African-American history

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turned out to be illiterate. Southern Black people fared badly on the Army General Classification Test (AGCT), an aptitude test designed to determine the most suitable role for those who were drafted, and which was not an IQ test. Of the Black men from the South drafted, 84% fell into the two lowest categories on the AGCT. Owing to the high failure rate caused by the almost non-existent education system for African-Americans in the South, the Army was forced to offer remedial instruction for Afro-Americans who fell into the lower categories of the AGCT. By 1945, about 150, 000 Black men had learned how to read and write while in the Army. The poor living conditions in rural America which afflicted both white and Black Americans led the Army to undertake remedial health work as well. Army optometrists fitted 2.25 million men suffering from poor eyesight with eyeglasses to allow them to be drafted while Army dentists fitted 2.5 million draftees who would have been otherwise disqualified for the bad state of their teeth with dentures.

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World War II. Workers who were limited to segregated, low-skilled jobs in Southern cities were able to get highly skilled, well-paid jobs at West Coast shipyards. The effect of racially homogeneous communities composed largely of Black immigrants that formed because of spatial segregation in destination cities was that they were largely influenced by the Southern culture they brought with them. The food, music and even the discriminatory white police presence in these neighborhoods were all imported to a certain extent from the collective experiences of the highly concentrated African-American migrants. Writers have often assumed that Southern migrants contributed disproportionately to changes in the African-American family in the inner city. However, census data for 1940 through 1990 show that these families actually exhibited more traditional family patterns—more children living with two parents, more ever-married women living with their spouses, and fewer never-married mothers.

5819: 139: 6391:(FEPC) with orders to fine the corporations that did not treat their Black employees equally. In 1943, Roosevelt gave the FEPC a budget of half-million dollars and replaced the unpaid volunteers who had previously staffed the FEPC with a paid staff concentrated in regional headquarters across the nation with instructions to inspect the defense industry's factories to ensure the spirit and letter of Executive Order 8802 was being obeyed. Roosevelt believed that having Black men and women employed in the defense industry working as skilled laborers would give them far higher wages than what they ever had before, and ultimately form the nucleus of a Black middle class. When the president learned that some unions were pushing for black employees to be given menial "auxiliary" jobs in the factories, he instructed the 6194:

mostly the ones who lost their jobs. For most tenants and sharecroppers the AAA was a major help. Researchers at the time concluded, "To the extent that the AAA control-program has been responsible for the increased price , we conclude that it has increased the amount of goods and services consumed by the cotton tenants and croppers." Furthermore, the landowners typically let their tenants and croppers use the land taken out of production for their own personal use in growing food and feed crops, which further increased their standard of living. Another consequence was that the historic high levels of turnover from year to year declined sharply, as tenants and coppers tend to stay with the same landowner. Researchers concluded, "As a rule, planters seem to prefer Negroes to whites as tenants and coppers."

4033:, he described the process of being transported to the colonies and being on the slave ships as a horrific experience. On the ships, the enslaved Africans were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships. Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender. Under the deck, the enslaved Africans were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Enslaved males were generally kept in the ship's hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding. The captives stationed on the floor beneath low-lying bunks could barely move and spent much of the voyage pinned to the floorboards, which could, over time, wear the skin on their elbows down to the bone. Due to the lack of basic hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly and death was common. 6165:, which banned discrimination in factories making weapons for the military. In 1941, the Roosevelt administration, through officially neutral, was leaning in very Allied direction with the United States providing weapons to Great Britain and China (to be joined by the Soviet Union after 22 June 1941), and the president needed the co-operation of Congress as much possible, where isolationist voices were frequently heard. Roosevelt argued to Randolph that he could not antagonize the powerful bloc of conservative Southern Democrats in Congress, and desegregation of the military was out of the question as the Southern Democrats would never accept it; by contrast, as La Guardia pointed out, most of the factories in the defense industry were located in California, the Midwest and the Northeast. 6463:

these Black women fought a Double V campaign against the Axis abroad and against restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens. In the South, Black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North they were integrated, but wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside Black women. The most largest of the "hate strikes" was the strike by white women at the Western Electric factory in Baltimore, who objected to sharing a bathroom with Black women.

