1012:
2553:. Even then, some eruptions will have no useful warning. An example of this occurred in March 2017, when a tourist group was witnessing a presumed to be predictable Mount Etna eruption and the flowing lava came in contact with a snow accumulation causing a situational phreatic explosion causing injury to ten persons. Other types of significant eruptions are known to give useful warnings of only hours at the most by seismic monitoring. The recent demonstration of a magma chamber with repose times of tens of thousands of years, with potential for rapid recharge so potentially decreasing warning times, under the youngest volcano in central Europe, does not tell us if more careful monitoring will be useful.
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44:
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volcanic activities. While the science of volcanology may not yet be capable of predicting the exact times and dates of eruptions far into the future, on suitably monitored volcanoes the monitoring of ongoing volcanic indicators is often capable of predicting imminent eruptions with advance warnings minimally of hours, and usually of days prior to any eruptions. The diversity of volcanoes and their complexities mean that eruption forecasts for the foreseeable future will be based on
628:
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ability is derived via such volcanic-activity monitoring programs, through the greater abilities of local officials to facilitate timely evacuations based upon the greater modern-day knowledge of volcanism that is now available, and upon improved communications technologies such as cell phones. Such operations tend to provide enough time for humans to escape at least with their lives before a pending eruption. One example of such a recent successful volcanic evacuation was the
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2289:
4134:
1969:
1185:
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398:, which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary. As with mid-ocean ridges, the rising mantle rock experiences decompression melting which generates large volumes of magma. Because tectonic plates move across mantle plumes, each volcano becomes inactive as it drifts off the plume, and new volcanoes are created where the plate advances over the plume. The
467:
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471:
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1417:) are highly hazardous products of such volcanoes since they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as high as 850 °C (1,560 °F) are known to occur in pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in their path, and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid down, often many meters thick.
472:
469:
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2442:) with major historical volcanic eruptions in the 19th and 20th century (VEI 5, 6 and 7). From left to right: Yellowstone 2.1 Ma, Yellowstone 1.3 Ma, Long Valley 6.26 Ma, Yellowstone 0.64 Ma . 19th century eruptions: Tambora 1815, Krakatoa 1883. 20th century eruptions: Novarupta 1912, St. Helens 1980, Pinatubo 1991.
1168:
5574:
Wieczorek, Mark A.; Jolliff, Bradley L.; Khan, Amir; Pritchard, Matthew E.; Weiss, Benjamin P.; Williams, James G.; Hood, Lon L.; Righter, Kevin; Neal, Clive R.; Shearer, Charles K.; McCallum, I. Stewart; Tompkins, Stephanie; Hawke, B. Ray; Peterson, Chris; Gillis, Jeffrey J.; Bussey, Ben (January 1,
2510:
Although volcanic eruptions pose considerable hazards to humans, past volcanic activity has created important economic resources. Tuff formed from volcanic ash is a relatively soft rock, and it has been used for construction since ancient times. The Romans often used tuff, which is abundant in Italy,
1907:
in 2008. Modern volcanic activity monitoring techniques, and improvements in the modelling of the factors that produce eruptions, have helped the understanding of why volcanoes may remain dormant for a long time, and then become unexpectedly active again. The potential for eruptions, and their style,
1488:
rises into the overlying mantle, lowering its melting point, particularly for the more silica-rich minerals. Fractional crystallization further enriches the magma in silica. It has also been suggested that intermediate magmas are produced by the melting of sediments carried downwards by the subducted
1898:
pointed out that the term "dormant" in reference to volcanoes has been deprecated over the past few decades and that "he term "dormant volcano" is so little used and undefined in modern volcanology that the
Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (2000) does not contain it in the glossaries or index", however the
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words. Ê»AÊ»a is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of cooler basalt lava flows. PÄhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. PÄhoehoe flows are sometimes observed to transition to Ê»aÊ»a
1026:
Epoch has been documented at only 119 submarine volcanoes, but there may be more than one million geologically young submarine volcanoes on the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the ocean's surface. In the deep ocean
2528:
Volcanic ash and weathered basalt produce some of the most fertile soil in the world, rich in nutrients such as iron, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and phosphorus. Volcanic activity is responsible for emplacing valuable mineral resources, such as metal ores. It is accompanied by high rates of heat
2044:
The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to describe the
1709:
Vulcanian eruptions are characterized by yet higher viscosities and partial crystallization of magma, which is often intermediate in composition. Eruptions take the form of short-lived explosions for several hours, which destroy a central dome and eject large lava blocks and bombs. This is followed
1366:
The form and style of an eruption of a volcano is largely determined by the composition of the lava it erupts. The viscosity (how fluid the lava is) and the amount of dissolved gas are the most important characteristics of magma, and both are largely determined by the amount of silica in the magma.
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found in East
African volcanic ash dated at 3.66 million years old. The association of volcanoes with fire and disaster is found in many oral traditions and had religious and thus social significance before the first written record of concepts related to volcanoes. Examples are: (1) the stories in
1939:
was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas, and initially not seismically monitored before its unanticipated and catastrophic eruption of 1991. Two other examples of volcanoes that were once thought to be extinct, before springing back into eruptive activity were
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The USGS defines a dormant volcano as any volcano that is not showing any signs of unrest such as earthquake swarms, ground swelling, or excessive noxious gas emissions, but which shows signs that it could yet become active again. Many dormant volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years, but
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is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form underwater. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface, due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy in water (as compared to
2035:
can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years may be considered dormant instead of extinct. An individual volcano in a monogenetic volcanic field can be extinct but that does not mean a completely new
920:
A supervolcano is defined as a volcano that has experienced one or more eruptions that produced over 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of volcanic deposits in a single explosive event. Such eruptions occur when a very large magma chamber full of gas-rich, silicic magma is emptied in a
2560:
Thus in many cases, while volcanic eruptions may still cause major property destruction, the periodic large-scale loss of human life that was once associated with many volcanic eruptions, has recently been significantly reduced in areas where volcanoes are adequately monitored. This life-saving
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Many volcanoes near human settlements are heavily monitored with the aim of providing adequate advance warnings of imminent eruptions to nearby populations. Also, a better modern-day understanding of volcanology has led to some better informed governmental and public responses to unanticipated
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are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar
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718:(both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters (100 to 1,300 ft) high. Most cinder cones erupt only once and some may be found in
484:
A volcano needs a reservoir of molten magma (e.g. a magma chamber), a conduit to allow magma to rise through the crust, and a vent to allow the magma to escape above the surface as lava. The erupted volcanic material (lava and tephra) that is deposited around the vent is known as a
1644:(shattered volcanic material) make up more of the volume of many volcanoes than do lava flows. Volcaniclastics may have contributed as much as a third of all sedimentation in the geologic record. The production of large volumes of tephra is characteristic of explosive volcanism.
1833:, but the definitions of these terms are not entirely uniform amongst volcanologists. The level of activity of most volcanoes falls upon a graduated spectrum, with much overlap between categories, and does not always fit neatly into only one of these three separate categories.
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Scientists are known to perceive risk, with its social elements, differently from local populations and those that undertake social risk assessments on their behalf, so that both disruptive false alarms and retrospective blame, when disasters occur, will continue to happen.
940:, and about 60 historical VEI 8 eruptions have been identified in the geologic record over millions of years. A supervolcano can produce devastation on a continental scale, and severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of
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Citizens who may be concerned about their own exposure to risk from nearby volcanic activity should familiarize themselves with the types of, and quality of, volcano monitoring and public notification procedures being employed by governmental authorities in their areas.
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posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. The lavas of stratovolcanoes are higher in silica, and therefore much more viscous, than lavas from shield volcanoes. High-silica lavas also tend to contain more dissolved gas. The combination is deadly, promoting
256:
During the development of geological theory, certain concepts that allowed the grouping of volcanoes in time, place, structure and composition have developed that ultimately have had to be explained in the theory of plate tectonics. For example, some volcanoes are
1454:
Felsic magmas are formed within the crust, usually through the melting of crust rock from the heat of underlying mafic magmas. The lighter felsic magma floats on the mafic magma without significant mixing. Less commonly, felsic magmas are produced by extreme
5031:
Aiuppa, Alessandro; Moretti, Roberto; Federico, Cinzia; Giudice, Gaetano; Gurrieri, Sergio; Liuzzo, Marco; Papale, Paolo; Shinohara, Hiroshi; Valenza, Mariano (2007). "Forecasting Etna eruptions by real-time observation of volcanic gas composition".
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and may progress to the point where a tectonic plate is completely split. A divergent plate boundary then develops between the two halves of the split plate. However, rifting often fails to completely split the continental lithosphere (such as in an
638:
Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically but are characterized by relatively gentle
1674:
Magmatic eruptions are driven primarily by gas release due to decompression. Low-viscosity magma with little dissolved gas produces relatively gentle effusive eruptions. High-viscosity magma with a high content of dissolved gas produces violent
468:
2089:(IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations-sponsored
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is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the Solar System, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In
February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the Solar System occurred on Io.
1902:
Previously a volcano was often considered to be extinct if there were no written records of its activity. Such a generalisation is inconsistent with observation and deeper study, as has occurred recently with the unexpected eruption of the
2650:, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface.
1693:
Strombolian eruptions are characterized by moderate viscosities and dissolved gas levels. They are characterized by frequent but short-lived eruptions that can produce eruptive columns hundreds of meters high, which can also be seen in
512:
at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are varied. The structure and behavior of volcanoes depend on several factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by
336:
zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. The oceanic plate subducts (dives beneath the continental plate), forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called
3579:
Lawrence, S.J.; Stopar, J.D.; Hawke, B.R.; Greenhagen, B.T.; Cahill, J.T.S.; Bandfield, J.L.; Jolliff, B.L.; Denevi, B.W.; Robinson, M.S.; Glotch, T.D.; Bussey, D.B.J.; Spudis, P.D.; Giguere, T.A.; Garry, W.B. (2013).
1151:
Mud volcanoes (mud domes) are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although several processes may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.
1624:(long dimension is several mm): the curved shapes of altered glass shards (ash fragments) are well preserved, although the glass is partly altered. The shapes were formed around bubbles of expanding, water-rich gas.
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1506:. These lavas are usually hotter and much less viscous than felsic lavas. Mafic magmas are formed by partial melting of the dry mantle, with limited fractional crystallization and assimilation of crustal material.
2045:
various levels and stages of volcanic activity. Some alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors and words. Some systems use a combination of both.
163:
Other planets besides Earth have volcanoes. For example, volcanoes are very numerous on Venus. In 2009, a paper was published suggesting a new definition for the word 'volcano' that includes processes such as
1163:
643:. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in
1628:
Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the rapid expansion of hot volcanic gases. Magma commonly explodes as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases
5293:
Marcari, G., G. Fabbrocino, and G. Manfredi. "Shear seismic capacity of tuff masonry panels in heritage constructions." Structural
Studies, Repairs and Maintenance of Heritage Architecture X 95 (2007):
5732:
Robinson, Cordula A.; Thornhill, Gill D.; Parfitt, Elisabeth A. (1995). "Large-scale volcanic activity at Maat Mons: Can this explain fluctuations in atmospheric chemistry observed by
Pioneer Venus?".
3647:
Berger, Melvin, Gilda Berger, and
Higgins Bond. "Volcanoes-why and how ." Why do volcanoes blow their tops?: Questions and answers about volcanoes and earthquakes. New York: Scholastic, 1999. 7. Print.
1724:
Plinian eruptions are the most violent of all volcanic eruptions. They are characterized by sustained huge eruption columns whose collapse produces catastrophic pyroclastic flows. They are named after
888:
like the one that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre in
Martinique in 1902. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30â35° compared to slopes of generally 5â10°, and their loose
2627:
has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as
253:, and most volcanic activity on Earth takes place along plate boundaries, where plates are converging (and lithosphere is being destroyed) or are diverging (and new lithosphere is being created).
