Violeta Chamorro - Knowledge

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fathers and husbands more than of the women themselves; for example, the penalty for "kidnapping of a virgin when her guardians were away or without violence" depended on whether marriage was intended. Victoria González-Rivera writes that prior to the 1992 changes, rape had been considered a private affair, and the law encouraged women to marry their rapists or accept a monetary settlement. UNO women and FSLN women in the National Assembly joined forces after Chamorro won the election and formed a Commission on Women, Youth, Children and the Family; they began to discuss reform of the sexual crimes law. Convincing 18 bipartisan legislators to introduce a reform, they asked for increasing penalties for rape (to 15 to 20 years), decriminalization for abortion if the pregnancy was the result of rape, and decriminalization of consensual sodomy. When the final bill passed, the approved version eliminated the exception for abortion for rape victims. Not only did it not decriminalize sodomy, but it increased the scope of the existing law to include "inducing, promoting or propagandizing" homosexual conduct. The new anti-sodomy law was the most repressive law of its type in Latin America, changing the imposed sentence for "anyone who induces, promotes, propagandizes, or practices sex among persons of the same sex in a scandalous manner" to as much as three years in prison. Chamorro rejected calls to veto the law and sent it for publication in

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was prohibited by law. Congress finally agreed to the $ 9 million package, only as per the legal requirements—meaning funds could only be used for election monitoring and observers, drives to increase voter turnout and must be fully disclosed. These funds were earmarked for building voting infrastructure, for vehicles and gasoline, salaries, poll watchers, office equipment, trips abroad to train poll workers and those registering voters, election monitoring teams, and as per the provision of foreign donations, $ 2 million was paid into the Nicaraguan Supreme Electoral Council run by the government. In addition, the CIA covertly paid close to $ 500,000 (USD) to nearly a hundred Nicaraguans living abroad so they would return home to vote. The aid package ran into difficulties though: one month before the elections, only $ 400,000 of the money had been sent and it was deposited in accordance with Nicaraguan law into an account at the government-run Central Bank. The vehicles which were provided for in the aid package arrived in Nicaragua, but due to the

867:) threatened to re-arm but, realizing they had the same issues, the two sides joined forces. To pacify the groups, Chamorro integrated some of the former Contra fighters into the rural police services; she established a Civil Inspectorate to investigate claims of police abuses and human rights violations. She also allowed the Sandinistas' agrarian reform movement's redistribution of land to be maintained and expanded it on the Caribbean coast to meet veterans' demands. That action created conflict with the Caribbean indigenous people who had claims to the land, and also infringed on forestry reserves, leading to criticism. Others who had received land from the Sandinistas began to return their co-operative land titles to the large landholders who had owned them before the reforms, or simply sold their portions to opportunists. Unable to solve the problem, Chamorro dealt with the most egregious claims and turned the issue over to the courts to resolve individual disputes. 461:. He took over publishing and under his direction, the paper became a voice of opposition to the Somoza regime. Chamorro Cardenal was frequently jailed between 1952 and 1957 for the content of the paper and in 1957 led a revolt against Somoza. His actions resulted in his exile to Costa Rica, where Chamorro joined him after settling their children with his mother. Two years were spent in Costa Rica, with Pedro writing against the regime and immediately upon their return he was jailed again. Chamorro's life throughout the 1960s and 1970s was a repetitive cycle of reunions with either her husband or children. She followed him; if he was forced to leave, she left the children with family and traveled to be with him; if he was jailed, she was reunited with the children and visited him. Chamorro's earnings from a rental property that her mother had given her gave the couple a steady income. When her husband was 847:, and demobilizing the military. The day she took office, she abolished military conscription and within a few weeks had reduced the size of the army by half. Demobilization included disbanding the US-backed Contras, thereby leaving the Sandinistas with no one to fight, and creating a highly effective peace. Chamorro also granted unconditional amnesties for political crimes, resulting in little room for protest from the Sandinistas, and enabling a smooth transition of power. One of the ways she accomplished the co-operation of the Contras was to seek help openly from local officials in collecting weapons from both sides of the conflict. She began a fierce weapon-buying campaign to help eradicate the threat of continuing violence; all the collected weapons were covered in concrete at the Plaza de la Paz (Peace Square), specifically built in downtown Managua to symbolize "Never Again". 1049:

of the other branches of government; and although the president retained the power of veto, the legislature could overturn a veto by a simple majority vote. Though some of the changes also included reform of the Code of Criminal Procedures—creating trial by jury, expanding the right of citizens to press charges, and evaluating police authority, among others—failure of the government to investigate past abuses by the police and the military or institute judicial proceedings, granted tacit impunity for those who committed human rights abuses or violence. Though the 1990 Amnesty Law had curtailed some of administration's ability to prosecute, it also lacked the funds, impartial judiciary and possibly the will to seek transitional justice.

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would be to accept the appointments and thus validate the new constitution. Chamorro choreographed a ruling from the Supreme Court which voided the Assembly's publication of the reforms, provoking the Assembly to refuse to acknowledge the Court's authority. As international investors began to fret over the ensuing instability and evaluate further aid, the Roman Catholic cardinal, Miguel Obando y Bravo, stepped in as mediator and brokered an accord. Chamorro agreed to publish the new constitution, as required by law, and the Assembly agreed to allow the president to continue to negotiate foreign aid and tax measures, though no longer by decree. One of the most contentious provisions, which banned

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executive branch and a weaker, compliant legislature and judiciary. In 1993, the legislature began to review the constitution to restructure the country's government. After a year of discussion, the changes were submitted to the National Assembly, approved in the first round of voting, and passed in February 1995. The reforms to the Constitution were intended to reduce of the power of the presidency, and included measures to transfer the authority to levy taxes to the legislature, prohibit conscription, guarantee property rights, and curtail the succession of an incumbent or their close family members. Chamorro refused to publish the changes in

1024:. Public spending per capita on health fell from $ 35 in 1989 to $ 14 in 1995. Medical assistance for childbirth and diagnosis of female cancers have been reduced. Child development centers established in the 1980s—which served 75,000 children—have been eliminated. Life expectancy dropped from 66 years in 1989 to 60 years in 1996 due to an increase in infectious diseases and malnutrition. Infant mortality rose from 58 per 1,000 in 1990 to 72 per 1,000 in 1995. Salvador Martí i Puig and Eduardo Baumeister indicate that between 1993 and 1998 rural poverty declined by 7% from 1,553,000 to 1,517,000. 4102: 989:

administration were leading to massive strikes. Chamorro chose to recognize the workers' right to 25% of the shares of privatized state enterprises, despite the disapproval that generated both at home and abroad. The Sandinistas, who had removed some of the businesses from the private sector during their administration, were not in favor of privatization, but they were in favor of workers sharing in the revenues. The far-right of her own coalition was against making labor compromises of any kind. The US embassy and

770: 917:. Some people in Chamorro's campaign team were hoping to get $ 1 billion in aid from the United States to help rebuild the country after the years of civil war, but the Bush administration instead gave $ 300 million to the country in the first year of Chamorro's presidency, 1990, and $ 241 million the year after. Given the devastation that Nicaragua had faced, this aid was not enough to make any serious improvement, and the renegotiated loans created even more debt. 893:, as a military leader. She claimed the position of Defense Minister and named Humberto Ortega to second-in-command as the Chief of Staff. For this, Chamorro's critics accused her of supporting the Sandinistas, but it proved to be a valuable political move. The president demonstrated that, for the good of the nation, she was willing to compromise in ways that fostered reconciliation. She also appointed three FSLN cabinet members, including one for agrarian reform. 4177: 4053: 921: 851: 835: 952:

all property that was taken from US citizens during the revolution. Chamorro's administration denied Helms' allegations while still trying to comply with his demands. Helms managed to sway opinion in Congress, and the US government denied Nicaragua the $ 104 million that had been promised for that year. The aid was cut off and Helms' demands were made the month after Chamorro withdrew the compensation claims associated with the

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economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in "election violence" in October 1989. This led many commentators to assume that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation.