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storefronts. As a result, Black beauticians were numerous in the rural South, despite the absence of cities and towns. They pioneered the use of cosmetics, at a time when rural white women in the South avoided them. As Blain Roberts has shown, beauticians offered their clients a space to feel pampered and beautiful in the context of their own community because, "Inside Black beauty shops, rituals of beautification converged with rituals of socialization." Beauty contests emerged in the 1920s, and in the white community they were linked to agricultural county fairs. By contrast in the Black community, beauty contests were developed out of the homecoming ceremonies at their high schools and colleges. The most famous entrepreneur was

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dramatic historical event known as the Great Migration. Migrants going to Pittsburgh and surrounding mill towns in western Pennsylvania between 1890 and 1930 faced racial discrimination and limited economic opportunities. The Black population in Pittsburgh jumped from 6,000 in 1880 to 27,000 in 1910. Many took highly paid, skilled jobs in the steel mills. Pittsburgh's Black population increased to 37,700 in 1920 (6.4% of the total) while the Black element in Homestead, Rankin, Braddock, and others nearly doubled. They succeeded in building effective community responses that enabled the survival of new communities. Historian Joe Trotter explains the decision process:

6023:. It set quotas for private firms hiring skilled and unskilled Black people in construction projects financed through the PWA, overcoming the objections of labor unions. In this way, the New Deal ensured that blacks were 13% of the unskilled PWA jobs in Chicago, 60% in Philadelphia and 71% in Jacksonville, Florida; their share of the skilled jobs was 4%, 6%, and 17%, respectively. In the Department of Agriculture, there was a lengthy bureaucratic struggle in 1933–35 between one faction which favored rising prices for farmers vs. another faction which favored reforms to assist sharecroppers, especially Black ones. When one Agriculture Department official, 5892: 6121:

Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which imposed a national minimum wage of 40 cents per hour and a forty-hour work week while banning child labor, which was intended to assist poorer Americans. The Southern congressional bloc were vehemently opposed to the Fair Labor Standards Act, which they saw as an attack on the entire Southern way of life, which was based upon extremely low wages (for example the minimum wage was 50 cents per day in South Carolina), and caused some of them to break with Roosevelt. In 1938, Roosevelt campaigned in the Democratic primaries to defeat three conservative Southern Democratic senators,

4255:, claiming and clearing more land for large-scale farming and the construction of plantations, the flow of enslaved Africans brought to the continent rapidly increased, beginning in the 1660s. The slave trade from the West Indies proved insufficient to meet demand in the now fast-growing North American slave market. Additionally, most North American buyers of enslaved people no longer wanted to purchase enslaved people who were coming in from the West Indies—by now they were either harder to obtain, too expensive, undesirable, or more often, they had been exhausted in many ways by the brutality of the islands' 6242:" in a 1942 editorial, saying that all Black people should work for "victory over our enemies at home and victory over our enemies on the battlefield abroad". The newspaper argued that a victory of the Axis powers, especially Nazi Germany, would be a disaster for African-Americans while at the same time the war presented the opportunity "to persuade, embarrass, compel and shame our government and our nation...into a more enlightened attitude towards a tenth of its people". The slogan of a "double victory" over fascism abroad and racism at home was widely taken up by African-Americans during the war. 148: 6251: 159: 5981: 280: 4994: 3664: 6754: 6531: 5508: 208: 4274:. The population of enslaved African Americans in North American grew rapidly during the 18th and early 19th centuries due to a variety of factors, including a lower prevalence of tropic diseases. Colonial society was divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery, though it remained legal in each of the Thirteen Colonies until the American Revolution. Slavery led to a gradual shift between the American South and North, both before and after independence, as the comparatively more urbanized and industrialized North required fewer slaves than the South. 7618: 4701:, and moved west as old cotton fields lost their productivity and new lands were purchased. Unlike the Northern States who put more focus into manufacturing and commerce, the South was heavily dependent on agriculture. Southern political economists at this time supported the institution by concluding that nothing was inherently contradictory about owning slaves and that a future of slavery existed even if the South were to industrialize. Racial, economic, and political turmoil reached an all-time high regarding slavery up to the events of the Civil War. 4625:, usually the first communal institution to be established. The Black church was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to discrimination. The churches also served as neighborhood centers where free Black people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion from white detractors. The church also served as the center of education. Since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education; it educated the freed and enslaved Black people. Seeking autonomy, some Black people like 7072: 6369: 5145: 188: 11371: 5240: 5101: 4174: 3736:, among many others. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, what they had in common was a way of life which was different from that of the Europeans. Originally, a majority of the people came from these villages and societies, however, once they were sent to the Americas and enslaved, these different peoples had European standards and beliefs forced upon them, causing them to do away with tribal differences and forge a new history and culture that was a 18802: 7604: 3356: 179: 5187: 5677: 4236:

to kill an enslaved person, for example, and several whites were hanged for it. Generally, enslaved Africans developed their own family system, religion, and customs in the slave quarters with little interference from owners, who were only interested in work outputs. Before the 1660s, the North American mainland colonies were still fairly small in size and did not have a great demand for labour, so colonists did not import large numbers of enslaved Africans at this point.

