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932:(Ferghana), south of the Gui (Oxus) river. Its people cultivate the land, and have cities and houses. Their customs are like those of Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they are clever at commerce. After the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked and conquered Daxia, the entire country came under their sway. The population of the country is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capital is Lanshi (
476:
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states rich in unusual products whose people cultivated the land and made their living in much the same way as the
Chinese. All these states, he was told, were militarily weak and prized Han goods and wealth". Upon Zhang Qian's return to China he was honoured with a position of palace counsellor. Although he was unable to develop commercial ties between China and these far-off lands, his efforts did eventually result in trade mission to the
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1712:"The indications regarding the year of his passing differ, but Shih Chih-mien (1961), p. 268 shows beyond doubt that he died in 113 B.C. His tomb is situated in Chang-chia ts'un 張家村 near Ch'eng-ku . . . ; during repairs carried out in 1945 a clay mold with the inscription 博望家造 was found, as reported by Ch'en Chih (1959), p. 162." Hulsewé and Loewe (1979), p. 218, note 819.
1065:
country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies
Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (
1064:
west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the
806:
directly west of China. The people are settled on the land, ploughing the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. The people live in houses in fortified cities, there being some seventy or more cities of various sizes in the region. The population numbers several hundred
1453:
north-west of Dayuan (Bactria). Its people are nomads and resemble the Yuezhi in their customs. They have 80,000 or 90,000 skilled archer fighters. The country is small, and borders Dayuan. It acknowledges sovereignty to the Yuezhi people in the South and the
Xiongnu in the East." (Shiji, 123, Zhang
598:
territory, documenting their cultures, lifestyles and economy, before beginning his return trip to China, this time following the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. On his return trip he was again captured by the
Xiongnu who again spared his life because they valued his sense of duty and composure in
453:
Zhang Qian's travel was commissioned by
Emperor Wu with the major goal of initiating transcontinental trade in the Silk Road, as well as create political protectorates by securing allies. His missions opened trade routes between East and West and exposed different products and kingdoms to each other
1628:
who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that
602:
Zhang Qian returned in 125 BC with detailed news for the
Emperor, showing that sophisticated civilizations existed to the West, with which China could advantageously develop relations. The Shiji relates that "the Emperor learned of the Dayuan (大宛), Daxia (大夏), Anxi (安息), and the others, all great
1589:
ruler) dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom... When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them... The emperor was delighted at this." (adapted from Shiji, 123, trans. Burton
462:
parts of the Silk Road routes were expanded around 114 BC largely through the missions of and exploration by Zhang Qian. Today, Zhang is considered a
Chinese national hero and revered for the key role he played in opening China and the countries of the known world to the wider opportunity of
563:. However to get to the territory of the Yuezhi he was forced to pass through land controlled by the Xiongnu who captured him (as well as Ganfu) and enslaved him for thirteen years. During this time he married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.
1733:. 114 BC after spending twenty-five years travelling on these dangerous and strategic missions. Although at a time in his life he was regarded with disgrace for being defeated by the Xiongnu, by the time of his passing he had been bestowed with great honours by the emperor.
1516:"The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).
1507:
Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China and
Central as well as Western Asia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the end of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC, initiating the development of the
1116:). It is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice... The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi (the Arsacids) give orders to these chiefs and regards them as vassals." (adapted from
1570:(156–87 BC) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads", although there is no other mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature.
1736:
Zhang Qian's journeys had promoted a great variety of economic and cultural exchanges between the Han dynasty and the
Western Regions. Because silk became the dominant product traded from China, this great trade route later became known as the
1707:
reports that Zhang Qian returned from his final expedition to the Wusun in 115 BC. After his return he "was honoured with the post of grand messenger, making him among the nine highest ministers of the government. A year or so later he died."
887:, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyond Dayuan (Ferghana), where they attacked the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river." (
988:
south-east of Daxia (Bactria). The people cultivate the land and live much like the people of Daxia. The region is said to be hot and damp. The inhabitants ride elephants when they go in battle. The kingdom is situated on a great river
599:
the face of death. Two years later the
Xiongnu leader died and in the midst of chaos and infighting Zhang Qian escaped. Of the original mission of just over a hundred men, only Zhang Qian and Ganfu managed to return to China.
