelle could be caused by a single gene, be polygenic, or be fully environmentally determined, but the unit of selection in this case is the individual since speed is a property of each individual gazelle.
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hypothesis, RNA sequences performing both enzymatic and information storage roles in autocatalytic sets were an early unit of selection and evolution that would later transition into living cells. It is possible that
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reflects the conflict between selective pressures acting at the level of the cell and those acting at the level of the multicellular individual. This perspective can shed new light on phenomena as diverse as
361:. In both of these cases, gene sequences increase their relative frequency in a population without necessarily providing benefits at other levels of organization. Meiotic-drive mutations (see
761:
Zee, Peter; Dyken, J. David Van; Bever, James D.; Richerson, Peter J.; Fletcher, Jeffrey A.; Linksvayer, Timothy A.; Breden, Felix; Fields, Peter; Edmund D. Brodie Iii (February 2010).
531:
Gene–culture coevolution was developed to explain how human behavior is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes: genetic evolution and cultural evolution.
477:
207:. There also is debate over the definition of the units themselves, and the roles for selection and replication, and whether these roles may change in the course of evolution.
961:
From
Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms. A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism
407:
also differ in their tendency to diversify and avoid loss during evolution. This latter form of selection more closely resembles clade selection of groups of species.
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184:. There is debate among evolutionary biologists about the extent to which evolution has been shaped by selective pressures acting at these different levels.
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Below, cases of selection at the genic, cellular, individual and group level from within the multi-level selection perspective are presented and discussed.
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There is debate over the relative importance of the units themselves. For instance, is it group or individual selection that has driven the evolution of
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alleles have also been shown strongly to reduce individual fitness, clearly exemplifying the potential conflict between selection at different levels.
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It remains controversial among biologists whether selection can operate at and above the level of species. Proponents of species selection include
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In the microbial realm, it has been interpreted that the unit of selection is a blend of ecological and functional behaviors, or
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with the gene as the unit of selection, arguing that a unit of selection should exhibit a high degree of permanence.
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1144:"Extended phenotype redux. How far can the reach of genes extend in manipulating the environment of an organism?"
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1041:"The RNA world hypothesis: The worst theory of the early evolution of life (except for all the others)a"
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195:, individual-centered explanations for the evolution of altruism become complex and rely on the use of
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220:-1 competing for increased representation, i.e., higher frequency, at the immediately higher level
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group-selected cooperation can always be cast within some broad-based individual selection model
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and are thus part of the same clade. This criticism does not apply to selection among different
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1640:"Lewontin's Living Legacy: Levels of Selection and Organismic Construction of the Environment"
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665:. If one views species as entities that replicate (speciate) and die (go extinct) within a
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and lost at different rates rather than speciating and going extinct at different rates.
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1095:"Differential Retention of Pfam Domains Contributes to Long-term Evolutionary Trends"
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Science and
Selection: Essays on biological evolution and the philosophy of science
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The gene-centered view of evolution normally refers to selection among different
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1415:"Ordering microbial diversity into ecologically and genetically cohesive units"
1414:
1304:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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is that they are not independent, i.e. all species are descended from the same
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is still taking place today. Other subcellular entities such as viruses, both
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248:. As a theoretical introduction to units of selection, Lewontin writes:
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1920:
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1474:
Genes, Organisms, Population: Controversies Over the Units of
Selection
1284:
616:
149:
1208:
353:
Some clear-cut examples of selection at the level of the gene include
3795:
2923:
2774:
2383:
2001:
1749:
546:
389:
385:
376:
224:, e.g., organisms in populations or cell lineages in organisms), are
1276:
268:
introduction to the debate. Three more recent introductions include
24:
4247:
4007:
3712:
2826:
2028:
1580:
The Nature of
Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus
1487:
514:
472:
188:
169:
1621:
4148:
2211:
1925:
1093:
James, Jennifer E; Nelson, Paul G; Masel, Joanna (4 April 2023).
461:
177:
16:
Biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organization
486:
400:
1564:, Greenwood Press (Reprinted Princeton University Press, 1994
2132:
1359:"Stephen Jay Gould on species selection: 30 years of insight"
730:
Hull, David L.; Langman, Rodney E.; Glenn, Sigrid S. (2001).