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self-sustaining native-born enslaved Black populations that they stopped taking indirect imports of enslaved Africans altogether. However, other colonies such as Georgia and South Carolina still relied on a steady influx of enslaved people to keep up with the ever-growing demand for agricultural labor among the burgeoning plantation economies. These colonies continued to import enslaved Africans until the trade was outlawed in 1808, save for a temporary lull during the

21902: 16759: 16723: 1688: 1649: 21548: 5177:, disagree that identity was achieved after the Civil War. African Americans in the post-Civil War era were faced with many rules and regulations that, even though they were "free", prevented them from enjoying the same amount of freedom as white citizens had. Tens of thousands of Black northerners left homes and careers and also migrated to the defeated South, building schools, printing newspapers, and opening businesses. As Joel Williamson puts it: 5685: 16769: 1698: 4655: 6444:, whom they widely admired. The political leaders, ministers and newspaper editors who shaped opinion resolved on a Double V campaign: Victory over German and Japanese fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build Black morale and head off radical action. During the war years, the NAACP expanded tenfold, having over half a million members by 1945. The new civil rights group 5944:

They formed migration clubs, pooled their money, bought tickets at reduced rates, and often moved ingroups. Before they made the decision to move, they gathered information and debated the pros and cons of the process....In barbershops, poolrooms, and grocery stores, in churches, lodge halls, and clubhouses, and in private homes, southern blacks discussed, debated, and decided what was good and what was bad about moving to the urban North.

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under control and prevent future rebellions, the crews were often twice as large and members would instill fear into the enslaved Africans through brutality and harsh punishments. From the time of being captured in Africa to the arrival to the plantations of the European masters, took an average of six months. Africans were completely cut off from their families, home, and community life. They were forced to adjust to a new way of life.

6975: 6586: 5733: 4062: 35: 8070: 7370:, the study of African-American history has frequently been a political and scholarly struggle which has been waged by historians who wish to refute incorrect assumptions. One of the foremost assumptions was the belief that enslaved people did not rebel because they were passive. A series of historians transformed the image of African Americans, revealing that they had a much richer and a more complex experience. Historians such as 4159: 168: 5378: 6750:

purpose of circumventing integration. The largely Black rural population of the county had little recourse. Some families were split up as parents sent their children to live with relatives in other locales to attend public school; but the majority of Prince Edward's more than 2,000 black children, as well as many poor whites, simply remained unschooled until federal court action forced the schools to reopen five years later.

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through advances of federal troops, the enslaved person became legally and actually free. The owners were never compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their enslaved people as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all the designated enslaved people.

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Revels and others understood that white people may have felt threatened by the African-American congressmen. Revels stated, "The white race has no better friend than I. I am true to my own race. I wish to see all done that can be done...to assist in acquiring property, in becoming intelligent, enlightened citizens...but at the same time, I would not have anything done which would harm the white race,"

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Scott" decision in March 1857. Black people were not American citizens and could never be citizens, the court said in a decision roundly denounced by the Republican Party as well as the abolitionists. Because enslaved people were "property, not people", by this ruling they could not sue in court. The decision was finally reversed by the Civil Rights Act of 1865. In what is sometimes considered mere

4708:, Congress abolished the importation of enslaved workers. While American Black people celebrated this as a victory in the fight against slavery, the ban increased the internal trade in enslaved people. Changing agricultural practices in the Upper South from tobacco to mixed farming decreased labor requirements, and enslaved people were sold to traders for the developing Deep South. In addition, the 14023:(2005). 580 pp. 31 long essays by experts covering African and diasporic connections in the context of the transatlantic slave trade; colonial and antebellum African, European, and indigenous relations; processes of cultural exchange; war and emancipation; post-emancipation community and institution building; intersections of class and gender; migration; and struggles for civil rights. 5804: 5861: 5354:

The common stories featured whites heroically saving the community from marauding Black people. Upon examination of the evidence, historians have called numerous such events "massacres", as at Colfax, because of the disproportionate number of fatalities for Black people as opposed to whites. The mob violence there resulted in 40–50 Black people dead for each of the three whites killed.