1562:, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and were probably more fluid than common mafic lavas, with a viscosity less than a tenth that of hot basalt magma.
7305:
1841:
The USGS defines a volcano as "erupting" whenever the ejection of magma from any point on the volcano is visible, including visible magma still contained within the walls of the summit crater.
947:
Because of the enormous area they cover, and subsequent concealment under vegetation and glacial deposits, supervolcanoes can be difficult to identify in the geologic record without careful
5831:
1752:
are characterized by superheating of groundwater that comes in contact with hot rock or magma. They are distinguished from phreatomagmatic eruptions because the erupted material is all
2943:
with a central fire connected to numerous others depicting volcanoes as a type of safety valve. Edward Jorden, in his work on mineral waters, challenged this view; in 1632 he proposed
1810:(the last 11,700 years) lists 9,901 confirmed eruptions from 859 volcanoes. The database also lists 1,113 uncertain eruptions and 168 discredited eruptions for the same time interval.
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that gives rise to the name. They are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Classic examples include
1979:
Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the
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monitoring agencies all over the world. They took the form of unusual humming sounds, and some of the signals detected in
November of that year had a duration of up to 20 minutes. An
2880:'s migration through the Hawarian island chain, ability to destroy forests and manifestations of the god's temper, and (3) the association in Javanese folklore of a king resident in
6144:
Troll, VR; Deegan, FM; Jolis, EM; Budd, DA; Dahren, B; Schwarzkopf, LM (2015). "Ancient oral tradition describes volcanoâearthquake interaction at Merapi volcano, Indonesia".
3509:
Meresse, S.; Costard, F.O.; Mangold, N.; Masson, P.; Neukum, G. (2008). "Formation and evolution of the chaotic terrains by subsidence and magmatism: Hydraotes Chaos, Mars".
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Volcanoes are not distributed evenly over the Earth's surface but active ones with significant impact were encountered early in human history, evidenced by footprints of
3874:
1935:
Accordingly, it can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between an extinct volcano and a dormant (inactive) one. Long volcano dormancy is known to decrease awareness.
1052:
feeding on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or floating
991:
Volcanoes that, though large, are not large enough to be called supervolcanoes, may also form calderas in the same way; they are often described as "caldera volcanoes".
761:
Based on satellite images, it has been suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon.
3746:
Druitt, T. H.; Costa, F.; Deloule, E.; Dungan, M.; Scaillet, B. (2012). "Decadal to monthly timescales of magma transfer and reservoir growth at a caldera volcano".
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had demonstrated by 1794 that steam explosions could cause explosive eruptions and many geologists held this as the universal cause of explosive eruptions up to the
706:, the youngest volcano in El Salvador. Izalco erupted almost continuously from 1770 (when it formed) to 1958, earning it the nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific".
315:(also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, such as
4135:"Descriptive nomenclature and classification of pyroclastic deposits and fragments: recommendations of the IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks"
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5805:
4794:
1717:
Peléan eruptions are more violent still, being characterized by dome growth and collapse that produces various kinds of pyroclastic flows. They are named after
549:
in New
Zealand. Some volcanoes can be low-relief landform features, with the potential to be hard to recognise as such and be obscured by geological processes.
661:
Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of
3669:
1459:
of more mafic magmas. This is a process in which mafic minerals crystallize out of the slowly cooling magma, which enriches the remaining liquid in silica.
4911:"Constraints on the pre-eruptive magma storage conditions and magma evolution of the 56â30 ka explosive volcanism of Ciomadul (East Carpathians, Romania)"
2090:
1682:
Hawaiian eruptions are typical of volcanoes that erupt mafic lava with a relatively low gas content. These are almost entirely effusive, producing local
117:
has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's plates, such as in the
5478:
1666:
Eruption styles are broadly divided into magmatic, phreatomagmatic, and phreatic eruptions. The intensity of explosive volcanism is expressed using the
1071:
research campaign in May 2019 showed that the previously mysterious humming noises were caused by the formation of a submarine volcano off the coast of
428:
Sustained upwelling of hot mantle rock can develop under the interior of a continent and lead to rifting. Early stages of rifting are characterized by
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volcano and a queen resident at a beach 50 km (31 mi) away on what is now known to be an earthquake fault that interacts with that volcano.
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slab. Another process is magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir before emplacement or lava flow.
5538:
5228:
2832:, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the
572:, which are structures often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of
6558:
4909:
Cserép, B.; Szemerédi, M.; Harangi, S.; Erdmann, S.; Bachmann, O.; Dunkl, I.; Seghedi, I.; Mészåros, K.; Kovåcs, Z.; Viråg, A; Ntaflos, T. (2023).
2307:
Volcanic eruptions pose a significant threat to human civilization. However, volcanic activity has also provided humans with important resources.
1484:, by several processes. One process is the hydration melting of mantle peridotite followed by fractional crystallization. Water from a subducting
1633:. These violent explosions produce particles of material that can then fly from the volcano. Solid particles smaller than 2 mm in diameter (
4754:
6606:
1908:
depend mainly upon the state of the magma storage system under the volcano, the eruption trigger mechanism and its timescale. For example, the
5839:
1027:
basins, the tremendous weight of the water prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, submarine eruptions can be detected by
681:
was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge, which later collapsed down the north side of the mountain.
6322:
6344:
Berryman, Kelvin; Villamor, Pilar; Nairn, Ian.A.; Begg, John; Alloway, Brent V.; Rowland, Julie; Lee, Julie; Capote, Ramon (July 1, 2022).
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that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today. Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to major extinction events, such as the
669:. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but the lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent.
2857:
from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.
2757:, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into
4542:
4115:
237:
Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (oceanic spreading ridges) and recent sub-aerial volcanoes (mostly at convergent boundaries)
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Magma rich in silica is much more viscous than silica-poor magma, and silica-rich magma also tends to contain more dissolved gases.
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7229:
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structure, partial decompression melting of magma, and magma convection. This eventually led to the acceptance of plate tectonics.
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1433:
in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough to erupt high into the
4708:
1855:
While there is no international consensus among volcanologists on how to define an active volcano, the USGS defines a volcano as
357:. When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Thus subduction zones are bordered by chains of volcanoes called
4110:
3544:
BroĆŸ, P.; Hauber, E. (2012). "A unique volcanic field in
Tharsis, Mars: Pyroclastic cones as evidence for explosive eruptions".
1409:
Because felsic magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which leads to explosive volcanism.
263:
with more than one period of activity during their history; other volcanoes that become extinct after erupting exactly once are
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2256:, monitors nine volcanoes, two of which are Decade volcanoes. The focus of the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project is to use
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3214:
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proposed the core of Earth was incandescent and, by 1785, the works of Decartes and others were synthesised into geology by
2380:
aerosols that can reflect solar radiation and lower surface temperatures significantly. Sulfur dioxide from the eruption of
1456:
122:
7363:
4332:
2876:
the Athabascan subcultures about humans living inside mountains and a woman who uses fire to escape from a mountain, (2)
2257:
2249:
1980:
6346:"Volcano-tectonic interactions at the southern margin of the Okataina Volcanic Centre, TaupĆ Volcanic Zone, New Zealand"
5365:"Making Moai: Reconsidering Concepts of Risk in the Construction of Megalithic Architecture in Rapa Nui (Easter Island)"
2488:" because of the effect on North American and European weather. The freezing winter of 1740â41, which led to widespread
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ratios in real-time and in high-resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving
7315:
7300:
6599:
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3025:
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sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano
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2431:
blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. This can cause major disruptions to air travel.
915:
341:, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creating
6009:
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near the summit and on the northern flank. However, the interpretation of the flows as ash flows has been questioned.
1011:
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2004:
1972:
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245:, its rigid outer shell, is broken into sixteen larger and several smaller plates. These are in slow motion, due to
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Zaitsev, AN; Chakhmouradian, AR; Musiba, C (2023). "Laetoli: The Oldest Known Hominin Footprints in Volcanic Ash".
5305:
1921:
1729:
105:, and because most of Earth's plate boundaries are underwater, most volcanoes are found underwater. For example, a
6403:
3582:"LRO observations of morphology and surface roughness of volcanic cones and lobate lava flows in the Marius Hills"
2910:
However, others proposed more natural (but still incorrect) causes of volcanic activity. In the fifth century BC,
1590:
More silicic lava flows take the form of block lava, where the flow is covered with angular, vesicle-poor blocks.
7774:
7257:
6517:
6189:"Geomythology, theodicy, and the continuing relevance of religious worldviews on responses to volcanic eruptions"
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ranging from several times a year to once in tens of thousands of years. Volcanoes are informally described as
1224:
has erupted continuously for thousands of years, giving rise to its nickname "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".
1122:
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2427:
where the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the
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17:
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spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.
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5535:
5236:
4189:"Tunable diode laser measurements of hydrothermal/volcanic CO2 and implications for the global CO2 budget"
1016:
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volcano might not erupt close by with little or no warning as its field may have an active magma supply.
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analyzed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The
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Pedone, M.; Aiuppa, A.; Giudice, G.; Grassa, F.; Francofonte, V.; Bergsson, B.; Ilyinskaya, E. (2014).
4025:"Episodic massive mud eruptions from submarine mud volcanoes examined through topographical signatures"
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1920:
was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its unexpected
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35:
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Solar radiation graph 1958â2008, showing how the radiation is reduced after major volcanic eruptions
1101:, or (in Iceland) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland and in
7811:
6536:
6109:
Swanson, DA (2008). "Hawaiian oral tradition describes 400 years of volcanic activity at KÄ«lauea".
4645:
4604:
4543:"The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI): An Estimate of Explosive Magnitude for Historical Volcanism"
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in California is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.
145:
is an example. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.
134:
129:
in North America. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has been postulated to arise from upwelling
31:
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2184:
307:
are at the bottom of the oceans, and so most volcanic activity on Earth is submarine, forming new
7826:
7356:
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6404:"Arthur Holmes: Harnessing the Mechanics of Mantle Convection to the Theory of Continental Drift"
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5333:"The Judicious Selection and Preservation of Tuff and Travertine Building Stone in Ancient Rome*"
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168:. It suggested that a volcano be defined as 'an opening on a planet or moon's surface from which
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7267:
6506:
This is a reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.
6230:
Sigurdsson, H; Houghton, B; Rymer, H; Stix, J; McNutt, S (2000). "The history of volcanology".
1789:
1753:
6546:
5428:"A message from the 'underground forge of the gods': History and current eruptions at Mt Etna"
5426:
Thomaidis, K; Troll, VR; Deegan, FM; Freda, C; Corsaro, RA; Behncke, B; Rafailidis, S (2021).
5250:
4853:
Castro, J.; Dingwell, D. (2009). "Rapid ascent of rhyolitic magma at Chaitén volcano, Chile".
3622:
1863:, ground inflation, or unusually high levels of carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide are present.
1813:
Volcanoes vary greatly in their level of activity, with individual volcanic systems having an
1476:. Intermediate magmas are characteristic of stratovolcanoes. They are most commonly formed at
6628:
5809:
5767:
Mouginis-Mark, Peter J. (October 2016). "Geomorphology and volcanology of Maat Mons, Venus".
5136:
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1960:
in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE.
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269:(meaning "one life") and such volcanoes are often grouped together in a geographical region.
63:
43:
4683:
4100:
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
1318:. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example
841:
Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and
677:
Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The
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4825:"Mount Edgecumbe volcanic field changes from 'dormant' to 'active' -- what does that mean?"
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evacuation of 1991. This evacuation is believed to have saved 20,000 lives. In the case of
2417:
2178:
2031:. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano"
1983:
in the Pacific Ocean (although some volcanoes at the eastern end of the chain are active),
1949:
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that may include other features that form when magma comes into contact with water such as
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5164:
McGee, Kenneth A.; Doukas, Michael P.; Kessler, Richard; Gerlach, Terrence M. (May 1997).
