2195:
477:. Popper noticed that Einstein sought out data that would disprove his theories. He made predictions about future instances based upon the past, and then tried to learn more to test the validity of his hypothesis. Freud, on the other hand, selected data that could be shaped to fit his theories, and his theories were crafted to explain the past, not the future. For Popper, this clarified a key difference between science and pseudoscience.
2205:
296:) would not require conclusive verification (thus accommodating for universal generalizations) but allow for partial testability to establish "degrees of confirmation" on a probabilistic basis. Carnap never succeeded in formalizing his thesis despite employing abundant logical and mathematical tools for this purpose. In all of Carnap's formulations, a universal law's degree of confirmation is zero.
521:, whereby mental phenomena resolve to the material or physical and philosophical questions largely resolve to ones of language and meaning. In 1977, Ayer recognized that the verification principle was not widely accepted but acknowledged that it still held relevance and was being utilised. "The attitude of many philosophers reminds me of the relationship between Pip and Magwitch in
317:. This system espoused conclusive verification, yet accommodated for probabilistic inclusion where verifiability is inconclusive. Ayer also distinguished between practical and theoretical verifiability. Under the latter, propositions that cannot be verified in practice would still be meaningful if they can be verified in principle.
480:
Though falsificationism has been criticized extensively by philosophers for methodological shortcomings in its intended demarcation of science, Popper has been the only philosopher of science often praised by many scientists. Despite its problems, Popper's criterion was to ensure that scientific
256:
led a "conservative wing" that maintained a strict verificationism. Whereas
Schlick sought to reduce universal generalizations to frameworks of 'rules' from which verifiable statements can be derived, Hahn argued that the verifiability criterion should accommodate to less-than-conclusive
465:
Notably, the falsifiability criterion would allow for scientific hypotheses (expressed as universal generalizations) to be held as provisionally true until proven false by observation, whereas under verificationism they would be disqualified immediately as meaningless.
458:. Though formulated in the context of what he perceived were intractable problems in both verifiability and confirmability, Popper intended falsifiability, not as a criterion of meaning like verificationism (as commonly misunderstood), but as a criterion to
341:
Verificationism allows existential statements, like âunicorns existâ, to be classified as scientifically meaningful, despite the fact that there is no way of definitively showing that they are false and one could possibly find one somewhere not yet
333:
Verificationism rejects universal generalizations, like "all swans are white," as meaningless. Popper argues that while universal statements cannot be verified, they can be proven false, a foundation on which he was to propose his criterion of
329:, a graduate of the University of Vienna, though not a member within the ranks of the Vienna Circle, was among the foremost critics of verificationism. He identified three fundamental deficiencies in verifiability as a criterion of meaning:
1128:
516:
in the 1930s, was asked what he saw as its main defects, and answered that "nearly all of it was false". However, he soon said that he still held "the same general approach", referring to empiricism and
405:
that act as an interpretative framework for those observations. Those subscribed to different theories might thus report radically different observations, even when they observe the same phenomena.
357:'s thesis. Popper also found that some non-scientific, metaphysical, ethical and aesthetic statements were, indeed, rich in meaning and important in the origination of scientific theories.
386:(1950, 1951) demonstrated that the verifiability criterion was not justifiable in that it was too strong to accommodate key proceedings within science, such as general laws and
505:, a leading historian of 20th-century philosophy, wrote, "Logical positivism is dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever becomes". Logical positivism's fall heralded
509:, where Popper's view of human knowledge as hypothetical, continually growing and open to change ascended and verificationism, in academic circles, became mostly maligned.
1129:
https://go.openathens.net/redirector/umb.edu?url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Fedinburghilpl%2Flogical_positivism%2F0%3FinstitutionId%3D766
534:
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the general concept of verification criteriaâin forms that differed from those of the logical positivistsâwas defended by
620:
784:
Hahn, Hans, 1933, Logik, Mathematik und
Naturerkennen, Wien: Gerold, transl. "Logic, Mathematics, and Knowledge of Nature", in B. McGuiness 1987, pp. 24â45.
248:
led a faction seeking to make the verifiability criterion more inclusive, beginning a movement they referred to as the "liberalization of empiricism".