594:). This directorate, which initially promised an independent judiciary, free elections, free enterprise and a free press, was assisted by an 18-member Cabinet and a 33-member Council, whose membership represented a broad spectrum of Nicaraguan society. After the civil war of 1978–1979 and last-minute transferring of the national treasury to foreign banks by the Somoza regime, the country was devastated and it was believed that a 859:

due to inadequate resources, or seemed to be paid arbitrarily. Since only 5.8% of the former officers had received benefits by early 1992, many believed that only those who had political favor had either kept their jobs, in the 14% of the military that was retained, or received their promised compensation. Between April and December 1992, veterans held a series of strikes in protest of the situation. Pockets of army veterans (

1080:, CST) stepped in to offer health care and child care to women who could not afford the new government plan. Chamorro did support women's rights to become property holders, and saw such ownership as a protection when divorce or widowhood deprived women of a husband's support. Her administration did not actively prepare or encourage women's participation in political life, nor did she appoint women to governmental positions. 1084:

work within the home. Women's participation in the labor market increased from 26.7% in 1977 to 32% in 1985 and by 1995 was at 36%, one of the highest participation rates in Central America. Though Chamorro's policies changed the nature of the formal work force by introducing more women, the policies did not result in corresponding income increases: wages remained stagnant and changed little over the decade.

662:, UNO) agreed upon a formula to select a consensus candidate. After five rounds of voting, Chamorro was appointed the presidential candidate for UNO. Her platform primarily consisted of two key promises: ending the civil war and ending mandatory military service. It also played heavily on her simplicity, her faith, common sense, and the image of her being the "queen-mother" and the wife of a martyr. 666:

had no money, and was plagued by in-fighting. In reality, her humility and provincial roots worked for her; she had run a family, a business and been part of the original Junta; the Sandinistas blocked payment of funds to her from the US while simultaneously claiming she received them; and she had long been vocal about her displeasure of US involvement in Nicaragua. According to Peruvian novelist

4039: 416:, to Carlos José Barrios Sacasa and Amalia Torres Hurtado. Her family was wealthy and conservative, and although she has often been claimed by the U.S. media to be part of the Nicaraguan aristocracy, in truth, her family had large landholdings and cattle; they were more akin to the cattle barons of the western United States than the "Nicaraguan 2215: 826:

confirmed these findings, determining that they had lost touch with what their constituency wanted. Marvin Ortega, who had conducted polls prior to the election, conceded that voters did not vote "with their stomachs", even though the economic situation was dire, but voted against war and the repression of their liberties.

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February 1990, Chamorro won the election with a 54.7% share of the vote, ousting the incumbent Ortega and becoming the first elected woman president in the Americas. Because the election was held in the midst of a civil war, it was important both domestically and internationally that the vote was seen to be legitimate. The

2202:"The policy of keeping the contras alive ... also has placed in jeopardy the holding of elections by encouraging contra attacks on the electoral process. Thus, while the Bush administration proclaims its support for human rights and free and fair elections in Nicaragua, it persists in sabotaging both." As seen at: 61: 1087:

The 1992 Sexual Crime Code modifications resulted in winners and losers. Previously, the Penal Code had the penalty for rape specified as 8 to 12 years in prison (compared to 6 to 14 for simple homicide). However, it also defined some lesser sexual crimes in a way designed to protect the interests of

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The economic policies adopted by Chamorro feminized Nicaragua's labor force. While men's employment rate between 1977 and 1985 remained constant at 68%, women's employment outside the home in Nicaragua steadily increased during the same time frame with no reduction in the expectations of simultaneous

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attempted to re-integrate Nicaragua into the world market, increase foreign investment while reducing foreign dependence, and increase privatization. First the government combined state enterprises into a holding company known as the Corporaciones Nacionales del Sector Público (CORNAP) and set about

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before a crowd of some 20,000, marked the first time in more than five decades that a sitting government had peacefully surrendered power to the opposition. It was also the first time governmental change had been the result of a free election with substantial popular participation. With the exception

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As in other crises, Chamorro's ability to compromise was pivotal. The executive and legislative branches became more interdependent, but power was shared. The National Assembly prepared the budget, but the president had to be consulted on taxation; Supreme Court vacancies had to be agreed on by both

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In response, the legislature published the revisions on its own, effectively creating a situation of dual constitutions. As there was not a quorum, the Supreme Court was unable to act. To solve the situation, the legislators appointed six new justices, but the Court still refused to act, as doing so

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The downside of demobilization was that around 70,000 military personnel were left unemployed. Most of the conscripts returned home, but the lives of career military personnel were disrupted as they lost employment, and the houses, land, and money which was promised to them was either not delivered,

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and Shirley Christian who have written about the country, Nicaragua is one of the most religious countries in Latin America. Chamorro's faith and support for free expression united those who had felt alienated by the Sandinistas. Her chief appeal though was that she promised peace to a country tired

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Almost all news outlets reported that Chamorro could not win. She was depicted as rich with no real experience. There were rumors that she received millions from the United States via their embassy and that she was a US lackey; that she was too religious; and that her coalition was too disorganized,

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She suffered from poor health and had several surgeries to correct problems with osteoporosis. During her presidential campaign, she was on crutches most of the time due to a fractured kneecap as a result of her osteoporosis. She later developed a brain tumor, which has kept her out of public life.

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which put Nicaraguan currency on par with the US dollar, but confidence in the new currency was never attained. One third of it was returned to the bank in exchange for US funds. Devaluing the currency and ending subsidies of basic consumer goods reduced government spending, but created unrest with

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attempted to cut off financial aid to Nicaragua. In his report to the Senate, he said that the Sandinistas were still controlling much of the Nicaraguan administration and suggested that the Nicaraguan government replace all former Sandinista officers with ex-Contras, replace all judges, and return

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During Chamorro's presidency, US interest in Nicaragua declined, to the point that when Chamorro traveled to the US in April 1991 to ask Congress for more economic aid, few members showed up to listen to her. Because the Sandinistas were no longer a threat and peace talks were being established, US

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Possible explanations include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government, as economic mismanagement, a US embargo, and increased Contra activities in 1987 had, by 1990, decreased per capita GNI to 20 year lows. By November 1989, the White House had announced that the US

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Social scientists who analyzed the elections, concluded that the results were rational in the context that ending the war would also end the psychological threat that the US, which had recently invaded Panama and had been deeply involved in Nicaragua, might invade the country. Sandinistan analysts

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director's vacation, the vehicles were not cleared, nor were tags issued for their use. Three weeks before the election, UNO officials reportedly had received only around $ 250,000 and accused Ortega's administration of delaying tactics and taking a share off the top. The government countered that

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administration wanted Congress to waive the prohibition of using National Endowment for Democracy funds to support a candidate and to approve a $ 9 million aid plan in addition to granting $ 3 million outright in assistance to UNO. Congress refused, as direct aid to candidates or parties

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through bridge loans, and negotiating a 95% writedown of debts owed to Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela. These measures provided the means to end hyperinflation and reopen monetary markets, but they were overshadowed by high unemployment, underemployment and an overall recession. The trade deficit

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Chamorro was sworn into office on 25 April 1990. Chamorro's leadership covered six difficult years marked by economic strife and social unrest, but she was able to compromise with rivals, maintain a constitutional regime, re-establish international banking relationships and end the hyperinflation

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Besides the economic issues which plagued the country, the constitutional crisis that occurred in 1995 posed a significant threat to maintaining peace. When Chamorro took office, she was governing under the Constitution of 1987, which had been drafted by the Sandinistas and provided for a strong

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and crime. According to a United Nations study, the financial insecurity forced women and adolescents into "street professions", elevating security risks and increasing the rate of drop outs, drug abuse, juvenile delinquency and prostitution. In addition, austerity measures that eliminated free

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In the opening months of the Chamorro administration, social programs were cut, including free bus tokens for the education sector, pensions for the elderly and disabled, child care and child development services, and health care initiatives. By 1991 the austerity measures adopted by Chamorro's

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stated that the Ortega Administration had no access to their funds which were deposited in Panamanian banks. Up to 1990, Nicaragua had lived with forty years of the Somoza dictatorship, through a decade of civil warfare and Sandinista rule, and five years of US imposed economic sanctions. On 25

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and others have argued that Chamorro would have dealt with past abuse if she could have. Bishop Bernardo Hombach and others believe that her faith would have required her to forgive. Prosecutions would have prolonged conflict and harsh retaliation by the government would not have produced the

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Though 15 delegates of her parliament (16%) were women, few advances in women's rights were made during Chamorro's administration. Chamorro was not a feminist, since her beliefs prevented her from advocating many of the goals of traditional feminism. She was against abortion and questioned

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In spite of the other programs implemented, inflation was reduced by the renegotiation of the country's debt (called for by the Lacayo Plan). Through negotiations, Nicaragua was able to obtain a writedown of 75% of their international debt on the condition that they had no arrears.