673:
666:
1378:
10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0113:SJGOSS]2.0.CO;2
1356:
545:
Selection at the level of the organism can be described as
161:
1263:
Vrba, Elisabeth S. (1984). "What is
Species Selection?".
1357:
Lieberman, Bruce S.; Vrba, Elisabeth S. (Spring 2005).
760:
725:
723:
1562:
The
Structure and Confirmation of Evolutionary Theory
963:. Universitaetsverlag Goettingen Press. p. 481.
556:
When speaking about individual organism evolution an
421:
Contribution of epigenetic modifications to evolution
262:
The
Structure and Confirmation of Evolutionary Theory
862:. In Dugatkin, Lee Alan; Reeve, Hudson Kern (eds.).
825:
763:"Multilevel and kin selection in a connected world"
720:
684:that are not evolutionarily related, and which are
657:processes which shape evolution, not driven by the
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
857:
731:
140:. Wilson himself compared his model to such a set.
1472:Brandon, Robert; Burian, Richard M. eds., (1984)
4343:
1092:
995:
958:
1413:Shapiro, B. Jesse; Polz, Martin F. (May 2014).
1300:"A theory of evolution above the species level"
893:Facts, Conventions, and the Levels of Selection
460:There is also view that evolution is acting on
278:Facts, Conventions, and the Levels of Selection
1607:Facts, Conventions and the Levels of Selection
136:Model, illustrated by a nested set of Russian
2988:
1693:
1661:, (Fall 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
1291:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1190:
1088:
1086:
709:
707:
604:
3002:
1412:
1193:"Cancer stem cells as 'units of selection'"
819:
733:"Chapter 3: A general account of selection"
2995:
2981:
1700:
1686:
1634:
1514:. Princeton University Press, Princeton. (
1141:
291:
1446:
1333:
1323:
1247:
1216:
1167:
1118:
1083:
1066:
1056:
1038:
802:
704:
346:where he explained that genes alone have
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
4159:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2934:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1707:
989:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
653:(1975). Gould proposed that there exist
417:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
191:? Where altruism reduces the fitness of
120:
1659:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1297:
1008:
889:
866:. Oxford University Press. p. 52.
851:
4344:
860:"§3.2.3 Category III: Group selection"
831:"The evolution of animal intelligence"
3651:Psychological effects of Internet use
2976:
2697:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
1681:
1599:Evolution and the levels of Selection
715:Evolution and the levels of selection
274:Evolution and the Levels of Selection
210:
1551:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
1534:. Oxford University Press, Oxford. (
1262:
952:
424:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
3631:Digital media use and mental health
1627:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
156:(for example, an entity such as: a
13:
3262:Automatic and controlled processes
2102:Evolutionary developmental biology
1582:. The University of Chicago Press.
325:was one of the first to present a
245:The Major Transitions in Evolution
14:
4368:
3671:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
1614:
890:Bourrat, Pierrick (August 2021).
833:. In Hookway, Christopher (ed.).
4322:
4309:
4297:
4296:
3696:Mobile phones and driving safety
2956:
2947:
2946:
1656:"Units and Levels of Selection."
1591:. Oxford University Press, 1998.
1511:Adaptation and Natural Selection
1241:"Group selection | biology"
593:selection of individual traits.
428:
322:Adaptation and Natural Selection
23:
3599:Computer-mediated communication
2759:Extended evolutionary synthesis
1948:Gene-centered view of evolution
1406:
1350:
1233:
1184:
1135:
1099:Molecular Biology and Evolution
1032:
864:Game Theory and Animal Behavior
672:One issue with selection among
327:gene-centered view of evolution
306:Gene-centered view of evolution
299:
152:entity within the hierarchy of
34:needs additional citations for
3876:Empathising–systemising theory
3179:female intrasexual competition
3116:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2887:Hologenome theory of evolution
2754:History of molecular evolution
1980:Evolutionarily stable strategy
1869:Last universal common ancestor
1622:"Altruism and Group Selection"
1492:The Evolution of Individuality
986:1970. The Units of Selection.
977:
883:
754:
740:. Cambridge University Press.
678:last universal common ancestor
541:Hologenome theory of evolution
508:
478:The Evolution of Individuality
1:
4236:Standard social science model
3289:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
2681:Renaissance and Enlightenment
1610:. Cambridge University Press.