2745:
1157:
3192:
2648:
72:, as cognitively meaningless. Such statements may be meaningful in influencing emotions or behavior, but not in terms of conveying
2969:
1013:
953:
413:
17:
3197:
373:
2208:
1364:
345:
Verificationism is meaningless by virtue of its own criterion because it cannot be empirically verified. Thus the concept is
2241:
577:
1405:
1324:
226:
are empirically unverifiable, such that, under verificationism, vast domains of science and reason, such as scientific
164:
171:
conventions. This would be pivotal to verificationism, in that logic and mathematics would otherwise be classified as
3187:
2929:
2913:
2769:
1150:
829:
442:
848:
2921:
2309:
596:
572:
3182:
2785:
2135:
377:
155:
2993:
2329:
1829:
1309:
353:
Popper regarded scientific hypotheses to be never completely verifiable, as well as not "confirmable" under
3167:
2777:
2663:
2375:
2198:
1710:
1632:
1349:
1143:
637:
207:
3177:
2977:
2809:
2626:
567:
2937:
2833:
2817:
2801:
2601:
1410:
1304:
1036:
127:
3017:
2569:
2554:
2385:
2012:
1789:
1202:
1011:, sec "3.3 Reductionism and foundationalism: Two criticisms partly rebutted", in Edward N Zalta, ed,
305:
241:
84:
that emerged in the 1920s by philosophers who sought to unify philosophy and science under a common
3106:
2953:
2670:
2564:
2559:
2234:
1582:
1008:
418:
365:
223:
96:
Although earlier philosophical principles which aim to ground scientific theory in some verifiable
138:
whereby philosophical discourse would be, in their perception, as authoritative and meaningful as
41:, is the philosophical doctrine which asserts that a statement is meaningful only if it is either
3080:
2793:
2596:
2574:
2319:
1864:
992:
369:
85:
2504:
2470:
1448:
1420:
1395:
1197:
513:
394:
150:
104:
1111:
1040:
798:
720:
3001:
2621:
2606:
2510:
2091:
2047:
1546:
1359:
1207:
975:
909:
759:
688:
489:, catapulting Popper, initially a contentious misfit, to carry the richest philosophy out of
948:
671:
3009:
2680:
2643:
2544:
2539:
2475:
2334:
1269:
737:
547:
145:
Logical positivists garnered the verifiability criterion of cognitive meaningfulness from
8:
3172:
3148:
2985:
2433:
2416:
2370:
2360:
2227:
1913:
1844:
1622:
1453:
1435:
1399:
1319:
1274:
1264:
1166:
459:
387:
326:
146:
123:
81:
775:, 19: 145â162; transl. "Causality in Contemporary Physics" in Schlick 1979b, pp. 176â209
3070:
3060:
2861:
2737:
2611:
2532:
2496:
2304:
2086:
1804:
1761:
1730:
1720:
1680:
1538:
1518:
1379:
1339:
1334:
1259:
1033:
Karl Popper: The
Formative Years, 1902â1945: Politics and Philosophy in Interwar Vienna
711:
Karl Popper, ch 4, subch "Science: Conjectures and refutations", in Andrew Bailey, ed,
527:
408:
383:
346:
253:
172:
77:
2171:
3035:
2851:
2727:
1900:
1890:
1824:
1705:
1640:
1374:
1279:
139:
50:
2876:
1923:
3040:
2961:
2945:
2825:
2390:
2299:
1976:
1953:
1943:
1766:
1715:
1612:
1468:
732:
Despite Hume's radical empiricism, set forth near 1740, Hume was also committed to
535:
469:
In formulating his criterion, Popper was informed by the contrasting approaches of
160:
2871:
3055:
3050:
2631:
2586:
2421:
2339:
2127:
2107:
2081:
2055:
1948:
1938:
1918:
1650:
1617:
1508:
1493:
1344:
1329:
1249:
1228:
716:
683:
Miran
Epstein, ch 2 "Introduction to philosophy of science", in Clive Seale, ed,
539:
522:
512:
In a 1976 TV interview, A. J. Ayer, who had introduced logical positivism to the
470:
422:
376:
in that they reduced ultimately to circular reasoning. This served to uproot the
274:
203:
115:
108:
222:
recognized quickly that the verifiability criterion was too stringent. Notably,
2717:
2658:
2491:
2426:
2411:
2314:
2155:
2037:
1908:
1839:
1834:
1799:
1700:
1597:
1566:
1551:
1513:
1503:
1458:
1233:
543:
506:
486:
451:
435:
335:
249:
1077:
257:
verifiability. Among other ideas espoused by the liberalization movement were
3161:
2896:
2891:
2866:
2675:
2616:
2527:
2455:
2380:
2176:
2145:
2032:
2027:
1997:
1963:
1933:
1928:
1859:
1854:
1784:
1776:
1753:
1660:
1607:
1498:
1463:
1425:
1354:
1254:
1223:
555:
551:
502:
474:
354:
266:
245:
233:
219:
199:
187:
131:
2140:
2007:
531:. They have lived on the money, but are ashamed to acknowledge its source".