314:, which he later inherited. As a result of his anti-government stance, he was often jailed or exiled, forcing Chamorro to spend a decade following him abroad or visiting him in jail. When he was assassinated in 1978, Chamorro took over the newspaper. Pedro's murder strengthened the 842:

Chamorro's peace reforms are perhaps her most enduring legacy. Most noteworthy was her official declaration of the end of the war, as it was the pivot upon which all of her other policies depended. She maintained peace by reducing the size and power of the military, ending the

606:, in some respects. In others, while the Sandinistas did increase their ties with the Soviet bloc and embraced Marxist philosophy, they announced a non-alignment policy and continued discussions on diplomatic, economic, and military relationships with the United States. 1100:

Chamorro retired from politics after her presidential term ended in 1997; at the time, the Nicaraguan Constitution did not allow presidents to run for immediate reelection. In July of the same year, she established a foundation bearing her name

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s offices being temporarily shut down on several occasions. In 1986, President Ortega even threatened her personally with a thirty-year prison sentence for treason. That same year, she won the Louis Lyons Award from the Nieman Foundation at

329:, Chamorro fully supported them. She agreed to become part of the provisional government established under the Junta of National Reconstruction. However, when the Junta began moving in a more radical direction and signed agreements with the 621:

support for the opposition forces. On 19 April 1980, Chamorro resigned from the Junta in opposition to the Sandinista's push for control, implementation of a Cuban interpretation of Marx, and failure to keep the commitments made in

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and because of ideological differences had difficulty in devising any political platform other than a promise to end the war. Despite polls indicating a victory for the incumbent Sandinista President Ortega, Chamorro won the

502:. In spite of the conflicting political views of her children, Chamorro encouraged and hosted family dinners during which she insisted political affiliations were temporarily put aside in the interest of family harmony. 729:, former President of Costa Rica and many Caribbean and US dignitaries. Ortega and his supporters conceded defeat without argument and observers left only a skeleton staff to assist with the transition of power. 740:. Opinion polls leading up to the elections divided along partisan lines, with 10 of 17 polls analyzed in a contemporary study predicting an UNO victory while seven predicted the Sandinistas would retain power. 1045:, was conceded by Chamorro. Both sides claimed victory, though the Supreme Court issue was still not resolved: the Assembly insisted their appointees were valid and the President refused to acknowledge them. 649:

and other Central American leaders had persuaded Ortega to hold elections. He agreed not only to free elections, but to the monitoring of the process. The conglomerate of opposition, now calling itself the

626:, Costa Rica for establishment of a democracy. Her exit prompted other members of the Junta to resign and join opposition groups that were beginning to form. She returned to her role as editor of 443:

in Virginia. In June 1947, her father was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer and though he died before she could make it home, she returned to Nicaragua, without graduating in the United States.

598:-style government would restore prosperity; however, the Sandinistas soon began taking over television and radio stations and censoring newspapers. Following the lead of the Sandinista's mentor 1067:

cohabitation, contraception and divorce. Cutbacks in public services during her regime, like child care and centers for rehabilitation, led to an increase in low-income women being forced into

1816:"U.S. Accused of Trying to Buy Election : Nicaragua: The Administration insists that the $ 9 million it seeks for the opposition party is needed to offset the well-financed Sandinistas" 4165: 645:

From 1987, a conglomerate of 14 political parties began working together in the hope of defeating the Sandinistas should an election come about. By 1989, efforts by Costa Rican President

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had imposed during Sandinista rule and promised economic aid to the country. In addition, the United States paid off the past-due debts of Nicaragua that were owed to private banks, the

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of war. Ortega spent large sums of money, and strutted around like a "macho rooster", as if the election were already won; he even used a fighting rooster as the symbol of his campaign.

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Violeta Chamorro's years in power began a period of significant economic and social decline for Nicaragua. From 1990 to 2001, the country fell from 60th to 116th place in the world for

3883: 2802: 717:, among other provisions. The election was the most strictly monitored of any in Latin America and involved 2,578 international observers among them former US President Jimmy Carter; 1842: 822:. UNO had been unable to agree on specifics, as its membership ranged from the far left to the far right, making their plan one of running against whatever the Sandinistas were for. 2514:"Sandinista General May Be Chamorro's Army Chief : Nicaragua: The reported choice of Humberto Ortega could provoke a split in her coalition. The move is described as temporary" 2761:"Two Strikes, Chamorro Digging In : Nicaragua: An accord halts the violence, but the underlying conflict that produced it—tough medicine for a sick economy—remains unresolved" 1092:, a legal requirement for a statute to become law. Lawyers immediately challenged the constitutionality of the law, but on 7 March 1994 the Supreme Court rejected their challenge. 1754: 519: 205: 642:; the award citation said that she had "resisted repression and censorship" and remained dedicated to a free press despite threats, redactions and suppression by the government. 518:

led the Sandinista guerrillas triumphantly into Managua in July 1979, Chamorro was with them. A coalition to replace the Somoza regime was formed. Chamorro, represented the

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privatizing them. The goal was to raise capital by privatizing 90% of the CORNAP companies by 1993, but the response was slow. Next, the administration introduced the

1113:'s Council of Presidents and Prime Ministers of the Americas Program which works for co-operation and peace throughout the Americas. Chamorro is also a member of the 871: 4143: 2681: 4158: 1903: 455:

in 1949, they married in December 1950; subsequently, they had five children together. In 1952, on his father's death, Chamorro's husband inherited the newspaper

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Cement-covered tank in Chamorro's Peace Park (Parque de Paz) symbolizing the wish of Nicaraguans that their country "never again" be plagued by such violence.

630:, driving it to become both an advocate of free speech and opposition thought. Her support of the Contras caused divisions in her own family and resulted in 400:

After leaving office on 10 January 1997, Chamorro worked on several international peace initiatives until poor health forced her to retire from public life.

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rose and GNP declined, and overall low wages and reductions of education and health services caused poverty to escalate, and social tensions to rise.

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A Surprising Defeat?: Using the Importance of People to Create a Better Understanding of the 1990 Electoral Defeat of the Sandinistas in Nicaragua

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A plaque in Chamorro's Peace Park thanking US President George H. W. Bush for his contribution to the re-establishment of democracy in Nicaragua.

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lower-middle-class and working-class people, who were faced with rising prices, layoffs due to privatization, and stagnant wages.

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Over the years, Chamorro's family has been split into feuding factions based upon political association. Two of her children,

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She attended primary school at the Sagrado Corazón de Jesús (Sacred Heart of Jesus) school in Rivas and the French school in

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announced that elections would be held in 1990, Chamorro was selected as the candidate for the opposition group known as the

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and then transferred to an American boarding school, as her parents wanted her to perfect her English. She first attended

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which had long been contentious, and withdrew the suit. The United States had refused to recognise the judgment of the

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International Election Monitoring, Sovereignty, and the Western Hemisphere: The Emergence of an International Norm

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As noted previously, the US assisted Nicaragua in paying off the past-due debt to the IMF, the World Bank and the

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was in favor of hard-line policies to exclude the Sandinistas, but Chamorro retained Daniel Ortega's brother,

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The United States government was convinced Chamorro could not win without measures to "level the field". The

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continued to criticize the government and its policies despite threats and government-forced shutdowns. When

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Liberalization in the Developing World: Institutional and Economic Changes in Latin America, Africa and Asia

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Women of strength: biographies of 106 who have excelled in traditionally male fields, A.D. 61 to the present

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Two months after the election, on 25 April 1990, Chamorro was sworn into office. The ceremony, held at the

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both voiced displeasure at the concessions and speed with which the economic plan was being implemented.