1039:Bernhardt, Harold S. (2012).
835:Minds, Machines and Evolution
698:
494:and germ line sequestration.
4084:Missing heritability problem
3676:Social aspects of television
3299:Evolution of nervous systems
3267:Computational theory of mind
2892:Missing heritability problem
2519:Gamete differentiation/sexes
1476:. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. (
695:, beyond the species-level.
312:Missing heritability problem
253:ecosystems." (1970, pp. 1-2)
7:
4330:Evolutionary biology portal
1554:. Harvard University Press.
858:Dugatkin, Lee Alan (1998).
837:. CUP Archive. p. 64.
534:
403:of the same gene. However,
10:
4373:
4291:Evolutionary psychologists
4164:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
4079:Human–animal communication
3791:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
3641:Imprinted brain hypothesis
3609:Human–computer interaction
2524:Life cycles/nuclear phases
2076:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
1672:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
1601:. Oxford University Press.
1466:
717:. Oxford University Press.
614:
608:
577:
571:
538:
512:
481:proposes that much of the
414:
410:
309:
303:
276:, Pierrick Bourrat's book
4285:
4211:Environmental determinism
4182:Cultural selection theory
4174:
4069:Evolutionary epistemology
4056:
3983:evolutionary neuroscience
3945:
3938:
3836:
3711:
3656:Rank theory of depression
3579:
3503:
3405:
3211:
3204:
3158:Parent–offspring conflict
3067:
3010:
2942:
2842:
2767:
2671:
2598:
2554:
2409:
2313:
2130:
2089:
2022:Parent–offspring conflict
1958:
1827:Earliest known life forms
1748:
1715:
1669:"The objects of selection
1431:10.1016/j.tim.2014.02.006
1197:Evolutionary Applications
959:von Sydow, Momme (2012).
605:Species and higher levels
158:self-replicating molecule
4104:Cultural group selection
3988:Biocultural anthropology
3681:Societal impacts of cars
3614:Media naturalness theory
3304:Fight-or-flight response
2875:Cultural group selection
2739:The eclipse of Darwinism
2711:On the Origin of Species
2686:Transmutation of species
567:
564:must be also mentioned.
483:evolution of development
319:in his influential book
4304:Evolutionary psychology
4268:Sociocultural evolution
4109:Dual inheritance theory
3566:Personality development
3027:Theoretical foundations
3004:Evolutionary psychology
2880:Dual inheritance theory
2719:History of paleontology
523:Sociocultural evolution
519:Dual inheritance theory
505:as units of selection.
467:
292:Selection at each level
284:and Javier Suárez book
154:biological organization
4226:Social constructionism
4221:Psychological nativism
4196:Biological determinism
4144:Recent human evolution
4139:Punctuated equilibrium
3962:Behavioral epigenetics
3957:evolutionary economics
3926:Variability hypothesis
3871:Emotional intelligence
3604:Engineering psychology
3294:Evolution of the brain
2568:Punctuated equilibrium
1889:Non-adaptive radiation
1837:Evolutionary arms race
1419:Trends in Microbiology
1111:10.1093/molbev/msad073
1058:10.1186/1745-6150-7-23
1004:God's utility function
611:Punctuated equilibrium
363:segregation distortion
338:God's utility function
255:
231:The Units of Selection
141:
4253:Multilineal evolution
4216:Nature versus nurture
4175:Theoretical positions
4023:Functional psychology
4018:Evolutionary medicine
3993:Biological psychiatry
3701:Texting while driving
3691:Lead–crime hypothesis
3551:Cognitive development
3536:Caregiver deprivation
3047:Gene selection theory
2860:Evolutionary medicine
2734:Mendelian inheritance
2442:Biological complexity
2430:Programmed cell death
2122:Phenotypic plasticity
1842:Evolutionary pressure
1832:Evidence of evolution
1730:Timeline of evolution
1589:Evolutionary Genetics
1325:10.1073/pnas.72.2.646
1191:Greaves, Mel (2013).