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are not always at the top of a mountain or hill and may be filled with lakes such as with
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Courthouse News Service. By Candace Cheung. August 17, 2022. Downloaded August 17, 2022.
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by an effusive phase that rebuilds the central dome. Vulcanian eruptions are named after
1670:(VEI), which ranges from 0 for Hawaiian-type eruptions to 8 for supervolcanic eruptions.
1022:
Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. Volcanic activity during the
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emplaced by such eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of
900:. Big bombs can measure more than 1.2 meters (4 ft) across and weigh several tons.
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2689:, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include
2677:, "Mount Olympus"), located on the planet Mars, is the tallest known mountain in the
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47:
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Bindschadler, D.L. (1995). "Magellan: A new view of Venus' geology and geophysics".
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4962:"Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified"
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Mazzini, Adriano; Etiope, Giuseppe (May 2017). "Mud volcanism: An updated review".
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and the concepts of the underworld are aligned to volcanoes in that Greek culture.
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and highly fluid lava flows but relatively little tephra. They are named after the
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3387:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 380â384, 390.
2995:
work had brought together the concepts of radioactive generation of heat, Earth's
2423:
Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially
1200:
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air), which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor.
631:
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2709:. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European
2594:
2569:, a 2021 review found 77 deaths due to eruptions since 1536 but none since 1987.
2550:
2474:
2447:
2388:. Chemical reactions of sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere can also damage the
2342:
2316:
2008:
1807:
1641:
1558:, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at Earth's surface since the
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Lopes, R. M.; Mitchell, K. L.; Williams, D. A.; Mitri, G.; Gregg, T. K. (2009).
1125:
was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of
576:
volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.
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Video of lava agitating and bubbling in the volcanic eruption of Litli-HrĂștur (
291:
diverge from one another as hot mantle rock creeps upwards beneath the thinned
6531:
5521:
5496:
5306:"Home Away from Home: Ancestral Pueblo Fieldhouses in the Northern Rio Grande"
4960:
Chesner, C.A.; Rose, J.A.; Deino, W.I.; Drake, R.; Westgate, A. (March 1991).
4824:
4432:
4407:
2087:
International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior
1718:
1679:. The range of observed eruption styles is expressed from historical examples.
1441:
may travel hundreds of kilometers before it falls back to ground as a fallout
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2020:
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have still shown signs that they may be likely to erupt again in the future.
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If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called
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1948:, thought to be extinct until activity resumed in 1995 (turning its capital
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LiveScience. By Stephanie Pappas. June 15, 2011. Downloaded July 25, 2022.
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Jackson, M. D.; Marra, F.; Hay, R. L.; Cawood, C.; Winkler, E. M. (2005).
5143:. trans. JĂłhann Hannesson, PĂ©tur Karlsson. ReykjavĂk: Almenna bĂłkafĂ©lagiĂ°.
5069:"The significance of volcanic eruption strength and frequency for climate"
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3128:
735:
529:) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on the
148:
Large eruptions can affect atmospheric temperature as ash and droplets of
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Dolan, S.G.; Cates, K.M.; Conrad, C.N.; Copeland, S.R. (March 14, 2019).
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2765:, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the
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2012:
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Mafic lava flows show two varieties of surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced
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5188:"Supervolcano eruption â in Sumatra â deforested India 73,000 years ago"
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1968:
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is home to 20 Holocene volcanoes, 3 of which have erupted in last 100yrs
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Volcanoes in human history: the far-reaching effects of major eruptions
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3184:"What is a Volcano? How planetary volcanism has changed our definition"
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1996:
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1093:. They are made up of lava plateaus capping extensive pillow lavas and
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National Geographic. By Maya Wei-Haas. 2015. Downloaded June 24, 2022.
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eruptions from dry explosive eruption, of, as it turned out, a basalt
2951:(1571â1630) believed volcanoes were ducts for Earth's tears. In 1650,
2728:
is the most volcanically active object in the Solar System because of
2611:
volcano erupts a plume 330 km (205 mi) above the surface of
936:
Supervolcano eruptions, while the most dangerous type, are very rare;
538:
437:), and failed rifts are characterized by volcanoes that erupt unusual
137:, 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) deep within Earth. This results in
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6679:
5497:"Scientists' views about lay perceptions of volcanic hazard and risk"
5095:
4674:
MartĂ Molist, Joan (September 6, 2017). "Assessing Volcanic Hazard".
3084:
Rampino, M R; Self, S; Stothers, R B (May 1988). "Volcanic Winters".
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in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic eruption.
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87:
5832:"Exceptionally bright eruption on Io rivals largest in solar system"
3875:"Origin of mystery humming noises heard around the world, uncovered"
2136:
1742:. They are driven by the resulting rapid buildup of pressure in the
303:
of the rock, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most
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7130:
7094:
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Living under the shadow: The cultural impacts of volcanic eruptions
5166:"Impacts of Volcanic Gases on Climate, the Environment, and People"
4761:
Wired. August 15, 2015. By Erik Klimetti. Downloaded July 24, 2022.
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3059: â System for uniquely identifying volcanic features on Earth
2732:
interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt
2434:
1912:
volcano has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and
30:
This article is about the geological feature. For other uses, see
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6996:
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
4633:
Venzke, E. (compiler) (December 19, 2022). Venzke, Edward (ed.).
4592:
Venzke, E. (compiler) (December 19, 2022). Venzke, Edward (ed.).
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is thought to have taken place around 70,000 years ago after the
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2132:
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1988:
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Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions:
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Pinatubo: Why the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Wasn't the Deadliest
5116:
4795:"How is a volcano defined as being active, dormant, or extinct?"
3339:
2603:
2536:
Tourism associated with volcanoes is also a worldwide industry.
609:
Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which
113:, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates whereas the
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Large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province
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5806:"Glacial, volcanic and fluvial activity on Mars: latest images"
5575:
2006). "The constitution and structure of the lunar interior".
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proposed eruptions were caused by a great wind. By 65 CE,
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350:
156:. Historically, large volcanic eruptions have been followed by
130:
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About to blow: Are we ready for the next volcanic catastrophe?
4363:
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4250:
3315:
2918:
proposed combustion as the cause, an idea also adopted by the
1612:
1587:
flows as they move away from the vent, but never the reverse.
1269:, the name of magma when it emerges and flows over the surface
295:. The decrease of pressure in the rising mantle rock leads to
86:
below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called
7155:
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which allowed in one event differentiation of the concurrent
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2210:
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2016:
1511:
Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings. These include
1494:
1375:
1240:
893:
710:
Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of
402:
are thought to have been formed in such a manner, as has the
342:
172:, as defined for that body, and/or magmatic gas is erupted.'
169:
67:
7341:
5376:
Rapa NuiâEaster Island: Cultural and Historical Perspectives
5030:
4709:"Difference Between an Active, Dormant, and Extinct Volcano"
4476:
4440:
4375:
3401:
3129:"A Morphological and Spatial Analysis of Volcanoes on Venus"
2899:. The earliest known such example is a neolithic goddess at
2824:
also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the
2027:
in Scotland is located atop an extinct volcano, which forms
1464:
If the erupted magma contains 52â63% silica, the lava is of
1117:
in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such
414:. However, the mantle plume hypothesis has been questioned.
7651:
7424:
7175:
7089:
6795:
6768:
6748:
6652:
6229:
6030:
5945:
4989:
10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2
4464:
4452:
3927:"Tuyas, flat-topped volcanoes in northern British Columbia"
3881:
3684:
3665:
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2892:
2686:
2624:
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2484:
created global climate anomalies that became known as the "
2396:(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) can fall to the ground as
2376:
Volcanic gases can reach the stratosphere, where they form
1890:
In an article justifying the re-classification of Alaska's
1634:
1617:
1442:
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being part of the North American plate currently above the
71:
6573:
5254:. Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Donald Theodore Sanders (2002).
4739:
usgs.gov. Updated July 24, 2022. Downloaded July 24, 2022.
3482:
Wood, C.A. (1979). "Cindercones on Earth, Moon and Mars".
3181:
1894:
volcano from "dormant" to "active", volcanologists at the
7140:
6910:
6343:
5425:
5163:
4773:"Volcanic Hazards & Prediction of Volcanic Eruptions"
4186:
2947:"fermentation" as a heat source within Earth, Astronomer
2758:
2439:
2438:
Comparison of major United States prehistoric eruptions (
2329:(steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruptions of high-
1298:
is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by
525:. Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and
5905:"Cassini Finds an Atmosphere on Saturn's Moon Enceladus"
5731:
5303:
4488:
4387:
4351:
3745:
3298:"Do monogenetic volcanoes threaten the southwestern US?"
2458:
on Sumatra island in Indonesia. This may have created a
2400:. Excessive fluoride salts from eruptions have poisoned
2085:
The Decade Volcanoes are 16 volcanoes identified by the
764:
176:
6556:
U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency Volcano advice
5998:""Super Earth" May Really Be New Planet Type: Super-Io"
4752:
How We Tell if a Volcano Is Active, Dormant, or Extinct
2987:
built upon his other knowledge with his studies on the
2000:
1109:, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the
5863:"Chapter 44 - Cryovolcanism in the Outer Solar System"
2576:
1738:
are characterized by interaction of rising magma with
1015:
Satellite images of the January 15, 2022, eruption of
50:(Alaska) during its eruptive phase on January 24, 2006
6296:
Williams, Micheal (November 2007). "Hearts of fire".
5330:
5076:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
5066:
4959:
4632:
4591:
2802:
fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus
665:, but can also form independently, as in the case of
6143:
5357:
5119:"Volcanic Eruption Of 1600 Caused Global Disruption"
5067:
Miles, M.G.; Grainger, R.G.; Highwood, E.J. (2004).
3904:(Fourth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3006:
2887:
Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to
1662:
Schematic of volcano injection of aerosols and gases
1548:
Some erupted magmas contain â€45% silica and produce
1294:
can vary considerably from one volcano to the next.
353:
content, so it often does not reach the surface but
241:
According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth's
5800:
5798:
5117:University of California â Davis (April 25, 2008).
3083:
2860:
2529:flow from Earth's interior. These can be tapped as
2091:
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
1878:, India, is classified as a dormant volcano by the
1097:. These volcanoes are also called table mountains,
175:This article mainly covers volcanoes on Earth. See
6430:
6225:
6223:
6221:
6219:
6217:
6215:
5494:
4747:
4745:
4229:
3703:Francis, Peter (1983). "Giant Volcanic Calderas".
3668:Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. August 21, 2015.
3065: â Institution that monitors volcano activity
2357:. These can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes,
2093:(the 1990s). The 16 current Decade Volcanoes are:
634:, a shield volcano whose name means "broad shield"
556:(or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of
27:Rupture in a planet's crust where material escapes
6146:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography
5324:
5287:
4023:Kioka, Arata; Ashi, Juichiro (October 28, 2015).
3872:
1400:and are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows.
884:that produce great quantities of ash, as well as
605:, has a chain of volcanic cones along its length.
7788:
5795:
5421:
5419:
5417:
5415:
4787:
2761:on the frigid surface. This process is known as
2337:), effusive eruptions of low-silica lava (e.g.,
496:The most common perception of a volcano is of a
6428:
6321:. Wellington, New Zealand: Government Printer.
6212:
5869:, Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 763â776,
5297:
4742:
4541:Newhall, Christopher G.; Self, Stephen (1982).
4506:
4294:
4128:
4126:
3800:
3621:Lockwood, John P.; Hazlett, Richard W. (2010).
3620:
3385:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
3219:Mind over Magma: The Story of Igneous Petrology
3127:Hahn, Rebecca M.; Byrne, Paul K. (April 2023).
93:On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where
6614:
6350:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
6111:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
5867:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Second Edition)
5388:
5386:
5384:
4852:
1647:
517:rather than a summit crater while others have
322:
7357:
7223:
6600:
6198:. Walnut Creek: Left Coast. pp. 203â24.