914:, as it was being subjugated by the nomadic Yuezhi. Only small powerless chiefs remained, who were apparently vassals to the Yuezhi horde. Their civilization was urban, almost identical to the civilizations of
1612:"Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even
2397:
538:), the areas neighbouring the territory of the Han dynasty. The Han emperor was interested in establishing commercial ties with distant lands but outside contact was prevented by the hostile Xiongnu.
855:. They are a nation of nomads, moving place to place with their herds and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors." (adapted from
782:. The people of Dayuan were being portrayed as sophisticated urban dwellers similar to the Parthians and the Bactrians. The name Dayuan is thought to be a transliteration of the word
788:, the Greek descendants that occupied the region from the 4th to the 2nd century BCE. It was during this stay that Zhang reported the famous tall and powerful "blood-sweating"
399:; died c. 114 BC) was a Chinese diplomat, explorer, and politician who served as an imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the late 2nd century BC during the
618:. However, the task remained to find a trade route not obstructed by the Xiongnu to India. Zhang Qian set out on a second mission to forge a route from China to India via
622:, but after many attempts this effort proved unsuccessful. In 119–115 BC Zhang Qian was sent on a third mission by the emperor, to develop ties with the
1729:), strong horses with hard hooves, and knowledge of the extensive existence of new products, peoples and technologies of the outside world. He died
2587:
2049:
648:
The reports of Zhang Qian's travels are quoted extensively in the 1st century BC Chinese historic chronicles "Records of the Great Historian" (
2606:
China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty
2701:
586:
and eventually to the land of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi were agricultural people who produced strong horses and many unknown crops including
2290:
2200:
1138:
1482:. The country has over 100,000 archer warriors, and borders a great shore-less lake, perhaps what is now known as the Northern Sea (
1132:
362:
1428:
555:), a Xiongnu who had been captured in war. The objective of Zhang Qian's first mission was to seek a military alliance with the
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2407:
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2026:
2003:
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A smaller group of Yuezhi, the "Little Yuezhi", were not able to follow the exodus and reportedly found refuge among the "
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443:
1022:) as an advanced urban civilization, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia (Bactria). The name "Anxi" is a transcription of "
594:. However, the Yuezhi were too settled to desire war against the Xiongnu. Zhang spent a year in Yuezhi and the adjacent
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1096:), are in tenuous terms. He did not himself visit the region, and was only able to report what others told him.
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1998:, "The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia", 2002, University of California Press, 270 pages
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Zhang Qian also describes the origins of the Yuezhi, explaining they came from the eastern part of the
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Zhang and Ganfu (as well as Zhang's Xiongnu wife and son) were eventually able to escape and, passing
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1770:
1478:
at Beitian). The people are nomads and their customs are generally similar to those of the people of
896:
2657:
Yap, Joseph P, (2019). The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu.
982:"Southeast of Daxia is the kingdom of Shendu (India)... Shendu, they told me, lies several thousand
902:
Zhang was the first Chinese to write about one humped dromedary camels which he saw in this region.
2996:
2434:
831:
After obtaining the help of the king of Dayuan, Zhang Qian went south-west to the territory of the
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The Han court dispatched Zhang Qian, a military officer who was familiar with the Xiongnu, to the
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in 138 BC with a group of ninety-nine members to make contact and build an alliance with the
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1653:
1023:
8:
2644:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220
1947:, p. 61. (2004) Luce Boulnois. Translated by Helen Loveday. Odyssey Books & Guides.
1850:
430:
He played an important pioneering role for the future Chinese conquest of lands west of
2581:
1475:
1396:
1290:
975:
712:). He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he did not visit, such as Anxi (
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that marked the beginning of globalization between the countries in the east and west.