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from 1990 to 1997. She was the first and, to date, only woman to hold the position of president of

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Dreams of the heart : the autobiography of President Violeta Barrios de Chamorro of Nicaragua

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since 1988. Chamorro's administration immediately set about trying to eliminate inflation. The

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From the outset, Chamarro performed a delicate balancing act. Her choice to lead the Assembly,

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Chimene-Weiss, Sara; Eppel, Sol; Feigenbaum, Jeremy; Motel, Seth; Pangandoyon, Ingrid (2010).

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The Rocky Road to Reform: Adjustment, Income Distribution, and Growth in the Developing World

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and his image, as wielded by his widow, became a powerful symbol for the opposition forces.

4517: 4380: 3816: 3410: 2925:"Agrarian policies in Nicaragua: From revolution to the revival of agro-exports, 1979-2015" 1203: 1072:

health care made it difficult for the poor to afford care. The Sandinista Workers Central (

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Why Nicaragua vanished : a story of reporters and revolutionaries / Robert S. Leiken

2897: 2269:"LatAm's First Elected Female President Nicaragua's Violeta Chamorro Took Office in 1990" 964:

Chamorro inherited an economy devastated by civil war and which had been struggling with

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Fitful Peace: Human Rights and Reconciliation in Nicaragua Under the Chamorro Government

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Born into a landed family in southern Nicaragua, Chamorro was partially educated in the

4260: 3388: 2284: 2134: 819: 667: 639: 436: 424: 382: 4497: 4480: 4365: 3186:"The Bitter and the Sweet: Feminist Efforts to Reform Nicaraguan Rape and Sodomy Laws" 1277: 882: 4015: 4011:

Nicaragua without illusions: regime transition and structural adjustment in the 1990s

3994: 3973: 3952: 3931: 3910: 3889: 3868: 3847: 3826: 3802: 3781: 3760: 3739: 3718: 3697: 3693:

Before the Revolution: Women's Rights and Right-wing Politics in Nicaragua, 1821–1979

3676: 3655: 3634: 3613: 3592: 3571: 3550: 3529: 3523: 3508: 3487: 3466: 2114: 2062:"TURNOVER IN NICARAGUA; Sandinista Leaders, Facing Defeat, Didn't Argue, Carter Says" 1269: 1171: 973: 929:

foreign policymakers were much less concerned with Nicaragua than with issues in the

902: 838:

Cement-covered AK-47s held by unknown boy in Chamorro's Peace Park in central Managua

683: 417: 304:. After returning to her home country, she married and raised a family. Her husband, 4475: 4300: 4270: 4255: 4135: 140: 4455: 4435: 4345: 4295: 4058: 4044: 3462:

Learning Democracy: Citizen Engagement and Electoral Choice in Nicaragua, 1990–2001

2911: 2126: 1268:(in Spanish) (118). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Fundación Foro Nueva Sociedad: 89–98. 1102: 1073: 655: 587: 571: 555: 547: 535: 523: 498: 409: 349: 290: 273: 194: 35: 2035: 718: 4265: 4073: 4009: 3988: 3904: 3885:

Women of power: Half a century of female presidents and prime ministers worldwide

3712: 3649: 3628: 3586: 1158: 1157:

Chamorro, Violeta Barrios De; Fernández, Guido; Baltodano, Sonia Cruz De (1996).

890: 386: 4234: 3026: 1561:. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Nieman Foundation. 30 April 1986 554:, FSLN); Moisés Hassan Morales, of the pro-Sandinista National Patriotic Front ( 4290: 4285: 4275: 4225: 4215: 4205: 4195: 1881: 1659:"U.S. Aid Just Dribbles In to Nicaragua Opposition, but the Sandinistas Profit" 965: 886: 714: 675: 563: 104: 4425: 4370: 4330: 4310: 3435:. Association of Bi-National Chambers of Commerce in Florida. 4 September 2013 696:

was a basis for caution and that the US itself was creating delays. Since the

646: 4511: 4485: 4465: 4118: 2338:. Vol. 121, no. 74. Nashua, New Hampshire. 28 June 1990. p. 32 1273: 1110: 906: 737: 732:

In the resulting February 1990 elections, Violeta Chamorro and her party the

515: 341: 301: 128: 769: 709:

which had been brokered by Arias, called for monitoring of elections by the

617:, who had initially authorized aid to the Sandinista government, to approve 277:; 18 October 1929) is a Nicaraguan former politician who served as the 55th 3948:

Democratic Transition and Human Rights: Perspectives on U.S. Foreign Policy

3735:

Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran/Contra Affair

2682:"Feud between a widowed president, Jesse Helms snags U.S. aid to Nicaragua" 2115:"Pens and Polls in Nicaragua: An Analysis of the 1990 Pre-election Surveys" 1345:"Turnover in Nicaragua; Aristocratic Democrat; Violeta Barrios de Chamorro" 1199: 1068: 844: 614: 610: 603: 599: 462: 357: 330: 3567:

Transitional Justice in Nicaragua 1990–2012: Drawing a Line Under the Past

1425:(in Spanish). Barcelona, Spain: Barcelona Centre for International Affairs 1206:, who was appointed as the interim president of Bolivia from 1979 to 1980. 930: 3329:"Arthur Sulzberger Jr. to Receive RIT Isaiah Thomas Award in Publishing" 3148:. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 2840: 2399: 2162: 1624: 427:. Barrios began her secondary education at the Colegio La Inmaculada in 60: 4093: 2878: 2138: 1167:

The Autobiography of President Violeta Barrios De Chamorro of Nicaragua

1137:

1986 – Louis M. Lyons Award for Conscience and Integrity in Journalism.

969: 914: 623: 413: 361: 322: 111: 1736: 1734: 920: 885:. Chamorro kept her word to accept the vote. Her Vice President-elect 850: 785:

The Honorable Violeta Chamorro, President of the Republic of Nicaragua

783:

La Honorable Violeta Chamorro, Presidenta de la República de Nicaragua

4184: 4176: 4066: 834: 381:. She was also the second female to be elected in her own right as a 365: 282: 3143: 2130: 333:, Chamorro resigned on 19 April 1980 and returned to the newspaper. 3328: 3245: 3137: 2378: 2376: 2309: 1731: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1042: 583: 390: 378: 3432: 1910:(in Spanish). Managua, Nicaragua. 25 February 2013. Archived from 1387: 3822:

Our Own Backyard: The United States in Central America, 1977–1992

1489: 1140:

1991 – Democracy Award from the National Endowment for Democracy.

688: 595: 481: 428: 26: 2851:. Managua, Nicaragua: Central American University. November 1991 2641:(38). Stanford, California: The Stanford Daily. 17 April 1991: 3 2373: 2216:"U.S. trying to disrupt election in Nicaragua, Canadians report" 1966:(in Spanish). Managua, Nicaragua: Confidencial. 25 February 2013 1635:. Managua, Nicaragua: Central American University. November 1989 1585: 1539: 1529: 1527: 1525: 4097: 3196:(3). Miami, Florida: University of Miami School of Law: 439–488 2821: 1442: 1440: 3050: 3048: 2784: 2782: 3546:

Unmasking Class, Gender, and Sexuality in Nicaraguan Festival

3208: 1522: 1143:

1997 – Path to Peace Award from the Path to Peace Foundation.

1017: 2728: 2400:"The Contradictory Legacy of the Sandinista Agrarian Reform" 2297: 1797: 1795: 1510: 1437: 465:

on 10 January 1978, she took over control of the newspaper.