6186:
5766:
5412:
4904:
4902:
4900:
4848:
4846:
4470:
4458:
4446:
4381:
4369:
4333:"Exploring the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes"
4319:
4299:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 210â211.
4295:Fisher, Richard V.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1984).
4256:
3977:
3900:Allaby, Michael, ed. (July 4, 2013). "Tuya".
3887:
3690:
3419:
3382:
3086:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
3048: â Research to predict volcanic activity
1031:and by the discoloration of water because of
272:
6180:
5696:
5279:. Princeton University Press. Archived from
5226:
5135:
5010:"Volcanic Alert Levels of Various Countries"
4673:
4408:"The off-crust origin of granite batholiths"
4123:
4119:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3460:David S.G. Thomas and Andrew Goudie (eds.),
3383:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
734:on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.
361:. Typical examples are the volcanoes in the
6433:Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii
6077:"The volcano in Athabascan oral narratives"
5381:
4953:
4915:Contribribtions to Mineralogy and Petrology
4676:Oxford Handbook Topics in Physical Sciences
4540:
4517:
4515:
3430:
3428:
3360:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy
3296:Hsu-Buffalo, Charlotte (November 4, 2021).
3295:
1498:(because it contains higher percentages of
533:and may give rise to smaller cones such as
394:are volcanic areas thought to be formed by
7364:
7350:
7230:
7216:
6607:
6593:
6489:
6451:
6429:Macdonald, Gordon; Abbott, Agatin (1970).
5653:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012
5627:. Oregon State University. January 4, 2012
5495:Donovan, A; Eiser, JR; Sparks, RS (2014).
4897:
4843:
4764:
4626:
4227:
3902:A dictionary of geology and earth sciences
3543:
3454:
1866:
1859:whenever subterranean indicators, such as
938:four are known from the last million years
177:§ Volcanoes on other celestial bodies
6452:Marti, Joan & Ernst, Gerald. (2005).
6379:
6369:
6272:
5967:"Hydrocarbon volcano discovered on Titan"
5520:
5348:
4944:
4934:
4801:. Oregon State University. Archived from
4521:
4494:
4482:
4431:
4393:
4357:
4337:Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska
4212:
4088:
4086:
4048:
4022:
4007:
3775:
3605:
3407:
3345:
3333:
3321:
3268:
3126:
1306:. Other principal volcanic gases include
603:major world climate alteration of 1783â84
493:, typically a volcanic cone or mountain.
6475:. Australian National University Press.
6318:Report on the Tarawera volcanic district
6295:
5860:
5673:"A Lunar Mystery: The Gruithuisen Domes"
4512:
4274:Lassen Volcanic National Park California
4105:
3586:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
3425:
3133:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
3031:List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
2925:(1602â1680), who witnessed eruptions of
2665:
2602:
2539:
2502:Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit
2433:
2287:
2279:
2052:
1967:
1870:
1764:
1657:
1611:
1378:contains a high percentage (>63%) of
1347:
1211:
1199:
1192:. The picture shows overflows of a main
1183:
1159:
1089:Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath
1010:
768:
698:
626:
589:
462:
445:. Examples include the volcanoes of the
232:
160:which have caused catastrophic famines.
42:
6108:
6002:National Geographic web site daily news
5995:
5274:
4706:
4132:
3924:
3833:
3702:
3537:
3357:
3351:
2808:. The ejecta may be composed of water,
2685:There are several extinct volcanoes on
2631:(the darker patches seen on the Moon),
2275:
2039:
1078:
203:of Italy whose name in turn comes from
14:
7789:
6470:
6314:
5996:Jaggard, Victoria (February 5, 2010).
5578:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
5392:
4771:Nelson, Stephen A. (October 4, 2016).
4770:
4639:Volcanoes of the World (Version 5.0.1)
4635:"How many active volcanoes are there?"
4598:Volcanoes of the World (Version 5.0.1)
4585:
4405:
4083:
3899:
3873:Ashley Strickland (January 10, 2020).
3849:Volcanoes of the World (version 4.9.1)
3842:"How many active volcanoes are there?"
3839:
3816:Volcanoes of the World (version 4.9.1)
3806:
3041:Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions
2937:and published his view of an Earth in
1803:database of volcanic eruptions in the
1577:
1567:
1554:lava. Ultramafic flows, also known as
1208:) eruption 2023. View from an airplane
994:
944:and ash released into the atmosphere.
417:
7345:
7211:
6588:
6254:
6194:. In Grattan, J; Torrence, R (eds.).
5935:
4707:Pariona, Amber (September 19, 2019).
4684:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190699420.013.32
3572:
3212:
2515:people used tuff to make most of the
1637:or smaller) are called volcanic ash.
1059:In May and June 2018, a multitude of
1044:are common near these volcanoes, and
809:Layers of lava emitted by the volcano
765:Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)
7745:
6325:from the original on August 29, 2023
6074:
5275:Ă GrĂĄda, Cormac (February 6, 2009).
3925:Mathews, W. H. (September 1, 1947).
3481:
3462:The Dictionary of Physical Geography
3275:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 13â20.
2303:, during an eruption in October 2005
1899:USGS still widely employs the term.
1760:
1232:can be classified into three types:
1105:. The origin of the term comes from
986:
896:. Large pieces of tephra are called
803:Layers of ash emitted by the volcano
452:
123:Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field
7769:
5838:. November 13, 2002. Archived from
5393:Kiprop, Joseph (January 18, 2019).
4730:Kilauea eruption confined to crater
4228:Casq, R.A.F.; Wright, J.V. (1987).
3106:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445
2577:Volcanoes on other celestial bodies
2373:often accompany volcanic activity.
2258:Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System
2250:Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project
2048:
1594:flows typically consist largely of
1445:. Volcanic gases may remain in the
1228:The material that is expelled in a
1155:
616:
345:. This magma tends to be extremely
211:. The study of volcanoes is called
24:
7237:
6490:SigurĂ°sson, Haraldur, ed. (2015).
6421:
6234:. Academic Press. pp. 15â37.
5875:10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00044-4
5861:Geissler, Paul (January 1, 2015),
5227:O'Hanlon, Larry (March 14, 2005).
3026:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes
2583:List of extraterrestrial volcanoes
2412:and thus provide a deep source of
2404:in Iceland on multiple occasions.
2161:, Democratic Republic of the Congo
916:List of largest volcanic eruptions
222:
25:
7843:
6511:
5865:, in Sigurdsson, Haraldur (ed.),
5168:. United States Geological Survey
3725:10.1038/scientificamerican0683-60
3672:from the original on July 3, 2017
1973:Capulin Volcano National Monument
1279:
903:
746:are examples of cinder cones. In
679:1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
152:obscure the Sun and cool Earth's
7768:
7756:
7744:
7733:
7732:
7503:
6396:
6371:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107552
6337:
6308:
6289:
6248:
6187:Chester, DK; Duncan, AM (2007).
6137:
6131:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.01.033
6102:
6067:
6024:
5989:
5959:
5936:Smith, Yvette (March 15, 2012).
5929:
5913:. March 16, 2005. Archived from
5897:
5854:
5350:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2005.00215.x
5153:
4406:Castro, Antonio (January 2014).
4236:. Unwin Hyman Inc. p. 528.
4093:
3658:"Questions About Supervolcanoes"
3464:(Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 301.
3009:
2861:History of volcano understanding
1730:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
1290:The concentrations of different
1263:S, depending on the temperature)
1247:, and a sulfur compound (either
1140:
1046:some support peculiar ecosystems
579:
7258:Prediction of volcanic activity
5824:
5760:
5734:Journal of Geophysical Research
5725:
5690:
5665:
5639:
5613:
5567:
5548:
5529:
5488:
5469:
5395:"Why Is Volcanic Soil Fertile?"
5268:
5243:
5220:
5198:
5180:
5147:
5129:
5110:
5060:
5024:
5002:
4817:
4723:
4700:
4667:
4551:Journal of Geophysical Research
4534:
4399:
4325:
4288:
4262:
4221:
4180:
4057:
4016:
4000:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.03.001
3971:
3918:
3893:
3866:
3739:
3696:
3650:
3641:
3614:
3502:
3475:
3376:
3269:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
3046:Prediction of volcanic activity
2969:1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera
2891:causes, such as the actions of
2270:prediction of volcanic activity
1981:HawaiianâEmperor seamount chain
1924:, which destroyed the towns of
1220:stratovolcano off the coast of
778:(vertical scale is exaggerated)
684:
552:Other types of volcano include
6494:(2 ed.). Academic Press.
6456:. Cambridge University Press.
6437:. University of Hawaii Press.
6084:Alaska Journal of Anthropology
5973:. June 8, 2005. Archived from
5501:Journal of Applied Volcanology
5206:"When humans faced extinction"
4528:University of California Press
3624:Volcanoes: Global Perspectives
3289:
3262:
3237:
3206:
3175:
3120:
3077:
3052:Timeline of volcanism on Earth
1795:As of December 2022, the
1123:Tuya Mountains Provincial Park
967:(both western United States);
672:
13:
1:
7371:
7326:Quaternary volcanic eruptions
6492:The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes
6454:Volcanoes and the Environment
4654:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW5-2022.5.0
4613:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW5-2022.5.0
4522:Heiken, G. & Wohletz, K.
3070:
2933:, then visited the crater of
1728:, who chronicled the Plinian
1423:Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
1337:
650:
355:cools and solidifies at depth
6537:Resources in other libraries
5789:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.05.022
5229:"Yellowstone's Super Sister"
4029:Geophysical Research Letters
3566:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030
3531:10.1016/j.icarus.2007.10.023
3422:, pp. 390â394, 396â397.
3358:Foulger, Gillian R. (2010).
2989:1902 eruption of Mount Pelée
2753:, the smallest of Jupiter's
2406:Explosive volcanic eruptions
1631:when it flows to the surface
1425:, formed by the eruption of
925:-forming eruption. Ash flow
373:, or the eastern islands of
195:is derived from the name of
186:
7:
6053:10.2138/gselements.19.2.104
6006:National Geographic Society
4507:Fisher & Schmincke 1984
3932:American Journal of Science
3484:Lunar and Planetary Science
3002:
2495:
2408:release the greenhouse gas
2386:Russian famine of 1601â1603
2323:types of volcanic eruptions
1836:
1698:. Their primary product is
1654:Types of volcanic eruptions
1648:Types of volcanic eruptions
1382:, the lava is described as
1239:, a mixture made mostly of
1133:near the boundary with the
892:are material for dangerous
730:. Cinder cones may form as
720:monogenetic volcanic fields
380:
323:Convergent plate boundaries
199:, a volcanic island in the
10:
7848:
7316:Largest volcanic eruptions
7301:Extraterrestrial volcanoes
7263:Volcanic explosivity index
7193:
6574:"Global Volcanism Program"
5938:"Enceladus, Saturn's Moon"
5370:November 14, 2022, at the
5256:Princeton University Press
5141:Hekla, A Notorious Volcano
4936:10.1007/s00410-023-02075-z
4829:Alaska Volcano Observatory
3188:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
3036:List of volcanic landforms
2867:Volcanology § History
2864:
2646:has a surface that is 90%
2580:
2499:
2314:
2310:
2074:
1963:
1896:Alaska Volcano Observatory
1880:Geological Survey of India
1848:
1668:Volcanic Explosivity Index
1651:
1616:Light-microscope image of
1605:
1457:fractional crystallization
1341:
1283:
1144:
1082:
1004:
998:
913:
907:
834:
688:
654:
620:
583:
456:
421:
384:
326:
305:divergent plate boundaries
276:
273:Divergent plate boundaries
249:in the underlying ductile
226:
29:
7728:
7670:
7512:
7501:
7379:
7291:
7245:
7189:
7108:
7070:
6989:
6894:
6846:
6724:
6693:
6635:
6626:
6532:Resources in your library
6261:Annals of Medical History
6232:Encyclopedia of volcanoes
5522:10.1186/s13617-014-0015-5
5277:"Famine: A Short History"
4471:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4459:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4447:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4433:10.1016/j.gsf.2013.06.006
4382:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4370:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4320:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4257:Philpotts & Ague 2009
4071:. Smithsonian Institution
3888:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3691:Philpotts & Ague 2009
3420:Philpotts & Ague 2009
2549:, and the application of
2325:and associated activity:
2321:There are many different
2260:instruments to measure CO
1944:volcano on the island of
1916:of around 380,000 years.