397:
explained that direct observations are never truly neutral in that they are
2751:
2549:
2480:
2440:
2268:
2065:
1981:
1849:
1794:
1743:
1690:
1685:
1645:
1592:
1561:
1556:
1528:
1488:
1415:
1299:
1192:
1123:
Chapman, S. (2009). Logical positivism. In S. Chapman, & C. Routledge,
1004:
733:
518:
398:
237:
135:
111:
76:, information, or factual content. Verificationism was a central thesis of
3075:
3065:
3045:
2465:
2445:
2355:
2278:
2150:
2117:
2112:
2060:
2022:
2017:
2002:
1971:
1885:
1695:
1665:
1655:
1602:
1587:
1523:
1187:
282:
270:
258:
73:
57:
1053:
360:
Other philosophers also voiced their own criticisms of verificationism:
2886:
2881:
2856:
2636:
2460:
2324:
2273:
2250:
1869:
1738:
1675:
1670:
1369:
482:
300:
278:
262:
227:
195:
191:
183:
179:
101:
97:
69:
42:
1135:
877:
3127:
3113:
3111:
3101:
3085:
2653:
2591:
2450:
2283:
1443:
1314:
1107:
1104:
Philosophy of
Science, Logic and Mathematics in the Twentieth Century
1079:
Karl Popper, Science, & Pseudoscience: Crash Course
Philosophy #8
971:
667:
168:
771:
Moritz
Schlick, 1931, "Die KausalitÀt in der gegenwÀrtigen Physik",
2365:
923:
490:
425:, a theory commonly, if erroneously, attributed to verificationism.
402:
61:
1102:
Oswald
Hanfling, ch 5 "Logical positivism", in Stuart G Shanker,
713:
First
Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy
906:
Theory and
Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science
811:
2581:
65:
758:, Volume 1: AâM (New York: Routledge, 2006), "Rudolf Carnap",
736:, and apparently did not take his own skepticism, such as the
460:
demarcate scientific statements from non-scientific statements
175:
knowledge and defined as "meaningless" under verificationism.
3120:
2219:
924:"Willard Van Orman Quine: The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction"
46:
968:
Beyond Positivism: Economic Methodology in the 20th Century
1125:
Key ideas in linguistics and the philosophy of language
198:
of the latter twoâthey borrowed some perspectives from
485:
and logical positivists adopted Popper's criterion of
288:
In 1936, Carnap sought a switch from verification to
372:, found no suitable explanations for the concept of
167:
in a way that would reduce mathematics and logic to
797:, rev 2nd edn (New York: St Martin's Press, 1984),
309:, in which he proposed two types of verification:
3159:
989:Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction
900:
898:
750:
748:
746:
421:âcritically undermined confidence in scientific
1127:. Edinburgh University Press. Credo Reference:
2746:Fourth Great Debate in international relations
908:(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005),
165:reformulate the analyticâsynthetic distinction
2698:
2235:
1151:
895:
743:
687:, 3rd edn (London: Sage Publications, 2012),
3125:
2735:
2725:
2715:
2431:
787:
1098:
1096:
1094:
2242:
2228:
1158:
1144:
1027:
1025:
1023:
804:
756:The Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia
664:Verificationism: Its History and Prospects
202:, and found the exemplar of science to be
2649:Relationship between religion and science
1054:"Popper's Account of Scientific Theories"
754:Sahotra Sarkar and Jessica Pfeifer, eds,
1091:
849:"Ayer on the criterion of verifiability"
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
481:theory was henceforth to be anchored in
2970:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
1434:
1165:
1020:
1014:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
954:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
871:
869:
658:
656:
654:
652:
650:
414:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
45:verifiable (i.e. confirmed through the
14:
3160:
2325:Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)
941:
765:
740:, as drastically as others later did .
677:
299:That same year saw the publication of
100:are found within the work of American
56:Verificationism rejects statements of
2697:
2223:
1139:
694:
292:. Carnap's confirmability criterion (
878:"Karl Popper: Philosophy of Science"
866:
827:
778:
647:
636:Editors of EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica,
578:Semantic anti-realism (epistemology)
417:âwhich discussed paradigm shifts in
928:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
921:
882:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
816:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
24:
2602:Nomotheticâidiographic distinction
1046:
39:verifiability criterion of meaning
25:
3209:
2930:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
2914:Materialism and Empirio-criticism
2770:The Course in Positive Philosophy
715:, 2nd edn (Peterborough Ontario:
443:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
429:
230:, would be rendered meaningless.