7178:, the son of a Black Kenyan father and a white American mother. He won overwhelming support from African-American voters in the Democratic primaries, even as his main opponent Hillary Clinton had the support of many Black politicians. African Americans continued to support Obama throughout his term. After completing his first term, Obama ran for a second term. In 2012, he won the 4898:

people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion by white detractors. The church was the center of the Black communities, but it was also the center of education. Since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education; they educated the freed and enslaved Black people. At first, Black preachers formed separate congregations within the existing

6891:, captured the attention of the nation. Six weeks later, searchers found the savagely beaten body of Chaney, a Black man, in a muddy dam alongside the remains of his two white companions, who had been shot to death. There was national outrage at the escalating injustices of the "Mississippi Blood Summer", as it by then had come to be known, and at the brutality of the murders. 4862:, and as cellar-, well- and grave-diggers. As for Black women workers, they worked as servants for white families. Some women were also cooks, seamstresses, basket-makers, midwives, teachers, and nurses. Black women worked as washerwomen or domestic servants for the white families. Some cities had independent Black seamstresses, cooks, basketmakers, confectioners, and more. 5137:

most states of the South, although sufficient funding was hard to find. Black people established their own churches, towns, and businesses. Tens of thousands migrated to Mississippi for the chance to clear and own their own land, as 90 percent of the bottomlands were undeveloped. By the end of the 19th century, two-thirds of the farmers who owned land in the

7297:, a white historian, studied the African-American experience in depth. Du Bois' study of Reconstruction provided a more objective context for evaluating its achievements and weaknesses; Additionally, he conducted studies of contemporary Black life. Phillips set the main topics of inquiry that still guide the analysis of slave economics. 6448:(CORE), founded in 1942, started demonstrations demanding desegregation of buses, theaters and restaurants. At one CORE demonstration outside a segregated restaurant in Washington, DC in 1944 had signs reading "We Die Together', Let's Eat Together" and "Are you for Hitler's Way or the American Way?". In 1944, the Swedish economist 7403:

Martin Luther King Jr., 60% Rosa Parks, and 44% Harriet Tubman. Among adults, King was second (at 36%) and Parks was tied for fourth with 30%, while Tubman tied for 10th place with Henry Ford, at 16%. When distinguished historians were asked in 2006 to name the most prominent Americans, Parks and Tubman did not make the top 100.

5589:, a destination for many on the trains up from Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana, joined Harlem as a sort of Black capital for the nation. It generated flourishing businesses, music, arts and foods. A new generation of powerful African-American political leaders and organizations also came to the fore, Typified by Congressman 5631:. The more ambitious Black businessman with a larger vision avoided small towns and rural areas and headed to progressive large cities. They sent their children to elite Black colleges such as Howard, Spellman, and Morehouse; by the 1970s they were accepted in more than token numbers at national schools such as the 4929:, both had organized congregations by 1800 and were the first Baptist churches in the city. Petersburg, an industrial city, by 1860 had 3,224 free Black people (36% of Black people, and about 26% of all free persons), the largest population in the South. In Virginia, free Black people also created communities in 6324:

explosion was inevitable if they persisted in using untrained seamen in the loading of ammunition". Though the sailors were convicted, the Port Chicago disaster led the Navy in August 1944 to allow Black sailors to serve alongside white sailors on ships, through Black people could only make up 10% of the crew.

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Micheal Clodfelter. Seven African Americans were awarded for their work in the war. Their names were: First Lieutenant Vernon J. Baker, Staff Sergeant Edward A. Carter, Jr., First Lieutenant John R. Fox, Private First Class Willy F. James, Jr., Staff Sergeant Ruben Rivers, Captain Charles L. Thomas,

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and other nonviolent direct action, such as marches, pickets and sit-ins to mobilize around issues of equal access and voting rights. Southern segregationists fought back to block reform. The conflict grew to involve steadily escalating physical violence, bombings and intimidation by Southern whites.

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Due to massive shortages as a result of the American entry into World War II, defense employers from Northern and Western cities went to the South to convince blacks and whites there to leave the region in promise of higher wages and better opportunities. As a result, African Americans left the South

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characterized the cotton and tobacco production in the post-Civil War South. As the agricultural economy plummeted in the early 1930s, all farmers in all parts of the nation were badly hurt. Worst hurt were the tenant farmers (who had relatively more control) and sharecroppers (who had less control),

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Many of the migrants, women as well as men, came as teachers sponsored by a dozen or so benevolent societies, arriving in the still turbulent wake of Union armies. Others came to organize relief for the refugees.... Still others ... came south as religious missionaries.... Some came south as business

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South Carolina's Black population remained very high for most of the eighteenth century due to the continued import of enslaved Africans, with Blacks outnumbering whites three-to-one. In contrast, Virginia maintained a white majority despite its significant Black enslaved population. It was said that

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In the midst of these terrible conditions, enslaved Africans plotted mutiny. Enslaved males were the most likely candidates to mutiny and only at times they were on deck. While rebellions did not happen often, they were usually unsuccessful. In order for the crew members to keep the enslaved Africans

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The largest source of slaves transported across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled iron workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many unique tribes with their own customs and religions, by

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occurred that killed 320 men, of which 202 were Black. The explosion was widely blamed on the lack of training for Black stevedores, and 50 of the survivors of the explosion refused an order to return to work, demanding safety training first. At the subsequent court martial for the "Port Chicago 50"