1844:
1736:Phreatomagmatic eruptions
1601:
1330:, organic compounds, and
1063:signals were detected by
1017:Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai
957:Yellowstone National Park
951:. Known examples include
845:in alternate layers, the
758:of over 60 cinder cones.
521:features such as massive
36:Volcanic (disambiguation)
7407:Cryptovolcanic structure
7331:Volcanic eruption deaths
7311:Large volcanic eruptions
6561:August 27, 2021, at the
5942:Image of the Day Gallery
5560:August 17, 2022, at the
4646:Global Volcanism Program
4605:Global Volcanism Program
4069:Global Volcanism Program
3847:Global Volcanism Program
3840:Venzke, E., ed. (2013).
3814:Global Volcanism Program
3807:Venzke, E., ed. (2013).
3662:Volcanic Hazards Program
3213:Young, Davis A. (2003).
2903:. The Ancient Greek god
2853:in 2009, suggested that
2849:, which was detected by
2062:Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky
2015:, and many volcanoes in
1801:Global Volcanism Program
1467:intermediate composition
857:in the Philippines, and
774:Cross-section through a
32:Volcano (disambiguation)
7688:Eruptions by death toll
6578:Smithsonian Institution
5363:Richards, Colin. 2016.
4643:Smithsonian Institution
4602:Smithsonian Institution
4572:10.1029/JC087iC02p01231
4339:. National Park Service
4276:. National Park Service
4116:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
4065:"El Salvador Volcanoes"
3853:Smithsonian Institution
3820:Smithsonian Institution
3809:"Holocene Volcano List"
3348:, pp. 18, 106â107.
3336:, pp. 18, 113â126.
2744:rock, and as a result,
2295:concentration over the
2254:Deep Carbon Observatory
2252:, an initiative of the
2213:, Canary Islands, Spain
2185:Santa Maria/Santiaguito
1867:Dormant and reactivated
1797:Smithsonian Institution
1702:. They are named after
1579:[paËËho.eËho.e]
1502:(Mg) and iron (Fe)) or
875:of stratovolcanoes has
7268:Volcanic Seven Summits
6471:Ollier, Cliff (1969).
5541:July 19, 2022, at the
5481:July 25, 2022, at the
5137:Thorarinsson, Sigurdur
4757:July 25, 2022, at the
4735:July 17, 2022, at the
4214:10.5194/se-5-1209-2014
3627:. Wiley. p. 552.
3436:"Anatomy of a Volcano"
3324:, pp. 17â18, 276.
2959:in his writings about
2682:
2620:
2511:for construction. The
2443:
2355:volcanic gas emissions
2304:
2285:
2072:
2060:volcano towering over
1976:
1883:
1792:
1790:House of the Centenary
1756:; no magma is erupted.
1663:
1625:
1363:
1225:
1209:
1197:
1188:PÄhoehoe lava flow on
1181:
1019:
832:
726:explosion craters and
707:
635:
606:
481:
238:
183:for more information.
51:
6315:Hutton, F.W. (1887).
5977:on September 19, 2007
5836:W.M. Keck Observatory
5810:European Space Agency
5699:Reviews of Geophysics
5599:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.3
4581:on December 13, 2013.
3980:Earth-Science Reviews
3959:on September 29, 2011
3953:10.2475/ajs.245.9.560
3440:National Park Service
2669:
2606:
2587:Volcanism on the Moon
2540:Safety considerations
2486:Year Without a Summer
2480:The 1815 eruption of
2460:population bottleneck
2437:
2418:biogeochemical cycles
2291:
2283:
2056:
1971:
1874:
1768:
1661:
1615:
1539:; and as continental
1478:convergent boundaries
1355:eruption in 1994, in
1351:
1215:
1203:
1187:
1171:
1014:
772:
702:
630:
593:
475:
457:Further information:
236:
207:, the god of fire in
64:planetary-mass object
46:
7196:Geographical feature
7032:Volcanic crater lake
6300:. No. 11â2007.
6257:"Athanasius Kircher"
5283:on January 12, 2016.
5194:. November 24, 2009.
4412:Geoscience Frontiers
4232:Volcanic Successions
4133:Schmidt, R. (1981).
4050:10.1002/2015GL065713
3225:on November 12, 2015
3153:10.1029/2023je007753
2842:A 2010 study of the
2778:spacecraft observed
2392:, and acids such as
2384:may have caused the
2297:Sierra Negra Volcano
2276:Volcanoes and humans
2179:Kagoshima Prefecture
2105:(grouped together),
2040:Volcanic-alert level
1174:San Miguel (volcano)
1079:Subglacial volcanoes
601:, the source of the
371:Japanese Archipelago
363:Pacific Ring of Fire
349:because of its high
215:, sometimes spelled
135:coreâmantle boundary
115:Pacific Ring of Fire
58:is a rupture in the
7822:Volcanoes by status
7283:Volcano observatory
6362:2022JVGR..42707552B
6158:2015GeAnA..97..137T
6123:2008JVGR..176..427S
6045:2023Eleme..19..104Z
6012:on February 9, 2010
5812:. February 25, 2005
5781:2016Icar..277..433M
5746:1995JGR...10011755R
5711:1995RvGeo..33S.459B
5591:2006RvMG...60..221W
5513:2014JApV....3...15D
5476:Volcano Safety Tips
5447:2021GeolT..37..141T
5208:. BBC. June 9, 2003
5088:2004QJRMS.130.2361M
5046:2007Geo....35.1115A
4981:1991Geo....19..200C
4946:20.500.11850/646219
4927:2023CoMP..178...96C
4875:10.1038/nature08458
4867:2009Natur.461..780C
4805:on January 12, 2013
4775:. Tulane University
4564:1982JGR....87.1231N
4485:, pp. 131â132.
4424:2014GeoFr...5...63C
4205:2014SolE....5.1209P
4151:1981GeoRu..70..794S
4041:2015GeoRL..42.8406K
3992:2017ESRv..168...81M
3945:1947AmJS..245..560M
3768:10.1038/nature10706
3760:2012Natur.482...77D
3717:1983SciAm.248f..60F
3705:Scientific American
3598:2013JGRE..118..615L
3558:2012Icar..218...88B
3523:2008Icar..194..487M
3496:1979LPI....10.1370W
3410:, pp. 108â110.
3362:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3200:2009AGUFM.V21H..08L
3145:2023JGRE..12807753H
3098:1988AREPS..16...73R
3063:Volcano observatory
2965:Lazzaro Spallanzani
2940:Mundus Subterraneus
2800:probe photographed
2782:(ice volcanoes) on
2353:(debris flows) and
2231:Nagasaki Prefecture
2066:Kamchatka Peninsula
2007:in New Mexico, US,
1958:Fourpeaked Mountain
1815:eruption recurrence
1677:explosive eruptions
1176:degassing in 2022.
995:Submarine volcanoes
953:Yellowstone Caldera
882:explosive eruptions
785:Large magma chamber
418:Continental rifting
412:Yellowstone hotspot
408:Yellowstone Caldera
329:Convergent boundary
7817:Volcanic landforms
7802:Geological hazards
7683:Lists of volcanoes
7470:Subglacial volcano
7445:Pyroclastic shield
6255:Major, RH (1939).
6166:10.1111/geoa.12099
5677:Moon: NASA Science
5239:on March 14, 2005.
5082:(602): 2361â2376.
4159:10.1007/BF01822152
3607:10.1002/jgre.20060
2961:igneous intrusions
2923:Athanasius Kircher
2916:Seneca the Younger
2834:Kuiper Belt Object
2794:, and in 2005 the
2683:
2621:
2599:Volcanism on Venus
2444:
2327:phreatic eruptions
2305:
2286:
2223:, Papua New Guinea
2077:Lists of volcanoes
2073:
1977:
1884:
1793:
1750:Phreatic eruptions
1688:Hawaiian volcanoes
1664:
1626:
1435:Earth's atmosphere
1364:
1226:
1210:
1198:
1182:
1085:Subglacial volcano
1042:Hydrothermal vents
1020:
1007:Subaqueous volcano
886:pyroclastic surges
873:explosive eruption
833:
708:
641:effusive eruptions
636:
607:
500:mountain, spewing
482:
459:Types of volcanoes
299:expansion and the
279:Divergent boundary
239:
111:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
70:, that allows hot
52:
7784:
7783:
7537:Basaltic andesite
7475:Submarine volcano
7339:
7338:
7205:
7204:
7116:Artificial island
7022:Submarine volcano
6931:Continental shelf
6898:coastal landforms
6694:Continental plain
6629:List of landforms
6518:Library resources
6501:978-0-12-385938-9
6482:978-0-7081-0532-0
6463:978-0-521-59254-3
6444:978-0-870-22495-9
6075:Fast, PA (2008).
5917:on March 10, 2007
5884:978-0-12-385938-9
5842:on August 6, 2017
5754:10.1029/95JE00147
5719:10.1029/95RG00281
5455:10.1111/gto.12362
5233:Discovery Channel
5054:10.1130/G24149A.1
5040:(12): 1115â1118.
5012:. Volcanolive.com
4861:(7265): 780â783.
4693:978-0-19-069942-0
4594:"Database Search"
4558:(C2): 1231â1238.
4372:, pp. 15â16.
4297:Pyroclastic rocks
4243:978-0-04-552022-0
4035:(20): 8406â8414.
3634:978-1-4051-6250-0
3369:978-1-4051-6148-0
2659:, in the form of
2591:Volcanism on Mars
2394:hydrogen chloride
2347:pyroclastic flows
2301:Galapagos Islands
1975:in New Mexico, US
1940:the long-dormant
1922:eruption of 79 CE
1861:earthquake swarms
1761:Volcanic activity
1726:Pliny the Younger
1640:Tephra and other
1537:continental crust
1411:Pyroclastic flows
1334:metal chlorides.
