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761:, now 18 years old. Brunel had planned the tunnel to pass no more than fourteen feet below the riverbed at its lowest point. This caused problems later. Another problem that hindered Brunel was that William Smith, the chairman of the company, thought that the tunnelling shield was an unnecessary luxury, and that the tunnel could be made more cheaply by traditional methods. He wanted Brunel replaced as Chief Engineer and constantly tried to undermine his position. The shield quickly proved its worth. During the tunnelling both Brunel and his assistant engineer suffered ill health and for a while Isambard had to bear the whole burden of the work.
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562:. Brunel's machine could be operated by unskilled workers, at ten times the previous rate of production. Altogether 45 machines were installed at Portsmouth, and by 1808 the plant was producing 130,000 blocks per year. Unfortunately for Brunel, the Admiralty vacillated over payment, despite the fact that Brunel had spent more than £2,000 of his own money on the project. In August 1808 they agreed to pay £1,000 on account, and two years later they consented to a payment of just over £17,000.
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400:. The superior of the seminary allowed him to learn carpentry, and he soon achieved the standards of a cabinetmaker. He also sketched ships in the local harbour. As he showed no desire to become a priest, his father sent him to stay with relatives in Rouen, where a family friend tutored him on naval matters. In 1786, as a result of this tuition, Marc became a naval cadet on a French frigate and during his service visited the West Indies several times. He made an
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140-ton shield consisting of 9,000 parts that had to be fitted together underground. Tunnelling was resumed but there were still instances of flooding in which the pumps were overwhelmed. Miners were affected by the constant influx of polluted water, and many fell ill. As the tunnel approached the
Wapping shore, work began on sinking a vertical shaft similar to the Rotherhithe one. This began in 1840 and took thirteen months to complete.
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389:, Normandy, and Marc was born on the family farm. It was customary in prosperous families for the first son to inherit the family land and the second son to enter the priesthood. His father therefore started Marc on a classical education, but he showed no liking for Greek or Latin and instead showed himself proficient in drawing and mathematics. He was also very musical from an early age.
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699:. This was a reinforced shield of cast iron in which miners would work in separate compartments, digging at the tunnel-face. Periodically the shield would be driven forward by large jacks, and the tunnel surface behind it would be lined with brick. It is claimed that Brunel found the inspiration for his tunnelling shield from the
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system and many other tunnels. Brunel was so convinced that he could use such a tunnelling shield to dig a tunnel under the Thames, that he wrote to every person of influence who might be interested. At last in
February 1824 a meeting was held and 2,128 shares at £50 each were subscribed for. In June
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who had shown keen interest in the progress of the tunnel. The tunnel opened on the
Wapping side of the river on 1 August 1842. On 7 November 1842 Brunel suffered a stroke that paralysed his right side for a time. The Thames Tunnel officially opened on 25 March 1843. Brunel, despite ill health, took
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There were several instances of flooding at the tunnel face due to its nearness to the bed of the river. In May 1827 it was necessary to plug an enormous hole that appeared on the riverbed. The resources of the Thames Tunnel
Company were consumed, and despite efforts to raise more money, the tunnel
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In 1796, after taking
American citizenship, Brunel was appointed chief engineer of the city of New York. He designed various houses, docks, commercial buildings, an arsenal, and a cannon factory. No official records exist of the projects that he carried out in New York, as it seems likely that the
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In March 1832 William Smith was deposed as chairman of the Thames Tunnel
Company. He had been a thorn in Brunel's side throughout the project. In 1834 the government agreed a loan of £246,000 to the Thames Tunnel Company. The old 80-ton tunnelling shield was removed and replaced by a new improved
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bank. This was done by constructing a 50-foot-diameter metal ring, upon which a circular brick tower was built. As the tower rose in height, its weight forced the ring into the ground. At the same time, workmen excavated the earth in the centre of the ring. This vertical shaft was completed in
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The shield was rectangular in cross section, and consisted of twelve frames, side by side, each of which could be moved forward independently of the others. Each frame contained three compartments, one above the other, each big enough for one man to excavate the tunnel face. The whole frame
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After the completion of the Thames Tunnel, his greatest achievement, Brunel was in poor health. He never again accepted major commissions, although he did help his son, Isambard, on various projects. He was proud of his son's achievements, and was present at the launch of the
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began. In
January 1792 Brunel's frigate paid off its crew, and Brunel returned to live with his relatives in Rouen. He was a Royalist sympathiser, as were most of the inhabitants of Normandy. In January 1793, whilst visiting Paris during the trial of
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accommodated 36 miners. When enough material had been removed from the tunnel face, the frame was moved forward by large jacks. As the shield moved forward, bricklayers followed, lining the walls. The tunnel required over 7.5 million bricks.