1160:10.1038/embor.2009.18
902:10.1017/9781108885812
539:Further information:
513:Further information:
250:
242:'s co-authored book,
180:) that is subject to
124:
4352:Evolutionary biology
4206:Cultural determinism
4013:Evolutionary biology
3998:Cognitive psychology
3946:Academic disciplines
3594:Cognitive ergonomics
3561:Language acquisition
3541:Childhood attachment
3354:Wason selection task
3248:Behavioral modernity
3037:Cognitive revolution
3020:Evolutionary thought
2834:Teleology in biology
2729:Blending inheritance
2107:Genetic assimilation
1970:Artificial selection
1709:Evolutionary biology
1674:94 (March): 2091-94.
1372:(2 Suppl): 113–121.
1298:Stanley, SM (1975).
199:, for instance; see
43:improve this article
4357:Population genetics
4273:Unilineal evolution
4038:Population genetics
3823:Sexy son hypothesis
3761:Hormonal motivation
3741:Concealed ovulation
3282:Dual process theory
3153:Parental investment
2897:Molecular evolution
2855:Ecological genetics
2724:Transitional fossil
2514:Sexual reproduction
2354:endomembrane system
2283:pollinator-mediated
2239:dolphins and whales
2017:Parental investment
1644:Human Nature Review
1604:Bourrat, P. (2021)
1528:(1976; 1989; 2006)
1316:1975PNAS...72..646S
1142:Hunter, P. (2009).
827:Maynard Smith, John
787:10.1038/nature08809
779:2010Natur.463....8W
382:RNA-based evolution
132:'s 1994 Multilevel
58:"Unit of selection"
4231:Social determinism
4114:Fisher's principle
4074:Great ape language
4064:Cultural evolution
4033:Philosophy of mind
3866:Division of labour
3828:Westermarck effect
3776:Mating preferences
3686:Distracted driving
3420:Literary criticism
3277:Domain specificity
3257:modularity of mind
2870:Cultural evolution
1985:Fisher's principle
1914:Handicap principle
1904:Parallel evolution
1768:Adaptive radiation
1654:Lloyd, Elisabeth,
1546:Gould, Stephen Jay
1265:Systematic Zoology
713:Okasha, S. (2006)
661:mechanisms of the
584:Fisher's principle
580:Free-rider problem
558:extended phenotype
527:Cultural evolution
440:. You can help by
317:George C. Williams
286:Units of Selection
236:John Maynard-Smith
226:Richard Lewontin's
211:Fundamental theory
142:
126:David Sloan Wilson
4339:
4338:
4317:Psychology portal
4281:
4280:
4124:Hologenome theory
4094:Unit of selection
4089:Primate cognition
4003:Cognitive science
3934:
3933:
3805:Sexual attraction
3781:Mating strategies
3546:Cinderella effect
3476:Moral foundations
3380:Visual perception
3272:Domain generality
3241:Facial expression
3189:Sexual dimorphism
3148:Natural selection
3094:Hamiltonian spite
2970:
2969:
2586:Uniformitarianism
2539:Sex-determination
2044:Sexual dimorphism
2039:Natural selection
1943:Unit of selection
1909:Signalling theory
1586:Maynard Smith, J.
1482:978-0-262-02205-7
1209:10.1111/eva.12017
1015:River Out of Eden
984:Lewontin, Richard
659:microevolutionary
655:macroevolutionary
651:Steven M. Stanley
647:Stephen Jay Gould
503:cancer stem cells
458:
457:
375:According to the
348:utility functions
343:River Out of Eden
264:provides a basic
182:natural selection
146:unit of selection
119:
118:
111:
93:
4364:
4326:
4313:
4300:
4299:
3943:
3942:
3939:Related subjects
3726:Adult attachment
3253:Cognitive module
3209:
3208:
3196:Social selection
3170:Costly signaling
3165:Sexual selection
3052:Modern synthesis
2997:
2990:
2983:
2974:
2973:
2960:
2950:
2949:
2749:Modern synthesis
2509:Multicellularity
2504:Mosaic evolution
2389:auditory ossicle
2071:Social selection
2054:Flowering plants
2049:Sexual selection
1702:
1695:
1688:
1679:
1678:
1651:
1631:
1558:Lloyd, Elisabeth
1531:The Selfish Gene
1526:Dawkins, Richard
1461:
1460:
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1410:
1404:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1394:
1388:. Archived from
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1010:Dawkins, Richard
1001:See the chapter
999:
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663:Modern Synthesis
639:Richard Lewontin
453:
450:
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369:Retrotransposons
359:retrotransposons
138:matryoshka dolls
114:
107:
103:
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4340:
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4277:
4263:Neoevolutionism
4170:
4154:Species complex
4119:Group selection
4057:Research topics
4052:
4028:Neuropsychology
3930:
3916:Substance abuse
3838:Sex differences
3832:
3746:Coolidge effect
3707:
3619:Neuroergonomics
3584:
3575:
3499:
3401:
3335:Folk psychology
3216:
3200:
3070:
3063:
3006:
3001:
2971:
2966:
2938:
2865:Group selection
2838:
2763:
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2594:
2556:Tempo and modes
2550:
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2126:
2085:
1961:
1954:
1931:Species complex
1744:
1735:History of life
1711:
1706:
1620:
1617:
1506:Williams, G. C.