1316:hydrogen fluoride
1312:hydrogen chloride
1230:volcanic eruption
1169:
1129:and south of the
1001:Submarine volcano
987:Caldera volcanoes
981:Ngorongoro Crater
979:, Indonesia; and
473:
453:Volcanic features
447:East African Rift
404:Snake River Plain
387:Hotspot (geology)
367:Cascade Volcanoes
139:hotspot volcanism
119:East African Rift
82:to escape from a
48:Augustine Volcano
16:(Redirected from
7839:
7772:
7771:
7760:
7748:
7747:
7736:
7735:
7693:Decade Volcanoes
7671:Lists and groups
7662:Pyroclastic flow
7657:Pyroclastic fall
7507:
7440:Pyroclastic cone
7366:
7359:
7352:
7343:
7342:
7253:Decade Volcanoes
7232:
7225:
7218:
7209:
7208:
7151:Land reclamation
7047:Volcanic plateau
6609:
6602:
6595:
6586:
6585:
6581:
6505:
6486:
6467:
6448:
6436:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6410:
6400:
6394:
6393:
6383:
6373:
6341:
6335:
6334:
6332:
6330:
6312:
6306:
6305:
6302:Korean Air Lines
6293:
6287:
6286:
6276:
6252:
6246:
6245:
6227:
6210:
6209:
6193:
6184:
6178:
6177:
6141:
6135:
6134:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6097:
6095:
6081:
6071:
6065:
6064:
6028:
6022:
6021:
6019:
6017:
6008:. Archived from
5993:
5987:
5986:
5984:
5982:
5963:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5952:
5933:
5927:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5901:
5895:
5894:
5893:
5891:
5858:
5852:
5851:
5849:
5847:
5828:
5822:
5821:
5819:
5817:
5802:
5793:
5792:
5764:
5758:
5757:
5729:
5723:
5722:
5694:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5669:
5663:
5662:
5660:
5658:
5647:"Sinuous Rilles"
5643:
5637:
5636:
5634:
5632:
5617:
5611:
5610:
5571:
5565:
5552:
5546:
5533:
5527:
5526:
5524:
5492:
5486:
5473:
5467:
5466:
5432:
5423:
5410:
5409:
5407:
5405:
5390:
5379:
5361:
5355:
5354:
5352:
5328:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5317:
5301:
5295:
5291:
5285:
5284:
5272:
5266:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5235:. Archived from
5224:
5218:
5217:
5215:
5213:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5184:
5178:
5177:
5175:
5173:
5157:
5156:
5151:
5145:
5144:
5133:
5127:
5126:
5114:
5108:
5107:
5096:10.1256/qj.03.60
5073:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5028:
5022:
5021:
5019:
5017:
5006:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4995:
4966:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4948:
4938:
4906:
4895:
4894:
4850:
4841:
4840:
4838:
4836:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4791:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4768:
4762:
4749:
4740:
4727:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4711:. WorldAtlas.com
4704:
4698:
4697:
4671:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4660:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4619:
4589:
4583:
4582:
4580:
4574:. Archived from
4547:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4519:
4510:
4504:
4498:
4492:
4486:
4480:
4474:
4468:
4462:
4456:
4450:
4444:
4438:
4437:
4435:
4403:
4397:
4391:
4385:
4379:
4373:
4367:
4361:
4355:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4329:
4323:
4322:, p. 73-77.
4317:
4311:
4310:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4266:
4260:
4259:, p. 70-72.
4254:
4248:
4247:
4235:
4225:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4199:(2): 1209â1221.
4184:
4178:
4177:
4175:
4173:
4130:
4121:
4120:
4099:
4097:
4096:
4090:
4081:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4061:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3955:. Archived from
3922:
3916:
3915:
3897:
3891:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3837:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3804:
3798:
3797:
3779:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3654:
3648:
3645:
3639:
3638:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3506:
3500:
3499:
3479:
3473:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3432:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3380:
3374:
3373:
3355:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3221:. Archived from
3210:
3204:
3203:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3124:
3118:
3117:
3081:
3019:
3017:Volcanoes portal
3014:
3013:
2531:geothermal power
2506:Geothermal power
2475:mass extinctions
2468:Permian-Triassic
2343:sector collapses
2159:Mount Nyiragongo
2113:Nevado de Colima
2081:Decade Volcanoes
2049:Decade volcanoes
2025:Edinburgh Castle
1876:Narcondam Island
1581:
1571:
1521:Hawaiian Islands
1517:Shield volcanoes
1513:mid-ocean ridges
1388:. Felsic lavas (
1308:hydrogen sulfide
1257:hydrogen sulfide
1170:
1156:Erupted material
1103:British Columbia
971:in New Zealand;
949:geologic mapping
871:produced by the
663:Mount St. Helens
617:Shield volcanoes
597:fissure vent in
543:Volcanic craters
491:
490:
489:volcanic edifice
480:), Iceland, 2023
474:
400:Hawaiian Islands
285:mid-ocean ridges
158:volcanic winters
143:Hawaiian hotspot
21:
7847:
7846:
7842:
7841:
7840:
7838:
7837:
7836:
7812:Plate tectonics
7787:
7786:
7785:
7780:
7724:
7666:
7632:Tephriphonolite
7508:
7499:
7495:Harmonic tremor
7397:Complex volcano
7375:
7370:
7340:
7335:
7287:
7273:Volcanic winter
7241:
7236:
7206:
7201:
7198:
7185:
7121:Artificial reef
7104:
7066:
7042:Volcanic island
7027:Volcanic crater
6985:
6981:Volcanic island
6961:Mid-ocean ridge
6897:
6890:
6842:
6720:
6689:
6631:
6622:
6613:
6572:
6563:Wayback Machine
6543:
6542:
6541:
6526:
6525:
6521:
6514:
6509:
6502:
6483:
6464:
6445:
6424:
6422:Further reading
6419:
6418:
6408:
6406:
6402:
6401:
6397:
6342:
6338:
6328:
6326:
6313:
6309:
6294:
6290:
6253:
6249:
6242:
6228:
6213:
6206:
6191:
6185:
6181:
6142:
6138:
6107:
6103:
6093:
6091:
6079:
6072:
6068:
6029:
6025:
6015:
6013:
5994:
5990:
5980:
5978:
5965:
5964:
5960:
5950:
5948:
5934:
5930:
5920:
5918:
5903:
5902:
5898:
5889:
5887:
5885:
5859:
5855:
5845:
5843:
5830:
5829:
5825:
5815:
5813:
5804:
5803:
5796:
5765:
5761:
5730:
5726:
5705:(S1): 459â467.
5695:
5691:
5681:
5679:
5671:
5670:
5666:
5656:
5654:
5645:
5644:
5640:
5630:
5628:
5619:
5618:
5614:
5572:
5568:
5562:Wayback Machine
5553:
5549:
5543:Wayback Machine
5534:
5530:
5493:
5489:
5483:Wayback Machine
5474:
5470:
5430:
5424:
5413:
5403:
5401:
5391:
5382:
5372:Wayback Machine
5362:
5358:
5329:
5325:
5315:
5313:
5302:
5298:
5292:
5288:
5273:
5269:
5248:
5244:
5225:
5221:
5211:
5209:
5204:
5203:
5199:
5186:
5185:
5181:
5171:
5169:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5134:
5130:
5115:
5111:
5071:
5065:
5061:
5029:
5025:
5015:
5013:
5008:
5007:
5003:
4993:
4991:
4964:
4958:
4954:
4907:
4898:
4851:
4844:
4834:
4832:
4823:
4822:
4818:
4808:
4806:
4793:
4792:
4788:
4778:
4776:
4769:
4765:
4759:Wayback Machine
4750:
4743:
4737:Wayback Machine
4728:
4724:
4714:
4712:
4705:
4701:
4694:
4678:. Vol. 1.
4672:
4668:
4658:
4656:
4631:
4627:
4617:
4615:
4590:
4586:
4578:
4545:
4539:
4535:
4520:
4513:
4505:
4501:
4497:, pp. 132.
4493:
4489:
4481:
4477:
4469:
4465:
4457:
4453:
4445:
4441:
4404:
4400:
4392:
4388:
4380:
4376:
4368:
4364:
4356:
4352:
4342:
4340:
4331:
4330:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4307:
4293:
4289:
4279:
4277:
4268:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4226:
4222:
4185:
4181:
4171:
4169:
4131:
4124:
4109:, ed. (1911). "
4094:
4092:
4091:
4084:
4074:
4072:
4063:
4062:
4058:
4021:
4017:
3976:
3972:
3962:
3960:
3923:
3919:
3912:
3898:
3894:
3886:
3882:
3871:
3867:
3857:
3855:
3838:
3834:
3824:
3822:
3805:
3801:
3754:(7383): 77â80.
3744:
3740:
3701:
3697:
3689:
3685:
3675:
3673:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3619:
3615:
3577:
3573:
3542:
3538:
3507:
3503:
3480:
3476:
3459:
3455:
3445:
3443:
3434:
3433:
3426:
3418:
3414:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3356:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3332:
3328:
3320:
3316:
3306:
3304:
3294:
3290:
3283:
3267:
3263:
3253:
3251:
3243:
3242:
3238:
3228:
3226:
3211:
3207:
3180:
3176:
3125:
3121:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3015:
3008:
3005:
2973:phreatomagmatic
2949:Johannes Kepler
2869:
2863:
2822:CassiniâHuygens
2810:liquid nitrogen
2797:CassiniâHuygens
2601:
2595:Volcanism on Io
2579:
2551:risk management
2542:
2508:
2498:
2448:volcanic winter
2319:
2317:Volcanic hazard
2313:
2278:
2267:
2263:
2246:
2129:, Sicily, Italy
2083:
2075:Main articles:
2051:
2042:
2009:Zuidwal volcano
1966:
1942:SoufriĂšre Hills
1905:Chaitén volcano
1892:Mount Edgecumbe
1869:
1853:
1847:
1839:
1763:
1656:
1650:
1642:volcaniclastics
1610:
1604:
1569:[ËÊaÊa]
1482:tectonic plates
1439:eruption column
1374:If the erupted
1346:
1340:
1324:carbon monoxide
1288:
1282:
1262:
1254:
1160:
1158:
1149:
1143:
1135:Yukon Territory
1087:
1081:
1009:
1003:
997:
989:
918:
912:
906:
839:
831:
830:
767:
697:
689:Main articles:
687:
675:
659:
653:
625:
619:
588:
582:
488:
487:
463:
461:
455:
426:
420:
389:
383:
331:
325:
301:partial melting
289:tectonic plates
281:
275:
231:
229:Plate tectonics
225:
223:Plate tectonics
209:Roman mythology
201:Aeolian Islands
189:
141:, of which the
127:Rio Grande rift
107:mid-ocean ridge
95:tectonic plates
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7845:
7835:
7834:
7829:
7827:Volcanic rocks
7824:
7819:
7814:
7809:
7804:
7799:
7782:
7781:
7779:
7778:
7766:
7754:
7742:
7729:
7726:
7725:
7723:
7722:
7721:
7720:
7715:
7708:Volcanic field
7705:
7700:
7695:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7674:
7672:
7668:
7667:
7665:
7664:
7659:
7654:
7649:
7644:
7639:
7637:Trachyandesite
7634:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7609:
7604:
7599:
7594:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7574:
7569:
7564:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7518:
7516:
7514:Volcanic rocks
7510:
7509:
7502:
7500:
7498:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7457:
7455:Shield volcano
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7435:Parasitic cone
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7399:
7394:
7389:
7383:
7381:
7377:
7376:
7369:
7368:
7361:
7354:
7346:
7337:
7336:
7334:
7333:
7328:
7323:
7321:Earth timeline
7318:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7297:
7295:
7289:
7288:
7286:
7285:
7280:
7278:Volcano Number
7275:
7270:
7265:
7260:
7255:
7249:
7247:
7243:
7242:
7239:Volcano topics
7235:
7234:
7227:
7220:
7212:
7203:
7202:
7200:
7199:
7190:
7187:
7186:
7184:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7118:
7112:
7110:
7106:
7105:
7103:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7076:
7074:
7068:
7067:
7065:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7049:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7024:
7019:
7014:
7009:
7004:
6999:
6993:
6991:
6987:
6986:
6984:
6983:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6966:Oceanic trench
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6902:
6900:
6892:
6891:
6889:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6852:
6850:
6844:
6843:
6841:
6840:
6835:
6830:
6825:
6820:
6819:
6818:
6813:
6803:
6798:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6777:
6776:
6766:
6761:
6756:
6751:
6746:
6741:
6736:
6730:
6728:
6722:
6721:
6719:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6697:
6695:
6691:
6690:
6688:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6667:
6666:
6665:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6639:
6637:
6633:
6632:
6627:
6624:
6623:
6612:
6611:
6604:
6597:
6589:
6583:
6582:
6570:
6565:
6553:
6540:
6539:
6534:
6528:
6527:
6516:
6515:
6513:
6512:External links
6510:
6508:
6507:
6500:
6487:
6481:
6468:
6462:
6449:
6443:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6417:
6416:
6395:
6336:
6307:
6288:
6267:(2): 105â120.