3193:Meaning (philosophy of language)
2203:
2194:
2193:
875:
401:. ie. Influenced by a system of
2922:History and Class Consciousness
1117:
1070:
998:
981:
960:
915:
841:
821:
685:Researching Society and Culture
644:, Website accessed 12 Mar 2014.
218:Logical positivists within the
2786:Critical History of Philosophy
2249:
1406:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
726:
630:
621:"Logical Positivism Revisited"
613:
589:
13:
1:
3198:Meaning in religious language
2994:Knowledge and Human Interests
2330:Rankean historical positivism
320:
49:) or a truth of logic (e.g.,
3112:
2778:A General View of Positivism
573:Newton's flaming laser sword
388:limits in infinite sequences
213:
208:general theory of relativity
7:
2978:Conjectures and Refutations
2810:The Logic of Modern Physics
2627:Deductive-nomological model
812:"Rudolf Carnap (1891â1970)"
568:Epistemic theories of truth
561:
380:pivotal to verificationism.
378:analytic/synthetic division
10:
3214:
2938:The Poverty of Historicism
2834:The Universe in a Nutshell
2818:Language, Truth, and Logic
2802:The Analysis of Sensations
1305:Causal theory of reference
1037:Cambridge University Press
831:Language, Truth, and Logic
795:A Dictionary of Philosophy
433:
411:'s landmark book of 1962,
178:Seeking grounding in such
91:
3146:
3094:
3028:
3018:The Rhetoric of Economics
2905:
2844:
2761:
2708:
2704:
2699:Positivist-related debate
2693:
2520:
2489:
2404:
2348:
2292:
2261:
2257:
2189:
2164:
2126:
2100:
2074:
2046:
1990:
1962:
1899:
1878:
1817:
1775:
1752:
1729:
1631:
1575:
1537:
1481:
1388:
1292:
1242:
1216:
1180:
1173:
951:, in Edward N Zalta, ed,
638:"Verifiability principle"
496:
306:Language, Truth and Logic
224:universal generalizations
3188:Epistemological theories
2954:Two Dogmas of Empiricism
2671:Structural functionalism
2597:Naturalism in literature
1365:Scientific structuralism
773:Die Naturwissen-schaften
597:"verification principle"
583:
366:Two Dogmas of Empiricism
134:in the 1920s, sought an
3081:Willard Van Orman Quine
2794:Idealism and Positivism
2386:Critique of metaphysics
2320:Sociological positivism
993:Oxford University Press
642:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
370:Willard Van Orman Quine
153:posed in his 1921 book
126:who, emerging from the
18:Verifiability (science)
3126:
3095:Concepts in contention
2736:
2726:
2716:
2607:Objectivity in science
2505:Non-Euclidean geometry
2471:Methodological dualism
2432:
1421:Reflective equilibrium
1031:Malachi Haim Hacohen,
514:English-speaking world
151:philosophy of language
35:verification principle
27:Philosophical doctrine
3183:Metatheory of science
3002:The Poverty of Theory
2622:Philosophy of science
2511:Uncertainty principle
2092:Nicholas Wolterstorff
1547:David Malet Armstrong
904:Peter Godfrey-Smith,
88:theory of knowledge.
3010:The Scientific Image
2681:Structuration theory
2644:Qualitative research
2545:Criticism of science
2540:Critical rationalism
2476:Problem of induction
738:problem of induction
548:Christopher Peacocke
122:was launched by the
33:, also known as the
3168:Analytic philosophy
2986:One-Dimensional Man
2434:Geisteswissenschaft
2417:Confirmation holism
1914:Patricia Churchland
1845:Christine Korsgaard
1731:Logical positivists
1623:Ludwig Wittgenstein
1400:paradox of analysis
1167:Analytic philosophy
970:, rev edn (London:
922:Rocknak, Stefanie.
828:Ayer, A.J. (1936).
419:fundamental physics
147:Ludwig Wittgenstein
124:logical positivists
107:and that of French
82:analytic philosophy
3178:Logical positivism
3061:Hans-Georg Gadamer
2862:Alexander Bogdanov
2738:Positivismusstreit
2533:Post-behavioralism
2497:history of science
2349:Principal concepts
2305:Logical positivism
2087:William Lane Craig
1805:Friedrich Waismann
1762:Carl Gustav Hempel
1721:Timothy Williamson
1681:Alasdair MacIntyre
1539:Australian realism
1519:Russ Shafer-Landau
1380:Analytical Thomism
1335:Logical positivism
1017:(Summer 2012 edn).