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part in the opening ceremony. Within 15 weeks of opening, one million people visited the tunnel. On 26 July 1843 Queen
Victoria and Prince Albert visited. Although intended for horse-drawn traffic, the tunnel remained pedestrian only.
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was sealed up in August 1828. Brunel resigned from his position, frustrated by the continued opposition from the chairman. He undertook various civil engineering projects, including helping his son, Isambard, with his design of the
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miners to work on the tunnel. In 1807 the tunnel encountered quicksand and conditions became difficult and dangerous. Eventually the tunnel was abandoned after more than 1,000 feet had been completed, and expert opinion, led by
625:. Prisoners in a debtors' prison were allowed to have their family with them, and Sophia accompanied him. Brunel spent 88 days incarcerated. As time passed with no prospect of gaining release, Brunel began to correspond with
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that it needed each year. Each of these was made by hand. Brunel quickly produced an outline design of a set of machines that would automate their production. He decided to sail to
England and put his invention before the
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641:, began to press for government intervention. The government granted £5,000 to clear Brunel's debts on condition that he abandon any plans to go to Russia. As a result, Brunel was released from prison in August.
420:, one of the leaders of the Revolution. He was lucky to get out of Paris with his life, and returned to Rouen. However, it was evident that he would have to leave France. During his stay in Rouen, Brunel had met
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on 19 July 1843. In 1845 Brunel suffered another, more severe stroke and was almost totally paralysed on his right side. On 12 December 1849, Brunel died at the age of 80, and his remains were interred in
1153:"Concerning Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Breguet, Breguet's friendship and instruction, entry to l'Ecole Polytechnique, Franceur, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and holidays, appreciation of the Breguets"
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Brunel several times became involved in unprofitable projects. As a consequence, by the beginning of 1821 he was deep in debt, and in May of that year he was tried and committed to the
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In 1865 the East London
Railway Company purchased the Thames Tunnel for £200,000 and four years later the first trains passed through it. The tunnel became part of the
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366:. In addition to the construction of the Thames Tunnel, his work as a mechanical engineer included the design of machinery to automate the production of
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When Brunel arrived from the United States, he immediately travelled to London and made contact with Kingdom. They were married on 1 November 1799 at
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soldiers' boots, but before this could reach full production, demand ceased due to the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Brunel was made a Fellow of the
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2007:
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335:; 25 April 1769 – 12 December 1849) was a French-British engineer who is most famous for the work he did in Britain. He constructed the
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Brunel preferred the given name Isambard, but is generally known to history as Marc to avoid confusion with his more famous son.
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637:. As soon as it was learnt that Britain was likely to lose such an eminent engineer as Brunel, influential figures, such as the
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in London. His wife, Sophia, was subsequently interred in the same plot, followed by their son, Isambard, just 10 years later.
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Brunel was the second son of Jean Charles Brunel and Marie-Victoire Lefebvre. Jean Charles was a prosperous farmer in
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Brunel was a talented mechanical engineer, and did much to develop sawmill machinery, undertaking contracts for the
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1824 the Thames Tunnel Company was incorporated by royal assent. The tunnel was intended for horse-drawn traffic.
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In 1805 the Thames Archway Company was formed with the intention of driving a tunnel beneath the Thames between
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1355:– Collaborative venture between the SS Great Britain Trust and the University of Bristol. Housed alongside the
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745:'s company, was then assembled at the bottom. Maudslay also supplied the steam powered pumps for the project.
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The Portsmouth Block Mills : Bentham, Brunel and the start of the Royal Navy's Industrial Revolution
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1155:(in French). Letter to Louis Antoine Breguet. University of Bristol Library Special Collections. DM1277/4
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The engine house in Rotherhithe was taken over by a charitable trust in 1975 and transformed into the
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Whilst Brunel had been in the United States, Sophia Kingdom had remained in Rouen and during the
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Work began in February 1825, by sinking a 50-foot-diameter (15 m) vertical shaft on the
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dockyards, building on his experience at the Portsmouth Block Mills. He built a sawmill at
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Brunel's invention provided the basis for subsequent tunnelling shields used to build the
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in June 1794. In April 1795 Kingdom was able to leave France and travel to London.