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403:. He was one of the first official diplomats to bring back valuable information about
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From his missions he brought back many important products, the most important being
1577:, which were followed up by reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around 100 BC:
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2639:
1785:
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1213:
957:
879:"The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or Heavenly Mountains (
792:. The refusal by Dayuan to offer these horses to Emperor Wu of Han resulted in two
575:
190:
2614:
A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han, and Xin Periods (220 BC – AD 24)
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Asiapac Editorial, Chungjiang Fu, Liping Yang, Chungjiang Fu, Liping Yang (2006).
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followed from 166, and are officially recorded in Chinese historical chronicles.
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Countries described in Zhang Qian's report. Visited countries are highlighted in
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Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture
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Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture
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they were people of another world than ours." ("Cathay and the way thither",
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1178:
1113:
1043:
1035:
978:, which explains the reported cultural similarity between Bactria and India:
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147:"Zhang Qian" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
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1995:
1836:
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847:) river. They are bordered to the south by Daxia (Bactria), on the west by
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2201:"Twenty Centuries of Friendly Cooperation: The Sino-Iranian Relationship"
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On his mission Zhang Qian had noticed products from an area now known as
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The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World
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and through small fortified areas in the middle of oases in what is now
1630:
1617:
1528:
box and various artefacts from Central Asia in the 122 BC tomb of King
1341:
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word "Sindhu", meaning the Indus river. Sindh was at the time ruled by
872:
560:
475:
439:
3013:
1738:
1613:
1521:
1509:
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800:"Dayuan lies south-west of the territory of the Xiongnu, some 10,000
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commercial trade and global alliances. Zhang Qian is depicted in the
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territory) and borders the "Western Sea" (which could refer to the
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After being released from captivity by Xiongnu, Zhang Qian visited
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2295:. Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies. p. 6
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Imperial envoy to the world outside of China in the 2nd century BC
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Indian Society for Prehistoric & Quaternary Studies (1998).
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against the Xiongnu. He was accompanied by a guide named Ganfu (
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2495:, pp. 614–615. Dorothy Perkins. (2000). Roundtable Press Book.
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867:. This has encouraged some historians to connect them to the
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launched by the Han dynasty to acquire these horses by force.
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2367:"Section 13 – The Kingdom of the Da Yuezhi 大月氏 (the Kushans)"
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Chinese History: Ancient China to 1911 – Google Book Search
1985:, C. Michael Hogan, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham
1945:
Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants on the Silk Road
1837:"Zhang Qian — Pioneer of the Silk Road in History of China"
1642:
1554:
worshipping "golden man" Buddha statues captured in 121 BC.
844:
784:
763:
2646:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 377–462.
2216:, p. 615. Dorothy Perkins. (2000). Roundtable Press Book.
2051:
The Great Wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC – AD 2000
1520:
Many objects were soon exchanged, and travelled as far as
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Stairway to Heaven: A Journey to the Summit of Mount Emei
1432:
The Kanju received the visit of Zhang Qian circa 128 BCE.
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367:
296:
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268:
1604:(Chinese or central Asians), to the first Roman Emperor
1034:
that ruled the regions along the Silk Road between the
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people in 119 BC which led to trade between China and
2938:
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sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the
910:
Zhang Qian probably witnessed the last period of the
490:
Zhang Qian was born in Chenggu district just east of
244:
230:
216:
202:
2709:
1502:
1100:"Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) is situated several thousand
940:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, translation Burton Watson).
871:. (The question of links between the Yuezhi and the
1803:
2182:, 2000, University of California Press, 184 pages
1598:describes the visit of numerous envoys, including
936:) where all sorts of goods are bought and sold." (
2385:. Presbyterian Mission Press. 1875. pp. 15–.
2014:
1581:"When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of
454:through trade. Zhang's accounts were compiled by
3024:
2395:
1524:in the East, as suggested by the discovery of a
467:(無雙譜, Table of Peerless Heroes) by Jin Guliang.
2604:Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N., (1979).