854:. 29 November 2007
528:Great Expectations
364:The 1951 article "
254:Friedrich Waismann
173:synthetic a priori
78:logical positivism
3155:
3154:
3142:
3141:
3138:
3137:
3036:Theodor W. Adorno
2852:Richard Avenarius
2728:Werturteilsstreit
2689:
2688:
2637:Sense-data theory
2335:Polish positivism
2310:Positivist school
2217:
2216:
2185:
2184:
1901:Pittsburgh School
1891:Peter van Inwagen
1825:Roderick Chisholm
1813:
1812:
1706:Richard Swinburne
1641:G. E. M. Anscombe
1477:
1476:
1375:Analytic theology
1350:Ordinary language
1288:
1287:
399:laden with theory
140:empirical science
118:, the project of
16:(Redirected from
3205:
3131:
3117:
3041:Gaston Bachelard
2962:Truth and Method
2946:World Hypotheses
2826:The Two Cultures
2741:
2731:
2721:
2706:
2705:
2695:
2694:
2437:
2391:Unity of science
2300:Legal positivism
2259:
2258:
2244:
2237:
2230:
2221:
2220:
2207:
2206:
2197:
2196:
2136:Nancy Cartwright
1977:Nicholas Rescher
1954:Bas van Fraassen
1944:Nicholas Rescher
1767:Hans Reichenbach
1750:
1749:
1716:Bernard Williams
1613:Bertrand Russell
1535:
1534:
1469:Rigid designator
1432:
1431:
1178:
1177:
1174:Related articles
1160:
1153:
1146:
1137:
1136:
1131:
1121:
1115:
1100:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1064:
1050:
1044:
1029:
1018:
1002:
996:
985:
979:
966:Bruce Caldwell,
964:
958:
945:
939:
938:
936:
934:
919:
913:
902:
893:
892:
890:
888:
873:
864:
863:
861:
859:
853:
845:
839:
838:
836:
825:
819:
808:
802:
791:
785:
782:
776:
769:
763:
752:
741:
730:
724:
709:
692:
681:
675:
660:
645:
634:
628:
627:
625:
617:
611:
610:
608:
607:
601:Oxford Reference
593:
536:Bas van Fraassen
456:falsificationism
450:Popper proposed
194:âalong with the
161:Bertrand Russell
80:, a movement in
21:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3134:
3090:
3056:Paul Feyerabend
3051:Wilhelm Dilthey
3024:
2901:
2840:
2757:
2700:
2685:
2632:Ramsey sentence
2587:Instrumentalism
2516:
2494:
2492:paradigm shifts
2485:
2422:Critical theory
2400:
2396:Verificationism
2344:
2340:Russian Machism
2288:
2253:
2248:
2218:
2213:
2204:
2181:
2172:Jan Ćukasiewicz
2160:
2128:Stanford School
2122:
2108:Paul Feyerabend
2096:
2082:Alvin Plantinga
2070:
2056:James F. Conant
2042:
1986:
1958:
1949:Wilfrid Sellars
1939:Alexander Pruss
1919:Paul Churchland
1895:
1874:
1830:Donald Davidson
1809:
1771:
1748:
1725:
1651:Michael Dummett
1627:
1618:Frank P. Ramsey
1571:
1533:
1509:Jaakko Hintikka
1494:Keith Donnellan
1473:
1430:
1384:
1345:Neurophilosophy
1330:Logical atomism
1284:
1238:
1212:
1169:
1164:
1134:
1122:
1118:
1101:
1092:
1084:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1062:
1060:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1030:
1021:
1009:"Vienna Circle"
1003:
999:
986:
982:
965:
961:
946:
942:
932:
930:
920:
916:
903:
896:
886:
884:
876:Shea, Brendan.
874:
867:
857:
855:
851:
847:
846:
842:
837:. pp. 6â7.