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1018:. Basic Books.
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773:(7283): E8–E9.
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625:Species complex
621:Species problem
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438:needs expansion
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258:Elisabeth Lloyd
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2705:Charles Darwin
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1894:Origin of life
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1879:Microevolution
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1874:Macroevolution
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1576:Sober, Elliott
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1425:(5): 235–247.
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1310:(2): 646–650.
1290:
1271:(3): 318–328.
1246:
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1203:(1): 102–108.
1183:
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1105:(4): msad073.
1082:
1045:Biology Direct
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1024:
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970:978-3863950064
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609:Main article:
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304:Main article:
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240:Eörs Szathmáry
228:classic piece
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3586:Mental health
3582:
3581:Human factors
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3571:Socialization
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3395:NaĂŻve physics
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3333:
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3327:
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3319:Ophidiophobia
3317:
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3309:Arachnophobia
3307:
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3297:
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3138:Kin selection
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2907:Phylogenetics
2905:
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2810:Structuralism
2808:
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2798:
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2786:
2785:Catastrophism
2783:
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2773:
2772:
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2744:Neo-Darwinism
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2658:Reinforcement
2656:
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2609:
2606:
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2597:
2591:
2590:Catastrophism
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:Macromutation
2578:
2577:Micromutation
2575:
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2497:
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2484:Immune system
2482:
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2344:symbiogenesis
2342:
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2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2012:Kin selection
2010:
2008:
2007:Genetic drift
2005:
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1596:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1578:(1984; 1993)
1577:
1574:
1571:
1570:0-691-00046-8
1567:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1540:0-19-286092-5
1537:
1533:
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1527:
1524:
1521:
1520:0-691-02615-7
1517:
1513:
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1504:
1501:
1500:0-691-08468-8
1497:
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1471:
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1454:
1449:
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1420:
1416:
1409:
1395:on 2012-09-18
1391:
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1035:
1027:
1025:0-465-06990-8
1021:
1017:
1016:
1011:
1006:
1005:
998:
991:
990:
985:
980:
972:
966:
962:
955:
947:
935:
921:
917:
913:
911:9781108885812
907:
903:
899:
895:
894:
886:
879:
875:
873:9780195350203
869:
865:
861:
854:
846:
844:9780521338288
840:
836:
832:
828:
822:
814:
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805:
800:
796:
792:
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780:
776:
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768:
764:
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749:
747:9780521644051
743:
739:
734:
726:
724:
716:
710:
708:
703:
696:
694:
689:
687:
683:
682:gene families
679:
675:
670:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
635:Sewall Wright
632:
626:
622:
618:
612:
602:
598:
594:
590:
585:
581:
575:
565:
563:
562:superorganism
559:
554:
550:
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532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
506:
504:
499:
495:
493:
488:
484:
480:
479:
474:
465:
463:
452:
443:
439:
436:This section
434:
431:
427:
426:
422:
418:
408:
406:
405:gene families
402:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
378:
373:
370:
366:
364:
360:
356:
355:meiotic drive
351:
349:
345:
344:
339:
334:
330:
328:
324:
323:
318:
313:
307:
297:
289:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:philosophical
263:
259:
254:
249:
247:
246:
241:
237:
233:
232:
227:
223:
219:
208:
206:
202:
201:kin selection
198:
194:
190:
185:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
139:
135:
131:
130:Elliott Sober
127:
123:
113:
110:
102:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67:
63:
60: –
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
4328:
4315:
4302:
4289:
4093:
4048:Sociobiology
3906:Neuroscience
3886:Intelligence
3432:Anthropology
3385:Color vision
3370:Multitasking
3349:Flynn effect
3344:Intelligence
3326:Folk biology
3069:Evolutionary
2919:Polymorphism
2902:Astrobiology
2850:Biogeography
2805:Saltationism
2795:Orthogenesis
2780:Alternatives
2709:
2695:
2628:Cospeciation
2623:Cladogenesis
2572:Saltationism
2529:Mating types
2452:Color vision
2437:Avian flight
2359:mitochondria
2097:Canalisation
1975:Biodiversity
1942:
1720:Introduction
1671:
1658:
1647:
1643:
1625:
1605:
1598:
1588:
1579:
1561:
1549:
1529:
1509:
1491:
1488:Buss, Leo W.