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stormed out, screaming: "This mongrel meeting ain't no place for a white man!" Though Smith's reaction was extreme, other Democratic politicians from the South made it clear to Roosevelt that they were very displeased. In the 1936 election, African-Americans who could vote overwhelmingly did so for

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paid the same wages to Black workers as white workers sparked much resentment in the South and as early as 1933 conservative Southern politicians who claiming that federal relief payments were causing Black people to move to the cities to become a "permanent welfare class". Studies showed that Black

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An immediate response was a shift in the Black vote in Northern cities from the GOP to the Democrats (blacks seldom voted in the South.) In Southern states where few Black people voted, Black leaders seized the opportunity to work inside the new federal agencies as social workers and administrators,

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The Great Depression hit Black America hard. In 1930, it was reported that 4 out of 5 Black people lived in the South, the average life expectancy for Black people was 15 years less than whites, and the Black infant mortality rate at 12% was double that of whites. In Chicago, Black people made up 4%

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the best account of race relations in the South during the period—one that reads like field notes for the future historian. This account was written during the zenith of Washingtonian movement and shows the optimism that it inspired among both liberals and moderates. The book is also notable for its

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as well as in local offices such as the office of sheriff. The safety which was provided by the troops did not last long, however, and white Southerners frequently terrorized Black voters. Coalitions of white and Black Republicans passed bills in order to establish the first public school systems in

4849:

During the early Antebellum period, the creation of free Black communities began to expand, laying out a foundation for African Americans' future. At first, only a few thousand African Americans had their freedom. As the years went by, the number of Blacks being freed expanded tremendously, building

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and escaped his master's farm in order to receive Lord Dunmore's promise of freedom. Peters had fought for the British throughout the war. When the war finally ended, he and other African Americans who fought on the losing side were taken to Nova Scotia. Here, they encountered difficulty farming the

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At first, Africans in the South were outnumbered by white indentured servants who came voluntarily from Europe. They avoided the plantations. With the vast amount of arable land and a shortage of laborers, plantation owners turned to African slavery. The enslaved had some legal rights—it was a crime

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in 1976, "Black History Month" is celebrated in the United States every year during the month of February. Proponents of Black history believe that it promotes diversity, develops self-esteem, and corrects myths and stereotypes. Opponents of it argue that such curricula are dishonest, divisive, and

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was the major Black scholar who studied and promoted the Black historical experience. Woodson insisted that the scholarly study of the African-American experience should be sound, creative, restorative, and, most important, it should be directly relevant to the Black community. He popularized Black

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Supreme Court decision. As a last-ditch effort to avoid court-ordered desegregation, officials in the county shut down the county's entire public school system in 1959 and it remained closed for five years. White students were able to attend private schools established by the community for the sole

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to decertify those unions. In 1944, when the union for trolley drivers in Philadelphia went on strike to protest plans to hire African-Americans as trolley drivers, Roosevelt sent in troops to break the strike. In 1942, Black people made up 3% of the workforce in the defense industry; by 1945 Black

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Most of the Army's 231 training camps were located in the South, which was mostly rural and where land was cheaper. Black people from outside of the South that were sent to the training camps found life in the South almost unbearable. Tensions at army and navy training bases between Black and white

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on 13 April 1937, describing in much detail how a white mob tied two Black men to a tree, tortured them with blowtorches, and finally killed them. Michener introduced an anti-lynching bill that passed the House, but which was stopped in the Senate as Southern senators filibustered the bill until it

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reported from rural Georgia that she had seen "half-starved Whites and Blacks struggle in competition for less to eat than my dog gets at home, for the privilege of living in huts that are infinitely less comfortable than his kennel". She also described most Southern Black people who made worked as

5943:

Although African-Americans often expressed their views of the Great Migration in biblical terms and received encouragement from northern black newspapers, railroad companies, and industrial labor agents, they also drew upon family and friendship networks to help in the move to Western Pennsylvania.