834:
826:
822:
809:
805:
793:Antony G Flew,
792:
788:
783:
779:
770:
766:
753:
744:
731:
727:
717:Broadview Press
710:
695:
682:
678:
661:
648:
635:
631:
623:
619:
618:
614:
605:
603:
595:
594:
590:
586:
564:
540:Michael Dummett
499:
471:Albert Einstein
438:
432:
423:foundationalism
403:presuppositions
323:
294:confirmationism
275:foundationalism
216:
204:Albert Einstein
120:verificationism
116:instrumentalism
114:, who fostered
109:conventionalist
94:
31:Verificationism
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3211:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3153:
3152:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3140:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3123:
3118:
3109:
3104:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3032:
3030:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3022:
3014:
3006:
2998:
2990:
2982:
2974:
2966:
2958:
2950:
2942:
2934:
2926:
2918:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2877:Ămile Durkheim
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2848:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2830:
2822:
2814:
2806:
2798:
2790:
2782:
2774:
2765:
2763:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2733:
2723:
2718:Methodenstreit
2712:
2710:
2702:
2701:
2691:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2659:Social science
2656:
2651:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2619:
2614:
2612:Operationalism
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2524:
2522:
2521:Related topics
2518:
2517:
2515:
2514:
2508:
2501:
2499:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2429:
2427:Falsifiability
2424:
2419:
2414:
2412:Antipositivism
2408:
2406:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2352:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2315:Postpositivism
2312:
2307:
2302:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2265:
2263:
2255:
2254:
2247:
2246:
2239:
2232:
2224:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2201:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2156:Patrick Suppes
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2132:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2052:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2038:Michael Walzer
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1968:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1924:Adolf GrĂŒnbaum
1921:
1916:
1911:
1909:Robert Brandom
1905:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1865:W. V. O. Quine
1862:
1857:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1840:Nelson Goodman
1837:
1835:Daniel Dennett
1832:
1827:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1800:Moritz Schlick
1797:
1792:
1787:
1781:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1769:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1747:
1746:
1741:
1735:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1711:Charles Taylor
1708:
1703:
1701:P. F. Strawson
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1600:
1598:Norman Malcolm
1595:
1590:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1567:J. J. C. Smart
1564:
1559:
1554:
1552:David Chalmers
1549:
1543:
1541:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1514:Giuseppe Peano
1511:
1506:
1504:Edmund Gettier
1501:
1496:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1459:Possible world
1456:
1451:
1446:
1440:
1438:
1429:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1411:Counterfactual
1408:
1403:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1307:
1302:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1283:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1270:Paraconsistent
1267:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1213:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1184:
1182:
1181:Areas of focus
1175:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1162:
1155:
1148:
1140:
1133:
1132:
1116:
1090:
1069:
1045:
1019:
997:
987:Samir Okasha,
980:
959:
957:(Spring 2013).
947:James Fetzer,
940:
914:
894:
865:
840:
820:
818:, 12 Apr 2001.
803:
786:
777:
764:
742:
725:
693:
676:
646:
629:
612:
587:
585:
582:
581:
580:
575:
570:
563:
560:
558:, and others.
544:Crispin Wright
507:postpositivism
498:
495:
487:falsifiability
452:falsifiability
436:Falsifiability
434:Main article:
431:
430:Falsifiability
428:
427:
426:
406:
395:Norwood Hanson
391:
381:
351:
350:
347:self-defeating
343:
339:
336:falsifiability
322:
319:
250:Moritz Schlick
215:
212:
159:, and, led by
93:
90:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3210:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3163:
3150:
3145:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3071:György Lukåcs
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2996:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2987:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2951:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2904:
2898:
2897:Vienna Circle
2895:
2893:
2892:Berlin Circle
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2872:Eugen DĂŒhring
2870:
2868:
2867:Auguste Comte
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2835:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2823:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2812:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2803:
2799:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:Contributions
2760:
2753:
2750:
2747:
2744:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2730:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2692:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:Structuralism
2674:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2617:Phenomenalism
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2529:
2528:Behavioralism
2526:
2525:
2523:
2519:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2457:
2456:Human science
2454:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2435:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2381:Pseudoscience
2379:
2377:
2376:Justification
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2353:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2245:
2240:
2238:
2233:
2231:
2226:
2225:
2222:
2210:
2202:
2200:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2178:
2177:Alfred Tarski
2175:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2146:Peter Galison
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2125:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2033:Nathan Salmon
2031:
2029:
2028:Richard Rorty
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1998:Alonzo Church
1996:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1934:Ruth Millikan
1932:
1930:
1929:John McDowell
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1860:Hilary Putnam
1858:
1856:
1855:Robert Nozick
1853:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1785:Rudolf Carnap
1783:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1777:Vienna Circle
1774:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1754:Berlin Circle
1751:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1728:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1661:Philippa Foot
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1611:
1609:
1608:Graham Priest
1606:
1604:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1589:
1588:Charlie Broad
1586:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1499:Gottlob Frege
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1427:
1426:Supervenience
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1328:
1326:
1325:Functionalism
1323:
1321:
1318:
1316:
1313:
1311:
1310:Descriptivism
1308:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1278:
1276:
1275:Philosophical
1273:
1271:
1268:
1266:
1265:Non-classical
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1241:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1222:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1141:
1138:
1130:
1126:
1120:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1081:
1080:
1073:
1059:
1055:
1049:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1001:
995:, 2002) ch 5.