3110: 3098: 3086: 3045: 2779: 2716: 2605: 2603: 2556: 2532: 2467: 1483: 1315: 1313: 1021: 674:

and later Minister of Education; and other writers such as

493: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2615: 1573: 818:

of the promise to end the war, Chamorro did not present a

2740: 2544: 2261: 2176:"GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$ ) – Nicaragua" 2003: 1865: 1792: 1706: 1704: 1652: 1650: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1300: 1298: 1259:"Violeta Barrios de Chamorro. La reinamadre de la nación" 618: 3668: 3411:"1997 – Her Excellency Mrs. Violeta Barrios de Chamorro" 3144:

Committee on the Rights of the Child (21 October 1994).

3005: 3003: 2958: 2956: 2954: 2884: 2868: 2866: 2600: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2015: 1471: 1310: 3220: 3127: 3125: 3074: 3027:"A Chamorro Dynasty Dashed In Deal Struck in Nicaragua" 2983: 2590: 2588: 2506: 2457: 2455: 1935:"Reagan Puts Embargo On Nicaragua To 'Mend Their Ways'" 1782: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1016:, and became the poorest country in the Americas after 700:

had frozen Panamanian currency, a spokesperson for the

609:

In February 1980, FSLN signed several accords with the

39:, and, for married women, the optional marital name is 3651:

Tangled Destinies: Latin America and the United States

2922: 1701: 1647: 1452: 1295: 408:

Violeta Barrios Torres was born on 18 October 1929 in

308:, was a journalist working at his family's newspaper, 3303:"Surgery In U.s. Successful For Nicaraguan President" 3160: 3000: 2951: 2863: 2803:"Nicaraguan Strike Concessions Did Not Hurt Chamorro" 2568: 1711:

Boudreaux, Richard; Miller, Marjorie (4 March 1990).

1363: 420:" she was sometimes styled as in the American press. 4034: 3801:. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 3146:"Country analysis: Nicaragua: Nicaragua. 10/17/1994" 3122: 2939: 2923:

Martí i Puig, Salvador; Baumeister, Eduardo (2017).

2704: 2585: 2452: 2440:. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Refugee Agency 2249: 1773: 1713:"Sandinistas Conclude They Lost Touch With Populace" 1689: 1677: 514:. His image became a symbol of their cause and when 510:

The assassination of Chamorro's husband sparked the

480:, although Pedro left Nicaragua in 1984 to join the 3669:Fernandez Jilberto, Alex E.; Mommen, Andre (2012). 3522:Beckman, Peter R.; D'Amico, Francine, eds. (1995). 2688:. baltimoresun.com. 4 November 1992. Archived from 2237:(Thesis). Saint Paul, Minnesota: Macalester College 2113:Bischoping, Katherine; Schuman, Howard (May 1992). 1983: 1981: 1375: 433:

Our Lady of the Lake Catholic High School for Girls

3521: 2794: 2627: 2434:"Human Rights Watch World Report 1992 – Nicaragua" 2431: 2315: 1896: 1740: 1545: 1393: 991:United States Agency for International Development 4083:Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives 2410:. Managua, Nicaragua: Central American University 2112: 2033: 2027: 1755:"Chamorro Upbeat About Chances in Nicaragua Vote" 1551: 1198:There had been two previous women heads of state— 4509: 3609:Women and the State in Post-Sandinista Nicaragua 3295: 3179: 3177: 3175: 2965:"President and Legislature Dueling in Nicaragua" 2912:http://risal.collectifs.net/spip.php?article1944 2479: 2326: 2324: 2221: 1978: 1874:"Nicaraguan Opposition: Outsmarted and Outspent" 1252: 1250: 1248: 1246: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1234: 397:that had plagued the country for several years. 3710: 3689: 3459:Anderson, Leslie E.; Dodd, Lawrence C. (2009). 3214: 2393: 2391: 2350: 2332:"Chamorro declared end to Nicaraguan civil war" 1958: 1956: 1710: 1533: 1416: 412:, a small city near the Nicaraguan border with 373:on 25 February 1990. She was the first elected 3731: 3605: 3528:. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey. 3403: 2827: 2788: 2722: 2041:. Atlanta, GA: The Carter Center. pp. 1–4 1834: 1516: 1446: 484:. Her other children were active Sandinistas; 4593:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic 4159: 4079:Violeta Chamorro: New Direction for Nicaragua 3986: 3903:Skidmore, Thomas E.; Smith, Peter H. (1997). 3902: 3648:Coerver, Don M.; Hall, Linda Biesele (1999). 3479: 3413:. Rome, Italy: Path to Peace Foundation. 1997 3190:University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 3172: 3104: 3092: 3020: 3018: 2734: 2562: 2382: 2321: 2303: 1933:Neikirk, Bill; Coffey, Raymond (2 May 1985). 1932: 1617: 1417:Ortiz de Zarate, Roberto (15 November 2001). 1231: 33:, the second or maternal family name is 3732:Hamilton, Lee H.; Inouye, Daniel K. (1995). 3591:. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. 3458: 2538: 2473: 2388: 2036:"Observing Nicaragua's Elections, 1989–1990" 1953: 1146:2001 – Award for Leadership in Global Trade. 881:, was rejected by the UNO vote, which chose 542:, JGRN), which also included Ortega for the 540:Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional 295:Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional 3647: 2621: 2427: 2425: 2187:"Bush Vows to End Embargo if Chamorro Wins" 1807: 1412: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1130:Isaiah Thomas Award in Publishing from the 356:, UNO). This 14-party alliance ranged from 4166: 4152: 4100: 3860: 3752: 3351:"1986 Louis Lyons Award: Violeta Chamorro" 3015: 2550: 2163:"After the Poll Wars-Explaining the Upset" 2021: 2009: 1871: 1752: 1746: 1596: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1332: 1330: 1328: 59: 4528:20th-century Nicaraguan women politicians 3990:Politics of Latin America: The Power Game 3944: 3843:The Struggle for Peace in Central America 3815: 2758: 2609: 2485: 2227: 1926: 1477: 747: 3987:Vanden, Harry E.; Prevost, Gary (2002). 3714:The heart that bleeds: Latin America now 3584: 3563: 3525:Women in world politics: an introduction 3507:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. 3480:Arnson, Cynthia; Holiday, David (1991). 3116: 3080: 2994: 2520:. Los Angeles, California. 25 April 1990 2422: 2356: 2157: 2155: 2053: 1399: 1319: 1027: 919: 849: 833: 736:won an upset victory of 55% to 41% over 552:Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional 89:25 April 1990 – 10 January 1997 16:President of Nicaragua from 1990 to 1997 4613:First women presidents in North America 3542: 3500: 3238: 3226: 2752: 1991:. London, England: BBC. 31 October 2010 1989:"The women presidents of Latin America" 1840: 1579: 1465: 1369: 1325: 1256: 244: 1950; died 1978) 4588:Our Lady of the Lake University alumni 4558:Members of the Inter-American Dialogue 4510: 4007: 3965: 3923: 3839: 3794: 3773: 3753:Keen, Benjamin; Haynes, Keith (2012). 3433:"Award for Leadership in Global Trade" 3183: 3166: 3009: 2962: 2898:"Echec du modèle néolibéral à Managua" 2872: 2833: 2759:LeoGrande, William M. (15 July 1990). 2746: 2710: 2579: 2461: 2255: 2228:Pallmeyer, Hannah (18 December 2006). 1904:"Reconocen legado de Violeta Chamorro" 1801: 1695: 1683: 1381: 1304: 1061: 1058:reconciliation and peace she desired. 385:in the Americas, after Prime Minister 285:. Previously, she was a member of the 4563:National Opposition Union politicians 4147: 3881: 3626: 3585:Chamorro, Violeta Barrios de (1996). 3131: 2945: 2635:"Chamorro requests more U.S. support" 2594: 2432:Human Rights Watch (1 January 1992). 2397: 2152: 2119:American Journal of Political Science 2086: 2059: 1813: 1786: 1342: 1257:Pallais, María L (March–April 1992). 1107:Fundación Violeta Barrios de Chamorro 959: 901:When Chamorro was elected, President 272: 161:17 July 1979 – 19 April 1980 4608:20th-century presidents of Nicaragua 3357:. Harvard University. Archived from 3355:The Nieman Foundation for Journalism 3241:"Nicaragua to decriminalise gay sex" 2885:Fernandez Jilberto & Mommen 2012 2800: 2486:Boudreaux, Richard (22 April 1990). 1753:Oberdorfer, Don (10 November 1989). 1656: 1599:"Media Piranhas, Where Are You Now?" 1597:Wattenberg, Ben (15 February 1990). 544:Sandinista National Liberation Front 4603:People of the Nicaraguan Revolution 4538:Blackstone College for Girls alumni 4533:20th-century Nicaraguan politicians 3777:Solidarity will transform the World 3331:. Rochester Institute of Technology 3273:"Inter-American Dialogue | Experts" 3024: 2087:Uhlig, Mark A. (27 February 1990). 2060:Uhlig, Mark A. (28 February 1990). 1872:Hockstader, Lee (25 January 1990). 1841:Collier, Robert (28 January 1990). 1343:Uhlig, Mark A. (27 February 1990). 576:Movimiento Democrático Nicaragüense 13: 3690:González-Rivera, Victoria (2011). 3309:. Orlando, Florida. 27 August 1996 3062:. New York, New York. 16 June 1995 2801:Kete, Phillip R. (6 August 1990). 1849:. Orlando, Florida. Archived from 1843:"U.S. Flubs Chamorro Election Aid" 1095: 1078:Central Sandinista De Trabajadores 1053:, editor of the Sandinistan paper 266:Violeta Barrios Torres de Chamorro 14: 4629: 4030: 3249:. London, England. Archived from 3239:Roberts, Joe (16 November 2007). 2357:Molinski, Michael (9 June 1990). 2218:The Toronto Star, 27 October 1989 1132:Rochester Institute of Technology 721:, former President of Argentina; 488:was ambassador to Costa Rica and 4461:Junta of National Reconstruction 4182:Presidents and heads of state of 4175: 4051: 4037: 3951:. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. 3825:. Univ of North Carolina Press. 3606:Chavez Metoyer, Cynthia (2000). 3425: 3385:National Endowment for Democracy 3373: 3343: 3321: 3265: 3232: 2841:"US Aid: Not Even a Cheap Lunch" 1880:. Washington, DC. Archived from 1657:Pear, Robert (4 February 1990). 1625:"The Electoral Process Gears Up" 1150: 829: 768: 725:, former President of Colombia; 698:United States invasion of Panama 532:Junta of National Reconstruction 505: 446: 287:Junta of National Reconstruction 149:Junta of National Reconstruction 3846:. University Press of Florida. 3549:. University of Arizona Press. 3465:. University of Chicago Press. 3184:Morgan, Martha I. (July 1995). 2916: 2904: 2890: 2674: 2209: 2196: 2180: 2169: 2106: 2080: 1814:Fritz, Sara (17 October 1989). 1192: 1002:Inter-American Development Bank 896: 711:Organization of American States 670:; Humberto Belli, an editor of 528:Unión Democrática de Liberación 453:Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal 306:Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal 241: 230:Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal 4578:Nicaraguan publishers (people) 4568:Nicaraguan democracy activists 4067:Violeta de Chamorro Foundation 3711:Guillermoprieto, Alma (1995). 3025:Dye, David R. (20 June 1995). 2935:(2): 393 – via ACADEMIA. 2398:Rocha, José Luis (July 2010). 2359:"Chamorro declares end to war" 2034:The Carter Center (May 1990). 1220: 942:International Court of Justice 568:Nicaraguan Democratic Movement 520:Democratic Union of Liberation 439:, and then in 1945 changed to 206:Democratic Union of Liberation 1: 4618:20th-century women presidents 3774:Korgen, Jeffry Odell (2007). 3630:Nicaragua: The Chamorro Years 3056:"New Nicaraguan Constitution" 3031:The Christian Science Monitor 2963:Rohter, Larry (5 June 1995). 1492:"Nicaragua and Iran Timeline" 1419:"Violeta Barrios de Chamorro" 1213: 1170:]. Simon & Schuster. 815:Rigoberto López Pérez Stadium 403: 25:: the first or paternal 4598:People from Rivas Department 4583:Nicaraguan women in business 3924:Staten, Clifford L. (2010). 3633:. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 3612:. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 1160:Sueños Del Corazón: Memorias 564:Luis Alfonso Robelo Callejas 441:Blackstone College for Girls 7: 3993:. Oxford University Press. 