5814:

In 1917, fearing espionage, D.C. National Guard elements were mobilized 12 days before the U.S. officially entered World War I to protect reservoirs and power plants around District of Columbia Military officials were concerned that too many of the D.C. units were made up of men with foreign roots,

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Most African American units were relegated to support roles and did not see combat. Still, African Americans played a significant role in America's war effort. Four African American regiments were integrated into French units because the French suffered heavy losses and badly needed men after three

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worked to persuade slaveholders to free families. In Virginia, the number of free Black people increased from 10,000 in 1790 to nearly 30,000 in 1810, but 95% of Black people were still enslaved. In Delaware, three-quarters of all Black people were free by 1810. By 1860, just over 91% of Delaware's

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By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population. More than 80 percent of them lived in cities. Fifty-three percent of them remained in the Southern United States, 40 percent of them lived in the Northeast and North Central states and 7 percent of them

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Most Black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war. Despite discrimination and segregated facilities throughout the South, they escaped the cotton patch and took blue-collar jobs in the cities. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP and CIO unions,

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experienced race riots in 1943. In May 1943, in Mobile, Alabama, when the local shipyard promoted some Black men up to be trained as welders, white workers rioted and seriously injured 11 of their Black co-workers. In Los Angeles, the Zoot Suit riots of 3–8 June 1943 saw white servicemen attacking

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of the NAACP wrote: "World War II has immeasurably magnified the Negro's awareness of the American profession and practice of democracy... will return home convinced that whatever betterment of their lot is achieved must come largely from their own efforts. They will return determined to use those

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The draft starkly exposed the poor living conditions of most African-Americans with the Selective Service Boards turning down 46% of the Black men called up on health grounds as compared to 30% of the white men called up. At least a third of the black men in the South called up by the draft boards

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Militants demanded a federal anti-lynching bill, but President Roosevelt knew it would never pass Congress but would split his New Deal coalition. Because conservative white Southerners tended to vote as a bloc for the Democratic Party with all of the Senators and Congressmen from the South in the

5451:

While the NAACP used the court system to promote equality, at the local level, African Americans adopted a self-help strategy. They pooled their resources to create independent community and institutional lives for themselves. They established schools, churches, social welfare institutions, banks,

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in Louisiana in 1873 and 1874. Tensions and rumors were high in many parts of the South. When violence erupted, African Americans consistently were killed at a much higher rate than were European Americans. Historians of the 20th century have renamed events long called "riots" in southern history.

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on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million enslaved people in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free." Its practical effect was that as soon as an enslaved person escaped from slavery, by running away or

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and other churches, the Black church grew to be the focal point of the Black community. The Black church was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to European American discrimination. The church also served as neighborhood centers where free Black

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Many Black people organized to help strengthen the Black community and continue the fight against slavery. One of these organizations was the American Society of Free Persons of Colour, founded in 1830. This organization provided social aid to poor Black people and organized responses to political

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on the House floor by Preston Brooks of South Carolina. Sumner had been delivering an abolitionist speech to Congress when Brooks attacked him. Brooks received praise in the South for his actions while Sumner became a political icon in the North. Sumner later returned to the Senate, where he was a

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in the 1790s allowed the cultivation of short staple cotton, which could be grown in much of the Deep South, where warm weather and proper soil conditions prevailed. The industrial revolution in Europe and New England generated a heavy demand for cotton for cheap clothing, which caused an enormous

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Gradually, a free Black population emerged, concentrated in port cities along the Atlantic coast from Charleston to Boston. Enslaved people who lived in the cities and towns had more privileges than enslaved people who did not, but the great majority of enslaved people lived on southern tobacco or

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In all, about 10–12 million Africans were transported to the Western Hemisphere. The vast majority of these people came from that stretch of the West African coast extending from present-day Senegal to Angola; a small percentage came from Madagascar and East Africa. Only 5% (about 500,000) went to

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Surveys of 11th- and 12th-grade students and adults in 2005 show that American schools have given students an awareness of some famous figures in Black history. Both groups were asked to name 10 famous Americans, excluding presidents. Of those named, the three most mentioned were Black: 67% named

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Compared to the more rural migrants of the period 1910–40, many African Americans in the South were already living in urban areas and had urban job skills before they relocated. They moved to take jobs in the burgeoning industrial cities and especially the many jobs in the defense industry during

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moving to the city to work in the factories, competition for sparse rental housing had pushed tensions to the brink. On 20 June 1943, false rumors that a white mob had lynched 3 Black men led to an outbreak of racial rioting in Detroit that left 34 dead, of whom 25 were Black. On 1–2 August 1943,

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Through Roosevelt was sympathetic, and his wife even more so towards the plight of African-Americans, but the power of the Southern Democratic bloc in Congress, whom he did not wish to take on, limited his options. Through not explicitly designed to assist Black Americans, Roosevelt supported the

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In Chicago the Black community had been a stronghold of the Republican machine, but in the Great Depression the machine fell apart. Voters and leaders moved en masse into the Democratic Party as the New Deal offered relief programs and the city Democratic machine offered suitable positions in the

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that arose in the South during the mid-1870s as the white Democrats mounted a stronger insurgency, were more directed and effective than the Klan in challenging Republican governments, suppressing the Black vote and achieving political goals. Unlike the Klan, paramilitary members operated openly,