6247:
6240:
6211:
6204:
6179:
6136:
6101:
6066:
6023:
5988:
5958:
5928:
5896:
5883:
5853:
5823:
5794:
5759:
5724:
5689:
5664:
5638:
5612:
5585:(1): 221â364.
5566:
5547:
5528:
5487:
5468:
5411:
5399:WorldAtlas.com
5380:
5356:
5343:(3): 485â510.
5323:
5312:. 19â21132: 96
5296:
5286:
5267:
5242:
5219:
5197:
5179:
5146:
5128:
5109:
5059:
5023:
5001:
4975:(3): 200â203.
4952:
4896:
4842:
4816:
4786:
4763:
4741:
4722:
4699:
4692:
4666:
4625:
4584:
4533:
4530:. p. 246.
4511:
4499:
4495:Schmincke 2003
4487:
4483:Schmincke 2003
4475:
4463:
4451:
4449:, p. 377.
4439:
4398:
4396:, p. 143.
4394:Schmincke 2003
4386:
4384:, p. 378.
4374:
4362:
4360:, p. 229.
4358:Schmincke 2003
4350:
4324:
4312:
4305:
4287:
4261:
4249:
4242:
4220:
4179:
4122:
4107:Chisholm, Hugh
4082:
4056:
4015:
3970:
3939:(9): 560â570.
3917:
3910:
3892:
3880:
3865:
3832:
3799:
3738:
3695:
3683:
3649:
3640:
3633:
3613:
3571:
3536:
3501:
3474:
3453:
3442:. July 5, 2023
3424:
3412:
3408:Schmincke 2003
3400:
3393:
3375:
3368:
3350:
3346:Schmincke 2003
3338:
3334:Schmincke 2003
3326:
3322:Schmincke 2003
3314:
3288:
3281:
3261:
3249:Dictionary.com
3236:
3205:
3174:
3119:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3066:
3060:
3057:Volcano Number
3054:
3049:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3020:
3004:
3001:
2991:, and by 1928
2985:Alfred Lacroix
2953:René Descartes
2865:Main article:
2862:
2859:
2755:Galilean moons
2738:sulfur dioxide
2699:Hecates Tholus
2578:
2575:
2563:Mount Pinatubo
2541:
2538:
2497:
2494:
2464:End-Ordovician
2410:carbon dioxide
2315:Main article:
2312:
2309:
2293:Sulfur dioxide
2277:
2274:
2265:
2261:
2245:
2244:
2234:
2224:
2214:
2208:
2198:
2188:
2182:
2172:
2162:
2156:
2146:
2140:
2130:
2124:
2110:
2095:
2068:, Far Eastern
2050:
2047:
2041:
2038:
1965:
1962:
1868:
1865:
1851:Active volcano
1849:Main article:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1835:
1774:Mount Vesuvius
1762:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1747:
1733:
1722:
1715:
1707:
1691:
1684:lava fountains
1680:
1652:Main article:
1649:
1646:
1606:Main article:
1603:
1600:
1564:
1563:
1545:
1544:
1508:
1507:
1490:
1461:
1460:
1451:
1450:
1406:
1405:
1342:Main article:
1339:
1336:
1304:sulfur dioxide
1300:carbon dioxide
1292:volcanic gases
1284:Main article:
1281:
1280:Volcanic gases
1278:
1277:
1276:
1270:
1264:
1260:
1252:
1249:sulfur dioxide
1245:carbon dioxide
1237:Volcanic gases
1206:Fagradalsfjall
1204:Litli-HrĂștur (
1157:
1154:
1145:Main article:
1142:
1139:
1131:Jennings River
1083:Main article:
1080:
1077:
1033:volcanic gases
999:Main article:
996:
993:
988:
985:
961:Valles Caldera
908:Main article:
905:
904:Supervolcanoes
902:
898:volcanic bombs
859:Mount Vesuvius
835:Main article:
829:
828:
825:
822:
819:
816:
815:Parasitic cone
813:
810:
807:
804:
801:
798:
795:
792:
791:Conduit (pipe)
789:
786:
782:
781:
766:
763:
756:volcanic field
738:in Mexico and
704:Izalco volcano
686:
683:
674:
671:
655:Main article:
652:
649:
623:Shield volcano
621:Main article:
618:
615:
584:Main article:
581:
578:
537:on a flank of
504:and poisonous
478:Fagradalsfjall
454:
451:
422:Main article:
419:
416:
385:Main article:
382:
379:
365:, such as the
327:Main article:
324:
321:
277:Main article:
274:
271:
227:Main article:
224:
221:
188:
185:
109:, such as the
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7844:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7823:
7820:
7818:
7815:
7813:
7810:
7808:
7805:
7803:
7800:
7798:
7795:
7794:
7792:
7777:
7776:
7767:
7765:
7764:
7759:
7755:
7753:
7752:
7743:
7741:
7740:
7731:
7730:
7727:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7710:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7703:Volcanic belt
7701:
7699:
7696:
7694:
7691:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7675:
7673:
7669:
7663:
7660:
7658:
7655:
7653:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7643:
7640:
7638:
7635:
7633:
7630:
7628:
7625:
7623:
7620:
7618:
7615:
7613:
7610:
7608:
7607:Phonotephrite
7605:
7603:
7600:
7598:
7595:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7545:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7520:
7519:
7517:
7515:
7511:
7506:
7496:
7493:
7491:
7490:Volcanic cone
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7465:Stratovolcano
7463:
7461:
7460:Somma volcano
7458:
7456:
7453:
7451:
7450:Rootless cone
7448:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7398:
7395:
7393:
7390:
7388:
7385:
7384:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7367:
7362:
7360:
7355:
7353:
7348:
7347:
7344:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7294:
7290:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7251:
7250:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7233:
7228:
7226:
7221:
7219:
7214:
7213:
7210:
7197:
7192:
7191:
7188:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7117:
7114:
7113:
7111:
7107:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7078:
7077:
7075:
7073:
7069:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7052:Volcanic plug
7050:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7013:
7010:
7008:
7005:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6994:
6992:
6988:
6982:
6979:
6977:
6974:
6972:
6969:
6967:
6964:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6952:
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6929:
6927:
6924:
6922:
6919:
6917:
6914:
6912:
6909:
6907:
6904:
6903:
6901:
6899:
6893:
6887:
6886:Tunnel valley
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6853:
6851:
6849:
6845:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6831:
6829:
6826:
6824:
6821:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6808:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6775:
6772:
6771:
6770:
6767:
6765:
6762:
6760:
6757:
6755:
6752:
6750:
6747:
6745:
6742:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6732:
6731:
6729:
6727:
6723:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6698:
6696:
6692:
6686:
6683:
6681:
6678:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6664:
6661:
6660:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6640:
6638:
6634:
6630:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6610:
6605:
6603:
6598:
6596:
6591:
6590:
6587:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6569:
6568:Volcano World
6566:
6564:
6560:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6548:
6545:
6544:
6538:
6535:
6533:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6503:
6497:
6493:
6488:
6484:
6478:
6474:
6469:
6465:
6459:
6455:
6450:
6446:
6440:
6435:
6434:
6427:
6426:
6405:
6399:
6391:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6340:
6324:
6320:
6319:
6311:
6303:
6299:
6292:
6284:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6251:
6243:
6241:9780123859396
6237:
6233:
6226:
6224:
6222:
6220:
6218:
6216:
6207:
6205:9781315425177
6201:
6197:
6190:
6183:
6175:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6152:(1): 137â66.
6151:
6147:
6140:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6120:
6117:(3): 427â31.
6116:
6112:
6105:
6090:(1â2): 131â40
6089:
6085:
6078:
6070:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6039:(2): 104â10.
6038:
6034:
6027:
6011:
6007:
6003:
5999:
5992:
5976:
5972:
5971:New Scientist
5968:
5962:
5947:
5943:
5939:
5932:
5916:
5912:
5911:
5906:
5900:
5886:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5857:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5827:
5811:
5807:
5801:
5799:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5740:(E6): 11755.
5739:
5735:
5728:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5693:
5678:
5674:
5668:
5652:
5651:Volcano World
5648:
5642:
5626:
5625:Volcano World
5622:
5616:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5579:
5570:
5563:
5559:
5556:
5551:
5544:
5540:
5537:
5532:
5523:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5498:
5491:
5484:
5480:
5477:
5472:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5435:Geology Today
5429:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5400:
5396:
5389:
5387:
5385:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5366:
5360:
5351:
5346:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5327:
5316:September 29,
5311:
5307:
5300:
5290:
5282:
5278:
5271:
5265:
5264:0-691-05081-3
5261:
5257:
5253:
5252:
5246:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5223:
5207:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5183:
5167:
5161:
5160:public domain
5150:
5142:
5138:
5132:
5124:
5120:
5113:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5070:
5063:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5027:
5011:
5005:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4963:
4956:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4905:
4903:
4901:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4864:
4860:
4856:
4849:
4847:
4831:. May 9, 2022
4830:
4826:
4820:
4804:
4800:
4799:Volcano World
4796:
4790:
4774:
4767:
4760:
4756:
4753:
4748:
4746:
4738:
4734:
4731:
4726:
4710:
4703:
4695:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4670:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4629:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4588:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4552:
4544:
4537:
4529:
4525:
4518:
4516:
4509:, p. 89.
4508:
4503:
4496:
4491:
4484:
4479:
4473:, p. 24.
4472:
4467:
4461:, p. 16.
4460:
4455:
4448:
4443:
4434:
4429:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4402:
4395:
4390:
4383:
4378:
4371:
4366:
4359:
4354:
4338:
4334:
4328:
4321:
4316:
4308:
4302:
4298:
4291:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4258:
4253:
4245:
4239:
4234:
4233:
4224:
4215:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4190:
4183:
4172:September 27,
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4129:
4127:
4118:
4117:
4112:
4108:
4103:
4102:public domain
4089:
4087:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4051:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4019:
4010:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3974:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3921:
3913:
3911:9780199653065
3907:
3903:
3896:
3890:, p. 66.
3889:
3884:
3876:
3869:
3854:
3850:
3848:
3843:
3836:
3821:
3817:
3815:
3810:
3803:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3742:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3699:
3693:, p. 77.
3692:
3687:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3659:
3653:
3644:
3636:
3630:
3626:
3625:
3617:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3575:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3540:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3490:: 1370â1372.
3489:
3485:
3478:
3471:
3470:0-631-20473-3
3467:
3463:
3457:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3429:
3421:
3416:
3409:
3404:
3396:
3394:9780521880060
3390:
3386:
3379:
3371:
3365:
3361:
3354:
3347:
3342:
3335:
3330:
3323:
3318:
3303:
3299:
3292:
3284:
3282:9783540436508
3278:
3274:
3273:
3265:
3250:
3246:
3245:"Vulcanology"
3240:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3209:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3185:
3178:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3123:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3076:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3012:
3007:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2993:Arthur Holmes
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2874:
2868:
2858:
2856:
2855:tidal heating
2852:
2848:
2845:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2780:cryovolcanoes
2777:
2776:
2772:In 1989, the
2770:
2768:
2764:
2763:cryovolcanism
2760:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2714:
2713:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2695:Ascraeus Mons
2692:
2688:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2574:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2558:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2526:
2524:
2523:Easter Island
2520:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2482:Mount Tambora
2478:
2476:
2473:
2472:Late Devonian
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2452:supereruption
2449:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2430:
2426:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2378:sulfuric acid
2374:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2308:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2282:
2273:
2271:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2209:
2207:, Philippines
2206:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2192:
2189:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2166:
2165:Mount Rainier
2163:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2134:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2021:Monte Vulture
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1842:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1787:
1784:, as seen in
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1755:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1671:
1669:
1660:
1655:
1645:
1643:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1575:
1570:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1541:flood basalts
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1396:) are highly
1395:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1353:Mount Rinjani
1350:
1345:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1274:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1207:
1202:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1179:
1175:
1172:Timelapse of
1153:
1148:
1141:Mud volcanoes
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1086:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1069:oceanographic
1066:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1025:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1002:
992:
984:
983:in Tanzania.