3909:. Oxford University Press. 3861:Santa-Cruz, Arturo (2013). 3543:Borland, Katherine (2006). 1964:"El legado de doña Violeta" 1227:Profile of Violeta Chamorro 954:Nicaragua vs. United States 911:International Monetary Fund 863:) and resistance veterans ( 297:, JGRN) from 1979 to 1980. 10: 4634: 4573:Nicaraguan women activists 4553:Female heads of government 4446:Liberal-Conservative Junta 4008:Walker, Thomas W. (1997). 3795:Leiken, Robert S. (2003). 3756:A History of Latin America 3451: 2929:Journal of Agrarian Change 2316:Beckman & D'Amico 1995 1741:Beckman & D'Amico 1995 1546:Beckman & D'Amico 1995 1517:Hamilton & Inouye 1995 1498:. Providence, Rhode Island 1447:Hamilton & Inouye 1995 1394:Beckman & D'Amico 1995 936:Nicaragua v. United States 707:Esquipulas Peace Agreement 613:causing the US president, 560:Frente Patriotico Nacional 274:[bjoˈletatʃaˈmoro] 20: 4494: 4191: 4132: 4123: 4115: 4110: 3564:Bothmann, Astrid (2015). 3105:Arnson & Holiday 1991 3093:Arnson & Holiday 1991 2767:. Los Angeles, California 2735:Vanden & Prevost 2002 2563:Arnson & Holiday 1991 2494:. Los Angeles, California 2383:Skidmore & Smith 1997 2304:Arnson & Holiday 1991 2289:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 1822:. Los Angeles, California 1719:. Los Angeles, California 1124: 905:removed the embargo that 800: 789: 776: 767: 754: 702:Central Bank of Nicaragua 652:National Opposition Union 492:became the editor of the 346:National Opposition Union 259: 251: 223: 218:National Opposition Union 211: 201: 174: 169: 165: 154: 146: 134: 122: 93: 82: 74: 70: 58: 51: 4548:Female defence ministers 4451:Anastasio Somoza Debayle 4441:Anastasio Somoza Debayle 3945:Steinmetz, Sara (1994). 3927:The History of Nicaragua 2539:Anderson & Dodd 2009 2474:Anderson & Dodd 2009 2206:Human Rights Watch, 1990 1559:"1986 Louis Lyons Award" 1185: 660:Unión Nacional Opositora 354:Unión Nacional Opositora 327:Anastasio Somoza Debayle 4416:Anastasio Somoza García 4391:Anastasio Somoza García 4281:Ignacio Chaves Tellería 3501:Baldwin, Louis (1996). 3033:. Boston, Massachusetts 2622:Coerver & Hall 1999 1115:Inter-American Dialogue 1014:Human Development Index 723:Alfonso López Michelsen 4411:Manuel Fernando Zurita 4251:Pedro Joaquín Chamorro 4126:President of Nicaragua 3966:Taylor, Lance (1993). 3882:Skard, Torild (2014). 3840:Moreno, Dario (1994). 3486:. Human Rights Watch. 3381:"1991 Democracy Award" 2662:Cite journal requires 2551:Keen & Haynes 2012 1106: 1077: 972:model outlined in the 925: 855: 839: 756:Presidential styles of 748:Presidency (1990–1997) 659: 591: 580:Sergio Ramirez Mercado 575: 559: 551: 539: 527: 353: 294: 279:President of Nicaragua 270:Spanish pronunciation: 179:Violeta Barrios Torres 77:President of Nicaragua 23:Spanish naming customs 4386:Carlos Alberto Brenes 4356:Carlos José Solórzano 4341:Diego Manuel Chamorro 3817:LeoGrande, William M. 3627:Close, David (1999). 1165:Dreams of the Heart: 1028:Constitutional crisis 1012:, as measured by the 923: 853: 837: 530:, UDEL) in the first 512:Sandinista Revolution 336:Under her direction, 325:were victorious over 316:Nicaraguan Revolution 4381:Juan Bautista Sacasa 4316:José Dolores Estrada 4072:18 June 2010 at the 3906:Modern Latin America 3759:. Cengage Learning. 3738:. DIANE Publishing. 3696:. Penn State Press. 3215:González-Rivera 2011 2971:. New York, New York 2191:The Washington Post, 2165:. Envio. March 1990. 2068:. New York, New York 1914:on 24 September 2015 1884:on 24 September 2015 1665:. New York, New York 1534:Guillermoprieto 1995 1351:. New York, New York 1204:Lidia Gueiler Tejada 592:El Grupo de los Doce 375:female head of state 321:Initially, when the 4406:Víctor Manuel Román 4246:José Vicente Cuadra 4201:Francisco Castellón 3361:on 8 September 2006 3277:www.thedialogue.org 3119:, pp. 174–175. 2828:Chavez Metoyer 2000 2807:The Washington Post 2789:Chavez Metoyer 2000 2749:, pp. 444–445. 2723:Chavez Metoyer 2000 2385:, pp. 344–345. 1941:. Chicago, Illinois 1878:The Washington Post 1804:, pp. 119–121. 1582:, pp. 101–102. 1062:Gender consequences 1020:, according to the 949:Senator Jesse Helms 794:Presidenta Chamorro 727:Rodrigo Carazo Odio 692:the history of the 4431:Orlando Montenegro 4376:José María Moncada 4351:Bartolomé Martínez 4306:José Santos Zelaya 4211:José María Estrada 4111:Political offices 4088:Biography by CIDOB 3283:on 2 February 2020 3060:The New York Times 2969:The New York Times 2093:The New York Times 2066:The New York Times 1853:on 17 October 2015 1605:. Orlando, Florida 1349:The New York Times 1283:on 17 October 2015 960:Economic stability 926: 856: 840: 820:political platform 796:President Chamorro 694:Iran–Contra affair 668:Mario Vargas Llosa 640:Harvard University 437:San Antonio, Texas 383:head of government 4505: 4504: 4396:Leonardo Argüello 4361:Emiliano Chamorro 4336:Emiliano Chamorro 4326:Juan José Estrada 4142: 4141: 4133:Succeeded by 4021:978-0-8420-2578-2 4000:978-0-19-512317-3 3979:978-0-262-20093-6 3958:978-0-7914-1433-0 3937:978-0-313-36038-1 3916:978-0-19-510017-4 3895:978-1-4473-1637-4 3874:978-1-135-48396-8 3853:978-0-8130-1274-2 3832:978-0-8078-4857-9 3808:978-0-7425-2342-5 3787:978-1-60833-049-2 3766:978-1-111-84141-6 3745:978-0-7881-2602-4 3724:978-0-679-75795-5 3717:. Vintage Books. 3703:978-0-271-04870-3 3682:978-1-134-82583-7 3661:978-0-8263-2117-6 3640:978-1-55587-643-2 3619:978-1-55587-751-4 3577:978-3-658-10503-7 3556:978-0-8165-2511-9 3514:978-0-7864-0250-2 3493:978-1-56432-034-6 3472:978-0-226-01974-1 2830:, pp. 90–91. 2318:, pp. 40–41. 1743:, pp. 37–39. 1396:, pp. 34–36. 1322:, pp. 38–40. 1307:, pp. 73–74. 1010:human development 903:George H. W. Bush 811: 810: 805:Señora Presidente 801:Alternative style 684:George H. W. Bush 418:Gloria Vanderbilt 263: 262: 4625: 4471:Violeta Chamorro 4456:Francisco Urcuyo 4436:Lorenzo Guerrero 4346:Rosendo Chamorro 4296:Salvador Machado 4180: 4179: 4168: 4161: 4154: 4145: 4144: 4116:Preceded by 4108: 4107: 4104: 4061: 4059:Nicaragua portal 4056: 4055: 4054: 4047: 4045:Biography portal 4042: 4041: 4040: 4025: 4004: 3983: 3962: 3941: 3920: 3899: 3888:. Policy Press. 3878: 3857: 3836: 3812: 3791: 3770: 3749: 3728: 3707: 3686: 3665: 3644: 3623: 3602: 3581: 3560: 3539: 3518: 3497: 3476: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3440: 3429: 3423: 3422: 3420: 3418: 3407: 3401: 3400: 3398: 3396: 3387:. Archived from 3377: 3371: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3325: 3319: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3307:Orlando Sentinel 3299: 3293: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3279:. Archived from 3269: 3263: 3262: 3260: 3258: 3236: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3181: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3052: 3043: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3022: 3013: 3007: 2998: 2992: 2981: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2960: 2949: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2920: 2914: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2870: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2809:. Washington, DC 2798: 2792: 2786: 2777: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2732: 2726: 2720: 2714: 2708: 2702: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2692:on 15 April 2014 2678: 2672: 2671: 2665: 2660: 2658: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2598: 2592: 2583: 2577: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2501: 2499: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2450: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2429: 2420: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2395: 2386: 2380: 2371: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2361:. Washington, DC 2354: 2348: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2328: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2294: 2288: 2280: 2278: 2276: 2265: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2236: 2225: 2219: 2213: 2207: 2200: 2194: 2184: 2178: 2173: 2167: 2166: 2159: 2150: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2110: 2104: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2084: 2078: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2057: 2051: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2040: 2031: 2025: 2019: 2013: 2007: 2001: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1985: 1976: 1975: 1973: 1971: 1960: 1951: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1930: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1891: 1889: 1869: 1863: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1838: 1832: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1790: 1784: 1771: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1761:. Washington, DC 1750: 1744: 1738: 1729: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1708: 1699: 1693: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1654: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1603:Orlando Sentinel 1594: 1583: 1577: 1571: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1555: 1549: 1543: 1537: 1531: 1520: 1514: 1508: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1496:Brown University 1487: 1481: 1475: 1469: 1463: 1450: 1444: 1435: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1414: 1397: 1391: 1385: 1379: 1373: 1367: 1361: 1360: 1358: 1356: 1340: 1323: 1317: 1308: 1302: 1293: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1282: 1276:. Archived from 1263: 1254: 1229: 1224: 1207: 1196: 1181: 1051:Sofía Montenegro 880: 772: 762: 761:Violeta Chamorro 757: 752: 751: 636: 496:daily newspaper 276: 271: 245: 243: 192: 188: 186: 170:Personal details 159: 137: 125: 98: 87: 65:Chamorro in 1993 63: 53:Violeta Chamorro 49: 48: 4633: 4632: 4628: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4623: 4622: 4543:Chamorro family 4508: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4490: 4481:Enrique Bolaños 4401:Benjamín Lacayo 4366:Sebastián Uriza 4266:Evaristo Carazo 4241:Fernando Guzmán 4187: 4174: 4172: 4138: 4129: 4121: 4074:Wayback Machine 4057: 4052: 4050: 4043: 4038: 4036: 4033: 4028: 4022: 4001: 3980: 3959: 3938: 3917: 3896: 3875: 3854: 3833: 3809: 3788: 3780:. Orbis Books. 