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In 1798, during a dinner conversation, Brunel learnt of the difficulties that the
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Isambard Kingdom Brunel Standing Before the Launching Chains of the Great Eastern
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The Portsmouth Block-making Machinery: A Pioneering Enterprise in Mass Production
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in Russia, but this scheme never came to fruition. In 1818 Brunel had patented a
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Brunel arrived in New York on 6 September 1793, and he subsequently travelled to
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Biographical index of former fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783-2002
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Ancient Places TV: HD Video of Brunel (father and son) and the SS Great Britain
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One multiple- and one single-sheave pulley block for rigging on a sailing ship
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November 1825, and the tunnelling shield, which had been manufactured at
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for himself from brass and ivory, and used it during his service.
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was engaged by the company to construct the tunnel. He used
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in 1834. In 1845 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the
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874:"Sir Marc Isambard Brunel | French-British engineer"
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Brunel had already drawn up plans for a tunnel under the
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in 1814. In 1828, he was elected a foreign member of the
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The Greater Genius? A biography of Marc Isambard Brunel
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Bath:St James's Bridge; Skew Bridge; St James' Viaduct
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at Bristol it includes the National Brunel Collection.
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597:. Brunel was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the
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Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Bust of Marc Isambard Brunel, Science Museum, London
1193:Kentley, Eric; Hulse, Robert; Elton, Julia (2006).
629:about the possibility of moving with his family to
542:During the summer of 1799 Brunel was introduced to
416:, Brunel unwisely publicly predicted the demise of
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1221:Waterston, C D; Shearer, A Macmillan (July 2006).
2153:List of Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmarks
1746:Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great Western Railway
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801:system, and remains in use today, as part of the
2290:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
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1151:Brunel, Marc Isambard, Sir (19 February 1822).
354:. In 1796, he was appointed Chief Engineer of
350:, Brunel fled to the United States during the
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407:In 1789, during Brunel's service abroad, the
1910:borrowed by Brunel, used for propeller tests
1173:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
975:Baptism Register accounts as baptism 27.1.01
757:Brunel was assisted in his work by his son,
688:, was that such a tunnel was impracticable.
2086:(commissioned by Brunel for his retirement)
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19:For the American football quarterback, see
2300:People associated with transport in London
2250:Immigrants to the Kingdom of Great Britain
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456:, and also submitted a design for the new
448:. He got involved in a scheme to link the
2315:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
546:, a talented engineer who had worked for
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1103:American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
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392:At the age of eleven he was sent to a
2193:2012 London Olympics opening ceremony
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997:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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599:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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2077:Scene from A Midsummer Night's Dream
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2350:People of the Industrial Revolution
1467:Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton
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728:used to construct the Thames Tunnel
16:French-British engineer (1769–1849)
13:
1437:Cheltenham and Great Western Union
1299:English and American Tool Builders
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1197:. Institution of Civil Engineers.
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2340:Family of Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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1188:. London: H.M. Stationery Office.
1128:. Hersham: Ian Allan Publishing.
947:Kentley, Hulse & Elton (2006)
595:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
2295:Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
2080:(picture commissioned by Brunel)
1182:Gilbert, Keith Reginald (1965).
784:. This was at the suggestion of
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468:documents were destroyed in the
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60:Portrait of Marc Isambard Brunel
52:
2305:English prisoners and detainees
2245:Immigrants to the United States
1861:Great Western Steamship Company
185:
2330:19th-century British engineers
2270:British steam engine engineers
2013:Institution of Civil Engineers
1950:Other engineering and building
1710:Cumberland Basin swing bridges
1009:Waterston & Shearer (2006)
969:
866:
554:blocks, and Brunel approached
428:and boarded the American ship
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1854:Ships, harbours and waterways
1432:Bristol and South Wales Union
1320:, New York and London, 1926 (
1106:Book of Members, 1780–present
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479:had in obtaining the 100,000
2280:Fellows of the Royal Society
2265:British mechanical engineers
2125:Bristol Temple Meads Station
1835:South Devon Railway sea wall
1512:Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth
1296:Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916).