1932:"The History and Legacy of the Silk Road route"
1498:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
1120:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
1073:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
997:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
956:Zhang Qian also reports about the existence of
891:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
859:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
811:, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
2447:
2241:
2695:
2454:. Princeton University Press. pp. 422–.
2137:Alfred J. Andrea; James H. Overfield (1998).
1437:Zhang Qian also visited directly the area of
1091:
965:
918:and Dayuan, and the population was numerous.
745:
731:
713:
707:
693:
675:
661:
656:. Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of
627:
550:
533:
507:
172:
158:
43:
2586:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2524:Sources on the Alans: A Critical Compilation
2080:
2047:
1078:Tiaozhi (条支, Seleucid Empire in Mesopotamia)
506:, between 140 BC and 134 BC as a Gentleman (
502:. He entered the capital, Chang'an, today's
2389:
2245:Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations
1851:"The Chinese Explorer Zhang Qian on a Raft"
1458:
839:"The Great Yuezhi live some 2,000 or 3,000
2702:
2688:
2018:Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang
1903:Silk Road: Monks, Warriors & Merchants
141:
2483:Watson (1993), pp. 231–239, 181, 231–241.
2441:
2326:
2021:. Columbia University Press. p. 20.
1659:
2612:Loewe, Michael (2000). "Zhang Qian 張騫".
2329:"The Heavenly Horses of the Han Dynasty"
1899:
1538:
757:
753:
639:
474:
470:
2520:
2292:Man and environment, Volume 23, Issue 1
1893:
635:
570:and following the northern edge of the
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2198:
1866:"Legend of Silk Road pioneer lives on"
1394:
1385:
1125:Kangju (康居) northwest of Sogdiana (粟特)
905:
298:
246:
2683:
2611:
2180:Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices
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1001:
951:
60:Zhang Qian taking leave from emperor
2979:
2634:(1986). "Han Foreign Relations". In
2448:Adrienne Mayor (22 September 2014).
2248:. Infobase Publishing. p. 409.
1906:. Hong Kong: Odyssey Books. p.
1863:
1608:, who reigned between 27 BC and 14:
1374:
1352:
1339:
1156:
2314:"Famous Travelers On The Silk Road"
1878:
1823:"ZHANG QIAN, EXPLORER CENTRAL ASIA"
1058:"Anxi is situated several thousand
444:Protectorate of the Western Regions
13:
2651:
2630:
1454:Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).
875:of the Tarim is still debatable.)
843:west of Dayuan, north of the Gui (
14:
3084:
2668:
2616:. Leiden: Brill. pp. 687–9.
2350:"Zhang Qian's Western Expedition"
2143:. Houghton Mifflin. p. 165.
1503:Development of East-West contacts
1042:in the west, and running through
494:in the north-central province of
3005:
2988:
2960:
2948:
2710:Chinese travellers and explorers
2347:
1687:
1668:
1546:8th-century mural depicting the
1131:
960:south-east of Bactria. The name
644:Zhang Qian's travels to the west
54:
2547:
2514:
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2008:
1989:
1975:
1966:
1449:"Kangju is situated some 2,000
1445:), home to the Sogdian nomads:
722:territories), Tiaozhi (條支/条支) (
368:
345:
324:
297:
283:
269:
2560:. Asiapace Books. p. 84.
2327:Blackwood, Andy (2018-01-04).
2276:"The Expedition of Zhang Qian"
2199:Garver, John W. (2006-12-11).
1938:
1924:
1872:
1857:
1843:
1829:
1815:
1030:), the name of the founder of
1017:
1012:Zhang Qian identifies "Anxi" (
922:"Daxia is situated over 2,000
869:Caucasoid mummies of the Tarim
826:
746:
628:
524:tribes controlled what is now
423:imperial court, then ruled by
396:
245:
231:
217:
203:
173:
159:
1:
2598:
2435:"Heavenly horses of Ferghana"
1573:China also sent a mission to
582:until they made their way to
103:
2675:The Opening of the Silk Road
2402:. SUNY Press. pp. 46–.
1796:
819:conquered the region in the
438:and even lands south of the
7:
3068:Horses in Chinese mythology
2054:. Grove Press. p. 73.