1473:
1422:
1418:
1408:
1397:. Retrieved
1390:the original
1369:
1366:Paleobiology
1365:
1352:
1307:
1303:
1293:
1268:
1264:
1235:
1200:
1196:
1186:
1154:(3): 212–5.
1151:
1147:
1137:
1102:
1098:
1048:
1044:
1034:
1014:
1002:
997:
988:
979:
960:
954:
923:. Retrieved
892:
885:
877:
863:
853:
834:
821:
770:
766:
756:
737:
714:
690:
671:
631:R. A. Fisher
628:
599:
595:
591:
587:
555:
551:
544:
530:
500:
496:
492:gastrulation
476:
475:in his book
471:
459:
446:
442:adding to it
437:
398:
374:
367:
352:
341:
331:
320:
315:
300:Nucleic acid
295:
285:
277:
273:
270:Samir Okasha
265:
261:
256:
251:
243:
229:
221:
217:
214:
192:
186:
145:
143:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
4187:Determinism
4099:Coevolution
4043:Primatology
3881:Gender role
3786:Orientation
3666:Screen time
3523:Affectional
3505:Development
3184:Mate choice
3111:By-products
3079:Adaptations
3042:Cognitivism
2929:Systematics
2800:Mutationism
2618:Catagenesis
2546:Snake venom
2479:Eusociality
2457:in primates
2447:Cooperation
2375:In animals
2195:butterflies
2168:Cephalopods
2158:Brachiopods
2090:Development
2064:Mate choice
1817:Convergence
1800:Coevolution
1758:Abiogenesis
1665:Mayr, Ernst
509:Behavioural
197:game theory
193:individuals
4346:Categories
4134:Population
4129:Lamarckism
3975:behavioral
3953:Behavioral
3901:Narcissism
3846:Aggression
3636:Hypophobia
3626:Depression
3513:Attachment
3495:Universals
3459:Psychology
3437:Biological
3425:Musicology
3415:Aesthetics
3314:Basophobia
3121:Exaptation
3099:Reciprocal
2790:Lamarckism
2768:Philosophy
2691:David Hume
2653:Peripatric
2648:Parapatric
2633:Ecological
2613:Anagenesis
2608:Allopatric
2600:Speciation
2564:Gradualism
2489:Metabolism
2349:chromosome
2339:Eukaryotes
2117:Modularity
2034:Population
1960:Population
1921:Speciation
1899:Panspermia
1852:Extinction
1847:Exaptation
1822:Divergence
1795:Cladistics
1783:Reciprocal
1763:Adaptation
1650:: 367–374.
1636:Dusek, Val
1595:Okasha, S.
1399:2012-07-08
925:2021-08-23
699:References
686:duplicated
617:Speciation
615:See also:
578:See also:
501:Some view
449:March 2018
310:See also:
150:biological
99:March 2018
69:newspapers
3979:cognitive
3971:Affective
3856:Cognition
3810:Sexuality
3796:Pair bond
3556:Education
3213:Cognition
3131:Inclusive
3071:processes
3059:Criticism
2924:Protocell
2775:Darwinism
2663:Sympatric
2412:processes
2300:Tetrapods
2249:Kangaroos
2175:Dinosaurs
2112:Inversion
2081:Variation
2002:Gene flow
1995:Inclusive
1805:Mutualism
1750:Evolution
1439:0966-842X
944:ignored (
934:cite book
920:238732212
795:1476-4687
547:Darwinism
394:do evolve
390:RNA-based
386:DNA-based
377:RNA world
134:Selection
4248:Memetics
4008:Ethology
3966:genetics
3801:Physical
3766:Jealousy
3721:Activity
3527:maternal
3483:Religion
3471:Morality
3449:Language
3330:taxonomy
3143:Mismatch
3089:Cheating
3084:Altruism
2952:Category
2827:Vitalism
2822:Theistic
2815:Spandrel
2499:Morality
2494:Monogamy
2369:plastids
2334:Flagella
2290:Reptiles
2271:sea cows
2254:primates
2163:Molluscs
2141:Bacteria
2029:Mutation
1962:genetics
1938:Taxonomy
1884:Mismatch
1864:Homology
1778:Cheating
1773:Altruism
1667:(1997).