860:
776:On 24 March 1841 Brunel was
7:
2320:French mechanical engineers
2188:Two Brunel £2 coins in 2006
2060:University of Caen Normandy
2008:Fellow of the Royal Society
1987:Crystal Palace water towers
1457:Great Western and Brentford
752:
332:[maʁkizɑ̃baʁbʁynɛl]
10:
2366:
2325:People imprisoned for debt
2310:English theatre architects
1720:Gatehampton Railway Bridge
1302:. New Haven, Connecticut:
1232:Royal Society of Edinburgh
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603:Royal Society of Edinburgh
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362:in 1799, where he married
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1949:
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1845:Wellington Bank, Somerset
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1693:Cornwall Railway viaducts
1688:Clifton Suspension Bridge
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1477:South Devon and Tavistock
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1230:. Vol. Part I, A–J.
767:Clifton Suspension Bridge
663:during construction, 1830
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2166:Brunel University London
2142:Broad gauge running line
2105:Legacy and commemoration
1998:Malmaison Hotel, Reading
1754:Moulsford Railway Bridge
1715:"Devil's Bridge", Uphill
1615:Hilton Hotel, Paddington
283:Sir Marc Isambard Brunel
2260:English civil engineers
2173:(Network Rail typeface)
2025:Robert Pearson Brereton
1810:Great Western Main Line
1403:Isambard Kingdom Brunel
1273:Coad, Jonathan (2005).
1214:Isambard Kingdom Brunel
1124:Bagust, Harold (2006).
878:Encyclopedia Britannica
828:Brunel family grave in
759:Isambard Kingdom Brunel
341:Isambard Kingdom Brunel
2255:French civil engineers
2199:Brunel (opera project)
1977:Brook House, Steventon
1793:Tunnels and earthworks
1427:Bristol and Gloucester
832:
729:
664:
560:Portsmouth Block Mills
539:
432:, bound for New York.
339:and was the father of
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2285:Machine tool builders
2211:Other works of Brunel
2096:Kensal Green Cemetery
2019:Abraham-Louis Breguet
1994:(Brunel on committee)
1982:Crew's Hole tar works
1962:Balloon flange girder
1769:Three Bridges, London
1304:Yale University Press
850:Kensal Green Cemetery
830:Kensal Green Cemetery
827:
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627:Alexander I of Russia
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277:
261:Years of service
130:Kensal Green Cemetery
2182:100 Greatest Britons
2042:Marc Isambard Brunel
1651:Bridges and viaducts
1548:Bristol Temple Meads
1447:Dartmouth and Torbay
1353:The Brunel Institute
1212:Rolt, L T C (1957).
470:New York draft riots
381:Early life in France
145:American (1796–1849)
77:Marc Isambard Brunel
35:Marc Isambard Brunel
2115:Victoria Embankment
1957:Atmospheric railway
1779:Wharncliffe Viaduct
1759:Royal Albert Bridge
1609:The Railway Station
1487:South Wales Mineral
1195:The Brunels' Tunnel
615:King's Bench Prison
2120:Paddington Station
2111:Statues of Brunel
1683:Chippenham viaduct
1422:Bristol and Exeter
1169:cite press release
1089:, pp. 97–100.
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799:London Underground
793:Later developments
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714:London Underground
677:Richard Trevithick
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639:Duke of Wellington
567:British Government
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517:St Andrew, Holborn
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142:French (1769–1796)
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2070:Henry Marc Brunel
2027:(Chief assistant)
1901:(1857 photograph)
1830:South Devon Banks
1815:Llansamlet arches
1740:Maidenhead Bridge
1725:Hungerford Bridge
1658:Angarrack viaduct
1366:The Brunel Museum
1334:978-0-917914-73-7
1251:on 4 October 2006
1074:, pp. 87–96.
1059:, pp. 71–80.
1044:, pp. 62–70.
1023:, pp. 51–57.
966:, pp. 22–50.
949:, pp. 15–16.
937:, pp. 17–21.
920:, pp. 11–16.