994:
990:
984:
977:
973:
969:
963:
956:
955:
950:
949:"Carl Hempel"
944:
929:
925:
918:
911:
907:
901:
899:
883:
879:
872:
870:
850:
844:
833:
832:
824:
817:
813:
807:
800:
796:
790:
781:
774:
768:
761:
757:
751:
749:
747:
739:
735:
729:
722:
718:
714:
708:
706:
704:
702:
700:
698:
690:
686:
680:
673:
669:
665:
662:C. J. Misak,
659:
657:
655:
653:
651:
643:
639:
633:
622:
616:
602:
598:
592:
588:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
565:
559:
557:
556:Richard Rorty
553:
552:David Wiggins
549:
545:
541:
537:
532:
530:
529:
524:
520:
515:
510:
508:
504:
503:John Passmore
494:
492:
488:
484:
478:
476:
475:Sigmund Freud
472:
467:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
444:
437:
424:
420:
416:
415:
410:
407:
404:
400:
396:
392:
389:
385:
382:
379:
375:
371:
367:
363:
362:
361:
358:
356:
355:Rudolf Carnap
348:
344:
340:
337:
332:
331:
330:
328:
318:
316:
312:
308:
307:
302:
297:
295:
291:
286:
284:
280:
277:, as well as
276:
272:
268:
267:phenomenalism
264:
260:
255:
251:
247:
246:Philipp Frank
243:
239:
235:
234:Rudolf Carnap
231:
229:
225:
221:
220:Vienna Circle
211:
209:
205:
201:
200:Immanuel Kant
197:
193:
189:
188:Auguste Comte
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
157:
152:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
132:Vienna Circle
129:
128:Berlin Circle
125:
121:
117:
113:
110:
106:
103:
99:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
54:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3016:
3008:
3000:
2992:
2984:
2976:
2968:
2960:
2952:
2944:
2936:
2928:
2920:
2912:
2832:
2824:
2816:
2808:
2800:
2792:
2784:
2776:
2768:
2752:Science wars
2550:Epistemology
2481:Reflectivism
2441:Hermeneutics
2395:
2293:Declinations
2269:Antihumanism
2262:Perspectives
2066:Cora Diamond
1982:Morton White
1850:Thomas Nagel
1795:Otto Neurath
1744:Ernest Nagel
1691:Gilbert Ryle
1686:Derek Parfit
1646:J. L. Austin
1593:Casimir Lewy
1562:Peter Singer
1557:J. L. Mackie
1529:Barry Stroud
1489:Noam Chomsky
1482:Philosophers
1416:Natural kind
1300:Anti-realism
1260:Mathematical
1234:Performative
1193:Epistemology
1124:
1119:
1103:
1083:, retrieved
1078:
1072:
1061:. Retrieved
1057:
1048:
1035:(Cambridge:
1032:
1012:
1005:Thomas Uebel
1000:
988:
983:
967:
962:
952:
943:
931:. Retrieved
927:
917:
905:
885:. Retrieved
881:
856:. Retrieved
843:
830:
823:
815:
810:Mauro Murzi
806:
794:
789:
780:
772:
767:
755:
734:common sense
728:
712:
684:
679:
663:
641:
632:
615:
604:. Retrieved
600:
591:
533:
526:
519:reductionism
511:
500:
479:
468:
464:
455:
447:
441:
439:
412:
359:
352:
325:Philosopher
324:
314:
310:
304:
298:
293:
290:confirmation
289:
287:
238:Otto Neurath
232:
217:
177:
163:, sought to
154:
144:
136:epistemology
119:
112:Pierre Duhem
95:
86:naturalistic
55:
38:
34:
30:
29:
3107:Objectivity
3076:Karl Popper
3066:Thomas Kuhn
3046:Mario Bunge
2797:(1879â1884)
2732:(1909â1959)
2466:Metaphysics
2446:Historicism
2361:Demarcation
2356:Consilience
2279:Rationalism
2165:Lwow-Warsaw
2151:Ian Hacking
2118:Karl Popper
2113:Thomas Kuhn
2061:Alice Crary
2023:Saul Kripke
2018:Jaegwon Kim
2013:David Lewis
2003:Jerry Fodor
1972:Susan Haack
1886:Robert Audi
1696:John Searle
1666:Peter Geach
1656:Antony Flew
1603:G. E. Moore
1524:Ernest Sosa
1454:Possibility
1203:Mathematics
1188:Metaphysics
991:(New York:
666:(New York:
409:Thomas Kuhn
384:Carl Hempel
374:analyticity
327:Karl Popper
283:fallibilism
271:coherentism
259:physicalism
105:C.S. Peirce
74:truth value
58:metaphysics
51:tautologies
43:empirically
3173:Empiricism
3162:Categories
2887:Ernst Mach
2882:Ernst Laas
2857:A. J. Ayer
2845:Proponents
2664:Philosophy
2461:Humanities
2405:Antitheses
2274:Empiricism
2251:Positivism
2141:John Dupré
2008:Kurt Gödel
1964:Pragmatism
1879:Notre Dame
1870:John Rawls
1739:A. J. Ayer
1676:R. M. Hare
1671:Paul Grice
1583:Arif Ahmed
1370:Sense data
1355:Pragmatism
1229:Linguistic
1112:pp. 193â94
1085:2023-07-10
1063:2023-07-10
1058:www.sfu.ca
1041:pp. 212â13
721:pp. 338â42
606:2023-07-09
483:empiricism
342:inspected.