1638:(2002).
1457:24630527
1386:14801676
1227:23396760
1178:19255576
1148:EMBO Rep
1129:36947137
1120:10089649
1077:22793875
1012:(1995).
992:1: 1-18.
829:(1986).
813:20164866
649:(1972);
641:(1970);
637:(1956);
633:(1929);
535:Organism
515:Memetics
473:Leo Buss
462:epigenes
272:'s book
260:'s book
189:altruism
176:, or a
170:organism
4149:Species
3921:Suicide
3756:Fantasy
3736:Arousal
3518:Bonding
3407:Culture
3231:Display
3218:Emotion
3126:Fitness
3015:History
2843:Related
2673:History
2534:Meiosis
2469:Empathy
2464:Emotion
2364:nucleus
2305:Viruses
2295:Spiders
2207:Mammals
2190:Insects
1990:Fitness
1926:Species
1725:Outline
1597:(2006)
1560:(1988)
1548:(2002)
1508:(1966)
1490:(1988)
1467:Sources
1448:4103024
1344:1054846
1312:Bibcode
1285:2413077
1218:3567475
1169:2658563
1068:3495036
804:3151728
775:Bibcode
487:animals
411:Epigene
401:alleles
178:species
83:scholar
4327:
4314:
4301:
3891:Memory
3851:Autism
3818:female
3751:Desire
3488:Origin
3464:Speech
3454:Origin
3226:Affect
2962:Portal
2638:Hybrid
2474:Ethics
2316:organs
2278:Plants
2264:lemurs
2259:humans
2244:horses
2234:hyenas
2222:wolves
2217:canids
2151:origin
1568:
1538:
1518:
1498:
1480:
1455:
1445:
1437:
1384:
1342:
1335:432371
1332:
1283:
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1117:
1075:
1065:
1051:: 23.
1022:
967:
918:
908:
870:
841:
811:
801:
793:
767:Nature
744:
693:guilds
674:clades
645:&
623:, and
525:, and
280:, and
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3861:Crime
3444:Crime
3375:Sleep
3365:skill
3205:Areas
2425:Death
2420:Aging
2399:brain
2185:Fungi
2146:Birds
2059:Fungi
1857:Event
1740:Index
1393:(PDF)
1382:S2CID
1362:(PDF)
1281:JSTOR
916:S2CID
667:clade
568:Group
174:group
168:, an
148:is a
90:JSTOR
76:books
3814:male
3175:Male
2912:Tree
2384:hair
2324:Cell
2227:dogs
2212:cats
2202:Life
2180:Fish
2133:taxa
1566:ISBN
1536:ISBN
1516:ISBN
1496:ISBN
1478:ISBN
1453:PMID
1435:ISSN
1340:PMID
1223:PMID
1174:PMID
1125:PMID
1073:PMID
1020:ISBN
965:ISBN
946:help
906:ISBN
868:ISBN
839:ISBN
809:PMID
791:ISSN
742:ISBN
582:and
560:and
468:Cell
419:and
388:and
357:and
238:and
234:and
203:and
172:, a
166:cell
164:, a
162:gene
160:, a
128:and
62:news
3713:Sex
3390:Eye
2410:Of
2379:eye
2329:DNA
2314:Of
2131:Of
1494:. (
1443:PMC
1427:doi
1374:doi
1330:PMC
1320:doi
1273:doi
1213:PMC
1205:doi
1164:PMC
1156:doi
1115:PMC
1107:doi
1063:PMC
1053:doi
1007:in
898:doi
799:PMC
783:doi
771:463
485:in
444:.
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144:A
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222:N
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