807:London Overground
726:tunnelling shield
724:A diagram of the
697:tunnelling shield
409:French Revolution
352:French Revolution
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243:Kingdom of France
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2345:People from Eure
2335:Knights Bachelor
2240:French emigrants
2149:, 98 Cheyne Walk
2056:(childhood home)
2021:(trained Brunel)
2003:Renkioi Hospital
1992:Great Exhibition
1924:Cumberland Basin
1820:Sapperton Tunnel
1588:Exeter St Thomas
1583:Exeter St Davids
1568:Cirencester Town
1533:Bradford-on-Avon
1521:Railway stations
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2203:
2195:featured Brunel
2100:
2030:
1945:
1919:Bristol Harbour
1882:Balanced rudder
1849:
1825:Sonning Cutting
1788:
1764:Somerset Bridge
1735:Loughor Viaduct
1730:Landore Viaduct
1678:Chepstow Bridge
1673:Bishop's Bridge
1646:
1637:Weston Junction
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1266:Further reading
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820:Subsequent life
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619:debtors' prison
611:
609:Debtors' prison
529:Chelsea, London
506:Reign of Terror
502:
460:to be built in
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2065:Lycée Henri-IV
2062:
2057:
2051:
2048:Sophia Kingdom
2045:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2016:
2015:(VP from 1850)
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1941:Westport Canal
1938:
1933:
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1929:Underfall Yard
1926:
1916:
1914:Brentford Dock
1911:
1902:
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1784:Windsor Bridge
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1343:
1342:External links
1340:
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1262:
1261:
1241:0-902-198-84-X
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1013:
1011:, p. 131.
1001:
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985:Gilbert (1965)
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782:Queen Victoria
754:
751:
743:Henry Maudslay
706:Teredo navalis
686:William Jessop
649:Main article:
646:
643:
610:
607:
587:mass-producing
556:Samuel Bentham
544:Henry Maudslay
501:
498:
454:Lake Champlain
452:by canal with
437:
434:
422:Sophia Kingdom
382:
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364:Sophia Kingdom
358:. He moved to
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110:(aged 80)
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2132:Brunel Museum
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1936:Millbay Docks
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1893:
1892:
1891:Great Eastern
1887:
1883:
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1878:
1877:
1876:Great Britain
1872:
1870:
1869:
1868:Great Western
1864:
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1840:Thames Tunnel
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1507:West Somerset
1505:
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1502:West Cornwall
1500:
1498:
1497:Vale of Neath
1495:
1493:
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1488:
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1462:Llynvi Valley
1460:
1458:
1455:
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1452:East Somerset
1450:
1448:
1445:
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1440:
1438:
1435:
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1417:Great Western
1415:
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1390:
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1359:Great Britain
1354:
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1349:
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1345:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1316:Reprinted by
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1300:
1294:
1290:
1288:1-873592-87-6
1284:
1280:
1276:
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1247:
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1226:
1225:
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1204:0-9504361-2-7
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1196:
1191:
1187:
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1154:
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1135:0-7110-3175-4
1131:
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1108:
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1101:
1100:
1088:
1087:Bagust (2006)
1083:
1081:
1073:
1072:Bagust (2006)
1068:
1066:
1058:
1057:Bagust (2006)
1053:
1051:
1043:
1042:Bagust (2006)
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
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1022:
1021:Bagust (2006)
1017:
1010:
1005:
999:, p. 73.
998:
993:
986:
981:
972:
965:
964:Bagust (2006)
960:
958:
956:
948:
943:
936:
935:Bagust (2006)
931:
929:
927:
919:
918:Bagust (2006)
914:
912:
904:
903:Brunel (1822)
899:
892:
887:
879:
875:
869:
865:
853:
851:
846:
842:
841:
840:Great Britain
831:
826:
817:
815:
814:Brunel Museum
810:
808:
804:
800:
790:
787:
786:Prince Albert
783:
780:by the young
779:
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746:
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689:
687:
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661:Thames Tunnel
657:
652:
651:Thames Tunnel
645:Thames Tunnel
642:
640:
636:
632:
631:St Petersburg
628:
624:
620:
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591:Royal Society
588:
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548:Joseph Bramah
545:
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525:Lindsey House
522:
518:
513:
511:
507:
497:
495:
491:
487:
482:
481:pulley blocks
478:
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451:
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436:United States
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
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403:
399:
395:
390:
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378:
375:
373:
369:
368:pulley blocks
365:
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356:New York City
353:
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337:Thames Tunnel
333:
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292:
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165:Thames Tunnel
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126:Resting place
124:
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87:25 April 1769
75:
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66:
62:
61:
55:
50:
45:
41:
29:
26:
22:
2177:Brunel Award
2158:
2137:Being Brunel
2084:Brunel Manor
2075:
2072:(second son)
2041:
1906:
1896:
1890:
1875:
1867:
1744:
1607:
1358:
1298:
1274:
1253:. Retrieved
1246:the original
1223:
1213:
1194:
1184:
1157:. Retrieved
1125:
1113:. Retrieved
1105:
1016:
1004:
992:
980:
971:
942:
898:
893:, p. 6.