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also served in the different government jobs during Reconstruction, including Minister Resident and Counsel General to Haiti, Recorder of Deeds, and U.S. Marshall. Bruce became a Senator in 1874 and represented the state of Mississippi. He worked with white politicians from his region in order to

5131:

After the Union victory over the Confederacy, a brief period of Southern Black progress, called Reconstruction, followed. During Reconstruction, the states that had seceded were readmitted into the Union. From 1865 to 1877, under the protection of Union troops, some strides were made toward equal

4853:

African Americans tried to take the advantage of establishing homes and jobs in the cities. During the early 1800s free Black people took several steps to establish fulfilling work lives in urban areas. The rise of industrialization, which depended on power-driven machinery more than human labor,

4456:

within a month of making this proclamation. In South Carolina 25,000 enslaved people, more than one-quarter of the total, escaped to join and fight with the British, or fled for freedom in the uproar of war. Thousands of slaves also escaped in Georgia and Virginia, as well as New England and New

4036:

The women on the ships often endured rape by the crewmen. Women and children were often kept in rooms set apart from the main hold. This gave crewmen easy access to the women which was often regarded as one of the perks of the trade system. Not only did these rooms give the crewmen easy access to

6323:

stated: "Negroes in the Navy don't mind loading ammunition. They just want to know why they are the only ones doing the loading! They want to know why they are segregated; why they don't get promoted, and why the Navy disregarded official warnings by the San Francisco waterfront unions...that an

6193:

grow cotton or tobacco on a portion of their land. By law, they were required to pay the tenant farmers and sharecroppers on their land a portion of the money, but some cheated on this provision, hurting their tenants and croppers. The farm wage workers who worked directly for the landowner were

6116:

of the NAACP that he personally supported the anti-lynching bill, but that: "I did not choose the tools with which I must work. Had I been permitted to choose them I would have selected quite different ones. But I've got to get legislation passed to save America. The Southerners by reason of the

5155:

became the first African-American senator in the U.S. Congress in 1870. Other African Americans soon came to Congress from South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. These new politicians supported the Republicans and tried to bring further improvements to the lives of African Americans.

5016:

was an enslaved man whose owner had taken him to live in the free state of Illinois. After his owner's death, Dred Scott sued in court for his freedom on the basis of his having lived in a free state for a long period. The Black community received an enormous shock with the Supreme Court's "Dred

4832:

shredded the planters' paternalist pretenses in the eyes of Black people and prodded enslaved people and free Black people to create a host of oppositional ideologies and institutions that better accounted for the realities of endless deportations, expulsions, and flights that continually remade

6874:

The "Mississippi Freedom Summer" of 1964 brought thousands of idealistic youth, black and white, to the state to run "freedom schools", to teach basic literacy, history and civics. Other volunteers were involved in voter registration drives. The season was marked by harassment, intimidation and

5938:

With an enormous demand for expansion of the defense industries, the new draft law in effect, and the cut off of immigration from Europe, demand was very high for underemployed farmers from the South. Hundreds of thousands of African-Americans took the trains to Northern industrial centers in a

5647:

have been owned by men, women played a major role especially in the area of beauty. Standards of beauty were different for whites and Black people, and the Black community developed its own standards, with an emphasis on hair care. Beauticians could work out of their own homes, and did not need

4560:

In the Northern states, the revolutionary spirit did help African Americans. Beginning in the 1750s, there was widespread sentiment during the American Revolution that slavery was a social evil (for the country as a whole and for the whites) that should eventually be abolished. All the Northern

6386:

When Roosevelt learned that many companies in the defense industry were violating the spirit, if not the letter of Executive Order 8802 by only employing Black people in menial positions such as janitors and denying them the opportunity to work as highly paid skilled laborers, he significantly

6339:

and kept Allied supply lines open were African-American. During the crisis of the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, the Army allowed several integrated infantry platoons to be formed, through these were broken up once the crisis passed. However, the experiment of the integrated platoons in

6148:

had attended the meeting of the brotherhood that passed the resolution, it was widely believed that the president was supportive. Randolph subsequently visited the White House on 27 September 1940, where President Roosevelt seemed to be equally sympathetic. Randolph felt very betrayed where he

5857:, the 157th commanding general, gave the unit a Red Hand insignia in honor of their service. The red hand appears today on the crest of the 372nd Military Police Battalion. Although many D.C. National Guard units were mobilized, the 372nd was the only one to actually see combat during the war. 4865:

While the African Americans left the thought of slavery behind, they made a priority to reunite with their family and friends. The cause of the Revolutionary War forced many Black people to migrate to the west afterwards, and the scourge of poverty created much difficulty with housing. African