321:Criticisms
301:A. J. Ayer
279:pragmatism
228:hypothesis
196:positivism
192:Ernst Mach
184:David Hume
180:empiricism
169:semantical
102:pragmatist
98:experience
70:aesthetics
3128:Verstehen
3114:Phronesis
3102:Knowledge
3086:Max Weber
2906:Criticism
2654:Sociology
2592:Modernism
2570:pluralism
2555:anarchism
2451:Historism
2371:Induction
2284:Scientism
1991:Princeton
1790:Hans Hahn
1576:Cambridge
1449:Necessity
1444:Actualism
1315:Emotivism
1280:Predicate
1250:Classical
1110:, 1996),
1108:Routledge
1106:(London:
1039:, 2000),
976:pp. 47â48
974:, 1994),
972:Routledge
910:pp. 57â59
801:, p. 245.
799:"Neurath"
719:, 2011),
689:pp. 18â19
670:, 1995),
668:Routledge
501:In 1967,
393:In 1958,
303:'s work,
242:Hans Hahn
214:Revisions
156:Tractatus
3149:Category
2565:nihilism
2560:idealism
2490:Related
2366:Evidence
2199:Category
2075:Reformed
2048:Quietism
1436:Modality
1396:Analysis
1389:Concepts
1360:Quietism
1320:Feminism
1293:Theories
1198:Language
933:July 14,
562:See also
493:Vienna.
491:interwar
130:and the
62:theology
3029:Critics
2754:(1990s)
2748:(1980s)
2742:(1960s)
2722:(1890s)
2575:realism
2507:(1830s)
2495:in the
2101:Science
1818:Harvard
1464:Realism
1340:Marxism
1255:Deviant
1224:Aretaic
1208:Science
887:May 12,
672:p. viii
523:Dickens
261:, over
92:Origins
37:or the
3021:(1986)
3013:(1980)
3005:(1978)
2997:(1968)
2989:(1964)
2981:(1963)
2973:(1962)
2965:(1960)
2957:(1951)
2949:(1942)
2941:(1936)
2933:(1934)
2925:(1923)
2917:(1909)
2837:(2001)
2829:(1959)
2821:(1936)
2813:(1927)
2805:(1886)
2789:(1869)
2781:(1848)
2773:(1830)
2709:Method
2582:Holism
2513:(1927)
1633:Oxford
858:9 July
497:Legacy
446:(1959)
368:", by
311:strong
190:, and
182:as of
68:, and
66:ethics
47:senses
3121:Truth
2209:Index
1243:Logic
1217:Turns
852:(PDF)
835:(PDF)
760:p. 83
624:(PDF)
584:Notes
454:, or
273:over
935:2024
889:2019
860:2023
473:and
315:weak
313:and
281:and
263:Mach
252:and
244:and
525:'s
440:In
265:'s
206:'s
149:'s
53:).
3164::
1093:^
1056:.
1022:^
1007:,
926:.
897:^
880:.
868:^
814:,
745:^
696:^
649:^
640:,
599:.
554:,
550:,
546:,
542:,
538:,
462:.
285:.
269:,
240:,
236:,
210:.
186:,
142:.
64:,
60:,
2243:e
2236:t
2229:v
1402:)
1398:(
1159:e
1152:t
1145:v
1114:.
1066:.
1043:.
978:.
937:.
912:.
891:.
862:.
762:.
723:.
691:.
674:.
626:.
609:.
448:,
390:.
349:.
338:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.