886:
877:
868:
839:
834:
811:
796:
775:
771:
763:
756:
747:
731:
711:
704:
690:
666:
612:
564:
541:
514:
503:
492:, landed at
489:
474:
466:
450:Hudson River
442:Philadelphia
439:
429:
406:
391:
384:
376:
345:
282:
281:
108:(1849-12-12)
58:
25:
21:Mark Brunell
2235:1849 deaths
2230:1769 births
2184:(Brunel #2)
2147:Blue plaque
2090:Sarah Guppy
1972:Broad gauge
1663:Avon Bridge
1482:South Wales
1472:South Devon
1318:McGraw-Hill
734:Rotherhithe
669:Rotherhithe
659:Inside the
510:Robespierre
418:Robespierre
387:Hacqueville
255:French Navy
136:Nationality
114:Westminster
91:Hacqueville
2224:Categories
1967:Baulk road
1907:Archimedes
1800:Box Tunnel
1774:Usk Bridge
1703:St Pinnock
1622:St Germans
1603:Paddington
1563:Chippenham
1543:Bridgwater
1255:7 November
1159:7 November
1115:7 November
856:References
693:River Neva
477:Royal Navy
462:Washington
372:Royal Navy
231:Allegiance
153:Occupation
83:1769-04-25
2171:NR Brunel
1627:Salisbury
1558:Charlbury
1553:Charfield
1492:Taff Vale
1144:255313889
891:Rolt 1957
861:Citations
816:in 2006.
673:Limehouse
623:Southwark
579:Battersea
486:Admiralty
472:of 1863.
414:Louis XVI
264:1786–1792
120:, England
2157:SS
2050:(mother)
2044:(father)
2035:Personal
1905:SS
1889:SS
1874:SS
1866:SS
1598:Mortimer
1593:Liskeard
1573:Crediton
1538:Bridgend
1528:Bath Spa
1442:Cornwall
1410:Railways
1357:SS
1326:27-24075
1312:16011753
778:knighted
753:Problems
701:shipworm
575:Woolwich
494:Falmouth
426:Le Havre
394:seminary
370:for the
346:Born in
249:Service/
213:Isambard
200:Children
156:Engineer
97:, France
95:Normandy
1096:Sources
845:Bristol
739:Lambeth
681:Cornish
583:veneers
571:Chatham
500:Britain
490:Halifax
430:Liberty
328:French:
194:
182:
1698:Carnon
1642:Yatton
1632:Stroud
1578:Culham
1332:
1324:
1310:
1285:
1238:
1201:
1142:
1132:
552:pulley
446:Albany
402:octant
360:London
348:France
251:branch
240:
206:Sophie
188:
171:Spouse
118:London
67:, 1813
1249:(PDF)
1228:(PDF)
1110:(PDF)
398:Rouen
289:
192:)
184:(
180:
42:
2162:#97)
1330:ISBN
1322:LCCN
1308:LCCN
1283:ISBN
1257:2017
1236:ISBN
1199:ISBN
1175:link
1161:2017
1140:OCLC
1130:ISBN
1117:2017
671:and
635:Tsar
617:, a
573:and
444:and
291:FRSE
209:Emma
190:1799
103:Died
73:Born
44:FRSE
843:in
838:SS
805:of
741:by
621:in
569:at
527:in
396:in
287:FRS
63:by
40:FRS
32:Sir
2226::
2209:•
1336:).
1306:.
1281:.
1277:.
1234:.
1171:}}
1167:{{
1138:.
1079:^
1064:^
1049:^
1028:^
954:^
925:^
910:^
876:.
809:.
769:.
703:,
675:.
605:.
531:.
496:.
374:.
343:.
326:,
307:uː
186:m.
116:,
93:,
2155:(
1395:e
1388:t
1381:v
1314:.
1291:.
1259:.
1207:.
1177:)
1163:.
1146:.
1119:.
905:.
322:/
319:l
316:ɛ
313:n
310:ˈ
304:r
301:b
298:/
294:(
85:)
81:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