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
945:
943:
939:
934:
932:
931:flood basalts
928:
924:
921:catastrophic
917:
911:
901:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
878:
874:
870:
866:
864:
860:
856:
855:Mayon Volcano
852:
848:
844:
838:
837:Stratovolcano
826:
823:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
787:
784:
783:
779:
777:
776:stratovolcano
771:
762:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
740:Sunset Crater
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
705:
701:
696:
692:
691:volcanic cone
682:
680:
670:
668:
664:
658:
648:
646:
642:
633:
632:SkjaldbreiĂ°ur
629:
624:
614:
612:
604:
600:
596:
592:
587:
580:Fissure vents
577:
575:
571:
570:mud volcanoes
567:
563:
559:
555:
554:cryovolcanoes
550:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
507:
503:
499:
494:
492:
479:
460:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
431:
430:flood basalts
425:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
396:mantle plumes
393:
388:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
359:volcanic arcs
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
335:
330:
320:
318:
314:
313:Black smokers
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:oceanic crust
290:
286:
280:
270:
268:
267:
262:
261:
254:
252:
248:
244:
235:
230:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
184:
182:
178:
173:
171:
167:
166:cryovolcanism
161:
159:
155:
151:
150:sulfuric acid
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
91:
89:
85:
84:magma chamber
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
18:Volcanic vent
7773:
7761:
7749:
7737:
7698:Volcanic arc
7642:Trachybasalt
7480:Supervolcano
7412:Fissure vent
7372:
7238:
7056:
7037:Volcanic dam
6734:Alluvial fan
6522:
6491:
6472:
6453:
6432:
6409:November 12,
6407:. Retrieved
6398:
6353:
6349:
6339:
6327:. Retrieved
6317:
6310:
6304:. p. 6.
6298:Morning Calm
6297:
6291:
6264:
6260:
6250:
6231:
6195:
6182:
6149:
6145:
6139:
6114:
6110:
6104:
6094:November 11,
6092:. Retrieved
6087:
6083:
6069:
6036:
6032:
6026:
6014:. Retrieved
6010:the original
6001:
5991:
5979:. Retrieved
5975:the original
5970:
5961:
5949:. Retrieved
5941:
5931:
5919:. Retrieved
5915:the original
5908:
5899:
5888:, retrieved
5866:
5856:
5844:. Retrieved
5840:the original
5835:
5826:
5814:. Retrieved
5772:
5768:
5762:
5737:
5733:
5727:
5702:
5698:
5692:
5680:. Retrieved
5676:
5667:
5657:November 17,
5655:. Retrieved
5650:
5641:
5631:November 12,
5629:. Retrieved
5624:
5615:
5582:
5576:
5569:
5550:
5531:
5504:
5500:
5490:
5471:
5441:(4): 141â9.
5438:
5434:
5404:November 27,
5402:. Retrieved
5398:
5378:, pp.150-151
5375:
5359:
5340:
5337:Archaeometry
5336:
5326:
5314:. Retrieved
5309:
5299:
5289:
5281:the original
5270:
5249:
5245:
5237:the original
5232:
5222:
5210:. Retrieved
5200:
5192:ScienceDaily
5191:
5182:
5170:. Retrieved
5149:
5140:
5131:
5123:ScienceDaily
5122:
5112:
5079:
5075:
5062:
5037:
5033:
5026:
5014:. Retrieved
5004:
4992:. Retrieved
4972:
4968:
4955:
4918:
4914:
4858:
4854:
4833:. Retrieved
4828:
4819:
4809:September 5,
4807:. Retrieved
4803:the original
4798:
4789:
4779:September 5,
4777:. Retrieved
4766:
4725:
4715:November 27,
4713:. Retrieved
4702:
4675:
4669:
4657:. Retrieved
4638:
4628:
4616:. Retrieved
4597:
4587:
4576:the original
4555:
4549:
4536:
4524:Volcanic Ash
4523:
4502:
4490:
4478:
4466:
4454:
4442:
4418:(1): 63â75.
4415:
4411:
4401:
4389:
4377:
4365:
4353:
4343:November 27,
4341:. Retrieved
4336:
4327:
4315:
4296:
4290:
4280:November 27,
4278:. Retrieved
4273:
4264:
4252:
4231:
4223:
4196:
4192:
4182:
4170:. Retrieved
4145:(2): 41â43.
4142:
4138:
4114:
4073:. Retrieved
4068:
4059:
4032:
4028:
4018:
3983:
3979:
3973:
3963:November 27,
3961:. Retrieved
3957:the original
3936:
3930:
3920:
3901:
3895:
3883:
3868:
3858:November 18,
3856:. Retrieved
3845:
3835:
3825:November 18,
3823:. Retrieved
3812:
3802:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3711:(6): 60â73.
3708:
3704:
3698:
3686:
3674:. Retrieved
3661:
3652:
3643:
3623:
3616:
3589:
3585:
3574:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3461:
3456:
3444:. Retrieved
3415:
3403:
3384:
3378:
3359:
3353:
3341:
3329:
3317:
3305:. Retrieved
3301:
3291:
3271:
3264:
3254:November 27,
3252:. Retrieved
3248:
3239:
3227:. Retrieved
3223:the original
3218:
3208:
3191:
3187:
3177:
3136:
3132:
3122:
3092:(1): 73â99.
3089:
3085:
3079:
2977:hydrothermal
2957:James Hutton
2938:
2909:
2889:supernatural
2886:
2882:Mount Merapi
2870:
2841:
2821:
2804:, a moon of
2795:
2773:
2771:
2767:Solar System
2717:
2712:Mars Express
2710:
2707:Pavonis Mons
2703:Olympus Mons
2684:
2679:Solar System
2671:Olympus Mons
2641:
2622:
2571:
2559:
2555:
2543:
2535:
2527:
2516:
2509:
2479:
2445:
2425:jet aircraft
2422:
2382:Huaynaputina
2375:
2333:lava (e.g.,
2320:
2306:
2247:
2201:Taal Volcano
2153:Central Java
2149:Mount Merapi
2145:, Hawaii, US
2084:
2043:
1978:
1934:
1901:
1889:
1885:
1856:
1854:
1840:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1794:
1782:Agathodaemon
1754:country rock
1746:groundwater.
1665:
1639:
1627:
1622:thin section
1589:
1565:
1549:
1523:, including
1493:
1471:
1465:
1447:stratosphere
1383:
1369:
1365:
1289:
1286:Volcanic gas
1227:
1194:lava channel
1150:
1088:
1058:
1054:pumice rafts
1021:
990:
946:
935:
919:
910:Supervolcano
877:historically
867:
840:
773:
760:
752:Caja del Rio
716:pyroclastics
709:
685:Cinder cones
676:
660:
637:
608:
586:Fissure vent
551:
495:
486:
483:
443:carbonatites
427:
390:
339:flux melting
332:
282:
264:
258:
255:
240:
216:
192:
190:
174:
162:
147:
92:
76:volcanic ash
55:
53:
40:
7832:Volcanology
7775:WikiProject
7718:polygenetic
7713:monogenetic
7592:Nephelinite
7547:Blairmorite
7522:Agglomerate
7430:Mud volcano
7402:Cryovolcano
7392:Cinder cone
6896:Oceanic and
6636:Mountainous
5981:October 24,
5775:: 433â441.
5507:(1): 1â14.
4994:January 20,
4659:January 12,
4618:January 12,
4270:"Volcanoes"
4193:Solid Earth
4075:November 8,
4009:10852/61234
3446:November 3,
3229:January 11,
2820:compounds.
2816:, dust, or
2642:The planet
2547:probability
2521:statues in
2440:VEI 7 and 8
2390:ozone layer
2359:hot springs
2227:Mount Unzen
2221:New Britain
2187:, Guatemala
2155:, Indonesia
2029:Castle Rock
2013:Netherlands
1926:Herculaneum
1910:Yellowstone
1744:superheated
1740:groundwater
1719:Mount Pelée
1620:as seen in
1560:Proterozoic
1531:), on both
1415:ignimbrites
1402:Lassen Peak
1328:halocarbons
1296:Water vapor
1178:El Salvador
1147:Mud volcano
1050:chemotrophs
1037:Pillow lava
1029:hydrophones
732:flank vents
695:Cinder cone
673:Cryptodomes
667:Lassen Peak
647:, as well.
541:in Hawaii.
439:alkali lava
406:, with the
266:monogenetic
260:polygenetic
243:lithosphere
217:vulcanology
213:volcanology
181:cryovolcano
154:troposphere
7791:Categories
7617:Rhyodacite
7567:Ignimbrite
7542:Benmoreite
7194:See also:
7109:Artificial
7017:Lava field
6936:Coral reef
6764:Floodplain
6381:2292/59681
6356:: 107552.
6329:August 30,
5890:January 6,
5682:January 6,
5258:. p. 155.
5212:January 5,
5016:August 22,
4306:3540127569
3986:: 81â112.
3777:10220/7536
3676:August 22,
3592:(4): 615.
3517:(2): 487.
3071:References
2963:of magma.
2927:Mount Etna
2912:Anaxagoras
2905:Hephaistos
2901:ĂatalhöyĂŒk
2691:Arsia Mons
2652:Lava flows
2581:See also:
2567:Mount Etna
2500:See also:
2175:Sakurajima
2169:Washington
2139:, Colombia
2127:Mount Etna
2099:Avachinsky
1997:New Mexico
1985:Hohentwiel
1954:ghost town
1946:Montserrat
1696:a gas slug
1635:sand-sized
1556:komatiites
1551:ultramafic
1519:(such the
1449:for years.
1338:Lava flows
1115:Tuya Range
1111:Tuya River
1107:Tuya Butte
1095:palagonite
1065:earthquake
1005:See also:
969:Lake TaupĆ
965:New Mexico
914:See also:
865:in Italy.
853:in Japan,
851:Mount Fuji
748:New Mexico
728:tuff rings
651:Lava domes
547:Lake TaupĆ
515:lava domes
334:Subduction
247:convection
125:, and the
103:converging
66:, such as
7807:Volcanism
7797:Volcanoes
7602:Phonolite
7587:Leucitite
7572:Komatiite
7420:Lava dome
7416:Lava cone
7373:Volcanoes
7171:Reservoir
7062:Wall rock
7012:Lava dome
6971:Peninsula
6881:Ice field
6838:Waterfall
6701:Ice sheet
6680:Tableland
6620:landforms
6547:Volcanoes
6473:Volcanoes
6390:248111450
6174:129186824
6061:259423377
6016:March 11,
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5463:238802288
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3215:"Volcano"
3169:257745255
3161:2169-9097
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2931:Stromboli
2844:exoplanet
2826:Saturnian
2775:Voyager 2
2661:ash flows
2657:Maat Mons
2456:Lake Toba
2402:livestock
2398:acid rain
2363:fumaroles
2191:Santorini
2143:Mauna Loa
2107:Kamchatka
2103:Koryaksky
2058:Koryaksky
1704:Stromboli
1592:Rhyolitic
1525:Mauna Loa
1500:magnesium
1473:andesitic
1427:Novarupta
1394:rhyolites
1361:Indonesia
1344:Lava flow
1218:Stromboli
1127:Tuya Lake
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863:Stromboli
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187:Etymology
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7739:Category
7647:Trachyte
7622:Rhyolite
7597:Obsidian
7527:Andesite
7131:Building
7095:Sandhill
7085:Dry lake
6990:Volcanic
6976:Seamount
6658:Mountain
6559:Archived
6323:Archived
6283:33943407
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381:Hotspots
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7678:Hotspot
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7387:Caldera
7072:Aeolian
7057:Volcano
6997:Caldera
6951:Isthmus
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6848:Glacial
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6523:Volcano
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599:Iceland
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