3767: 3746: 3725: 3704: 3683: 3662: 3641: 3620: 3599: 3578: 3557: 3536: 3515: 3494: 3473: 3454: 3449: 3448: 3438: 3436: 3431: 3430: 3426: 3416: 3414: 3409: 3408: 3404: 3394: 3392: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3364: 3362: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3334: 3332: 3327: 3326: 3322: 3312: 3310: 3301: 3300: 3296: 3286: 3284: 3271: 3270: 3266: 3256: 3254: 3237: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3213: 3209: 3199: 3197: 3182: 3173: 3165: 3161: 3151: 3149: 3142: 3138: 3130: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3103: 3099: 3091: 3087: 3079: 3075: 3065: 3063: 3054: 3053: 3046: 3036: 3034: 3023: 3016: 3008: 3001: 2993: 2984: 2974: 2972: 2961: 2952: 2944: 2940: 2921: 2917: 2909: 2905: 2900:. October 1996. 2896: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2871: 2864: 2854: 2852: 2839: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2812: 2810: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2780: 2770: 2768: 2757: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2733: 2729: 2721: 2717: 2709: 2705: 2695: 2693: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2663: 2661: 2652: 2651: 2644: 2642: 2633: 2632: 2628: 2620: 2616: 2608: 2601: 2593: 2586: 2578: 2569: 2561: 2557: 2549: 2545: 2537: 2533: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2497: 2495: 2484: 2480: 2472: 2468: 2460: 2453: 2443: 2441: 2430: 2423: 2413: 2411: 2396: 2389: 2381: 2374: 2364: 2362: 2355: 2351: 2341: 2339: 2330: 2329: 2322: 2314: 2310: 2306:, pp. 1–2. 2302: 2298: 2282: 2281: 2274: 2272: 2267: 2266: 2262: 2254: 2250: 2240: 2238: 2234: 2226: 2222: 2214: 2210: 2201: 2197: 2193:9 November 1989 2185: 2181: 2174: 2170: 2161: 2160: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2131:10.2307/2111480 2111: 2107: 2097: 2095: 2085: 2081: 2071: 2069: 2058: 2054: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2032: 2028: 2022:Santa-Cruz 2013 2020: 2016: 2010:Santa-Cruz 2013 2008: 2004: 1994: 1992: 1987: 1986: 1979: 1969: 1967: 1962: 1961: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1939:Chicago Tribune 1931: 1927: 1917: 1915: 1908:El Nuevo Diario 1902: 1901: 1897: 1887: 1885: 1870: 1866: 1856: 1854: 1839: 1835: 1825: 1823: 1812: 1808: 1800: 1793: 1785: 1774: 1764: 1762: 1759:Washington Post 1751: 1747: 1739: 1732: 1722: 1720: 1709: 1702: 1694: 1690: 1682: 1678: 1668: 1666: 1655: 1648: 1638: 1636: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1608: 1606: 1595: 1586: 1578: 1574: 1564: 1562: 1557: 1556: 1552: 1544: 1540: 1532: 1523: 1515: 1511: 1501: 1499: 1488: 1484: 1476: 1472: 1464: 1453: 1445: 1438: 1428: 1426: 1415: 1400: 1392: 1388: 1380: 1376: 1368: 1364: 1354: 1352: 1341: 1326: 1318: 1311: 1303: 1296: 1286: 1284: 1280: 1261: 1255: 1232: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1210: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1178: 1156: 1153: 1127: 1098: 1096:Post-presidency 1064: 1030: 962: 899: 891:Humberto Ortega 883:Miriam Argüello 874: 832: 807:Madam President 778:Reference style 760: 758: 755: 750: 634: 584:Group of Twelve 508: 449: 406: 387:Eugenia Charles 269: 247: 239: 235: 232: 213: 212:Other political 202:Political party 193: 190: 189:18 October 1929 184: 182: 181: 180: 160: 155: 135: 123: 118: 114: 107: 94: 88: 83: 66: 54: 47: 21:This name uses 17: 12: 11: 5: 4631: 4621: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4503: 4502: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4476:Arnoldo Alemán 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4303: 4301:Joaquín Zavala 4298: 4293: 4288: 4286:Roberto Sacasa 4283: 4278: 4276:Roberto Sacasa 4273: 4271:Nicolás Osorno 4268: 4263: 4258: 4256:Joaquín Zavala 4253: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4231:Tomás Martínez 4228: 4226:Patricio Rivas 4223: 4221:William Walker 4218: 4216:Patricio Rivas 4213: 4208: 4206:Nazario Escoto 4203: 4198: 4196:Fruto Chamorro 4192: 4189: 4188: 4171: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4148: 4140: 4139: 4136:Arnoldo Alemán 4134: 4131: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4091: 4085: 4076: 4063: 4062: 4048: 4032: 4031:External links 4029: 4027: 4026: 4020: 4005: 3999: 3984: 3978: 3963: 3957: 3942: 3936: 3921: 3915: 3900: 3894: 3879: 3873: 3858: 3852: 3837: 3831: 3813: 3807: 3792: 3786: 3771: 3765: 3750: 3744: 3729: 3723: 3708: 3702: 3687: 3681: 3666: 3660: 3645: 3639: 3624: 3618: 3603: 3597: 3582: 3576: 3561: 3555: 3540: 3534: 3519: 3513: 3498: 3492: 3477: 3471: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3424: 3402: 3391:on 25 May 2007 3372: 3342: 3320: 3294: 3264: 3253:on 18 May 2016 3231: 3229:, p. 128. 3219: 3207: 3171: 3169:, p. 135. 3159: 3136: 3134:, p. 264. 3121: 3109: 3097: 3085: 3083:, p. 174. 3073: 3044: 3014: 3012:, p. 132. 2999: 2997:, p. 173. 2982: 2950: 2948:, p. 147. 2938: 2915: 2903: 2889: 2887:, p. 128. 2877: 2875:, p. 447. 2862: 2832: 2820: 2793: 2778: 2751: 2739: 2737:, p. 116. 2727: 2715: 2703: 2673: 2664:|journal= 2626: 2624:, p. 169. 2614: 2612:, p. 563. 2610:LeoGrande 2000 2599: 2597:, p. 136. 2584: 2582:, p. 134. 2567: 2555: 2553:, p. 533. 2543: 2541:, p. 212. 2531: 2505: 2478: 2476:, p. 210. 2466: 2451: 2421: 2387: 2372: 2349: 2320: 2308: 2296: 2260: 2248: 2220: 2208: 2195: 2179: 2168: 2151: 2125:(2): 331–350. 2105: 2079: 2052: 2026: 2014: 2012:, p. 113. 2002: 1977: 1952: 1925: 1895: 1864: 1833: 1806: 1791: 1789:, p. 261. 1772: 1745: 1730: 1700: 1688: 1676: 1663:New York Times 1646: 1616: 1584: 1572: 1550: 1538: 1521: 1509: 1482: 1480:, p. 135. 1478:Steinmetz 1994 1470: 1468:, p. 101. 1451: 1436: 1398: 1386: 1374: 1372:, p. 100. 1362: 1324: 1309: 1294: 1266:Nueva Sociedad 1230: 1218: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1190: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1176: 1152: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1126: 1123: 1097: 1094: 1063: 1060: 1029: 1026: 966:hyperinflation 961: 958: 913:(IMF) and the 898: 895: 887:Virgilio Godoy 845:national draft 831: 828: 809: 808: 802: 798: 797: 791: 787: 786: 780: 774: 773: 765: 764: 749: 746: 715:United Nations 676:Edward Sheehan 507: 504: 448: 445: 405: 402: 261: 260: 257: 256: 253: 249: 248: 237: 233: 228: 227: 225: 221: 220: 215: 209: 208: 203: 199: 198: 178: 176: 172: 171: 167: 166: 163: 162: 152: 151: 147:Member of the 144: 143: 141:Arnoldo Alemán 138: 132: 131: 126: 120: 119: 117: 116: 109: 105:Virgilio Godoy 101: 99: 96:Vice President 91: 90: 80: 79: 72: 71: 68: 67: 64: 56: 55: 52: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4630: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4523:Living people 4521: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4513: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4486:Daniel Ortega 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4466:Daniel Ortega 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4427: 4424: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4294: 4292: 4289: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4261:Adán Cárdenas 4259: 4257: 4254: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4244: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4232: 4229: 4227: 4224: 4222: 4219: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4197: 4194: 4193: 4190: 4186: 4183: 4178: 4169: 4164: 4162: 4157: 4155: 4150: 4149: 4146: 4137: 4128: 4127: 4120: 4119:Daniel Ortega 4114: 4109: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4092: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4071: 4068: 4065: 4064: 4060: 4049: 4046: 4035: 4023: 4017: 4013: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3972:. 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