1864:Higa, Kiyota (2015-01-01).
1744:
1637:In 97, the Chinese general
458:in the 1st century BC. The
10:
3089:
2015:James A. Millward (2007).
1879:Xia, Zhihou (2018-03-15).
1005:
821:War of the Heavenly Horses
520:. At the time the nomadic
18:
3073:Politicians from Hanzhong
2871:
2842:
2825:
2778:
2761:
2732:
2715:
2396:James M. Hargett (2006).
2169:Watson (1993), chap. 123.
2140:The Human Record: To 1700
1725:seeds (for growing horse
1582:
1574:
1092:
966:
915:
848:
732:
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2521:Alemany, Agustí (2000).
1675:Entrance to the tomb in
1654:Roman embassies to China
1585:, the king of Anxi (the
1464:"Yancai lies some 2,000
1459:Yancai (奄蔡, Vast Steppe)
1082:Zhang Qian's reports on
479:Statue of Zhang Qian in
154:Traditional Chinese
64:, for his expedition to
2242:Charles Higham (2004).
2087:. 五洲传播出版社. p. 22.
1900:Boulnois, Luce (2005).
1641:dispatched an envoy to
1624:came likewise, and the
698:) with its remnants of
168:Simplified Chinese
2608:. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
2527:. BRILL. p. 396.
2474:Watson (1993), p. 240.
2113:Watson (1993), p. 232.
2084:Story of the Silk Road
1983:Silk Road, North China
1972:Watson (1993), p. 231.
1714:
1660:Final years and legacy
1555:
912:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
851:, and on the north by
767:
645:
487:
481:Shaanxi History Museum
434:, including swaths of
409:Greco-Bactrian remains
3063:Han dynasty diplomats
2081:Yiping Zhang (2005).
2048:Julia Lovell (2007).
1710:
1694:Tumulus of Zhang Qian
1566:describe the Emperor
1542:
761:
754:Dayuan (大宛, Ferghana)
643:
478:
471:Zhang Qian's Missions
1594:The Roman historian
1429:class=notpageimage|
1038:in the east and the
636:Zhang Qian's reports
363:Baxter–Sagart (2014)
68:from 138 to 126 BC,
2423:The Kingdom of Anxi
1494:is about 866 km)" (
1486:, distance between
976:Indo-Greek Kingdoms
948:) was found there.
906:Daxia (大夏, Bactria)
778:region west of the
401:Western Han dynasty
72:mural, 618 – 712...
1717:Other achievements
1556:
1002:Anxi (安息, Parthia)
952:Shendu (身毒, India)
794:punitive campaigns
768:
646:
528:and dominated the
488:
3058:Emperor Wu of Han
3053:Chinese explorers
3048:Ancient explorers
2936:
2935:
2640:Fairbank, John K.
2461:978-1-4008-6513-0
2409:978-0-7914-6682-7
2061:978-0-8021-4297-9
2028:978-0-231-13924-3
2004:978-0-520-23786-5
1645:in the person of
1552:Emperor Wu of Han
970:) comes from the
774:, located in the
425:Emperor Wu of Han
413:Macedonian Empire
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264:Yale Romanization
191:Standard Mandarin
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2850:Rabban Bar Sauma
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2742:(164 BC–113 BC)
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1088:Seleucid Empire
1080:
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1008:Parthian Empire
1004:
954:
908:
829:
756:
724:Seleucid Empire
638:
543:Western Regions
530:Western Regions
473:
417:Parthian Empire
415:as well as the
212:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
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2663:978-1792829154
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1090:, or Tiaozhi (
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1032:Arsacid Empire
1006:Main article:
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3017:from Wikidata
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1544:Mogao Caves
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3027:Categories
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2740:Zhang Qian
2599:References
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2540:2008-05-24
2534:9004114424
2334:2021-01-02
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1332:Dinglings
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456:Sima Qian
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2786:Xuanzang
2752:Gan Ying
2746:Ban Chao
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