4743:. In this compromise the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada would be organized but the issue of slavery would be decided later. Washington D.C. would abolish the slave trade but not slavery itself. California would be admitted as a free state but the South would receive a new 11424:

My dear General, the President delegated me to confer you the Distinguished Service Medal in the name of the United States government: As Commander of the 157th French Division of Infantry, you have been an important factor in the success of the allies by your valiant leadership and eminent

7170:

briefly joined her on the list from 2001 to 2003 before his ex-wife acquired part of his fortune; although he returned to the list in 2006, he did not make it in 2007. With Winfrey the only African American wealthy enough to rank among America's 400 richest people, African Americans currently

5409:

Of the tens of thousands of lynchers and onlookers during this period, it is reported that fewer than 50 whites were ever indicted for their crimes, and only four were sentenced. Because Black people were disenfranchised, they could not sit on juries or have any part in the political process,

5219:

The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for Black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were usually

4259:. From the 1680s onward, the majority of enslaved Africans imported into North America were shipped directly from Africa, and most of them disembarked in ports located in what is now the Southern U.S., particularly in the present-day states of Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana. 4244:, occasionally they had been shipped via the West Indies in small cargoes after spending time working on the islands. At the same time, many were born to Africans and their descendants, and thus were native-born on the North American mainland. Their legal status was codified into law with the 5526:

over five million African Americans made choices and "voted with their feet" by moving from the South to northern and western cities in hopes of escaping political discrimination and hatred, violence, finding better jobs, voting and enjoying greater equality and education for their children.

4277:

By the 1750s, the native-born enslaved population of African descent outnumbered that of the African-born enslaved. By the time of the American Revolution, several Northern states were considering the abolition of slavery. Some Southern colonies, such as Virginia, had produced such large and

4310:

rice plantations, usually in groups of 20 or more. Wealthy plantation owners eventually became so reliant on slavery that they devastated their own lower class. In the years to come, the institution of slavery would be so heavily involved in the South's economy that it would divide America.

4573:

For 20 years after the Revolution, more Southerners also freed enslaved people, sometimes by manumission or in wills to be accomplished after the slaveholder's death. In the Upper South, the percentage of free Black people rose from about 1% before the Revolution to more than 10% by 1810.

5312:

Segregation for the first time became a standard legal process in the South; it was informal in Northern cities. Jim Crow limited Black access to transportation, schools, restaurants and other public facilities. Most southern blacks for decades continued to struggle in grinding poverty as

12673: 4845:

Black people generally settled in cities, creating the core of Black community life in the region. They established churches and fraternal orders. Many of these early efforts were weak and they often failed, but they represented the initial steps in the evolution of Black communities.

4509:

The colonists eventually won the war and the United States was recognized as a sovereign nation. In the provisional treaty, they demanded the return of property, including enslaved people. Nonetheless, the British helped up to 3,000 documented African Americans to leave the country for

4184:

Africans assisted the Spanish and the Portuguese during their early exploration of the Americas. In the 16th century some Black explorers settled in the Mississippi valley and in the areas that became South Carolina and New Mexico. The most celebrated Black explorer of the Americas was

4239:

By 1700, there were 25,000 enslaved Black people in the North American mainland colonies, forming roughly 10% of the population. Some enslaved Black people had been directly shipped from Africa (most of them were from 1518 to the 1850s), but initially, in the very early stages of the

3740:

of their common past, present, and European culture . Slaves who belonged to specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and became more dominant in numbers than slaves who belonged to other African ethnic groups in certain regions of what later became the United States.

5915:

launched an investigation. Based on findings from this investigation, the Army Decorations Board approved the award of the Medal of Honor to Stowers. On April 24, 1991–73 years after he was killed in action—Stowers' two surviving sisters received the Medal of Honor from President

3903:

the American colonies. The vast majority went to the West Indies and Brazil, where they died quickly. Demographic conditions were highly favorable in the American colonies, with less disease, more food, some medical care, and lighter work loads than prevailed in the sugar fields.

11425:

tactical ability. The officers and soldiers of the 371st and 372nd American Infantry Regiments count it a great honor to have served as part of your command in the operations conducted by you in Champagne and in the Vosges. General John J. Pershing quoted in Chester D. Heywood,

5160:

was the other African American who became a U.S. senator during this period. African Americans elected to the House of Representatives during this time included Benjamin S. Turner, Josiah T. Walls, Joseph H. Rainey, Robert Brown Elliot, Robert D. De Large, and Jefferson H. Long.

5071:

About 200,000 free Black people and former enslaved people served in the Union Army and Navy, thus providing a basis for a claim to full citizenship. The dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a severe negative impact on the Black population, with much sickness and death.

4569:

and barred slavery from the large Northwest Territory. In 1790, there were more than 59,000 free Black people in the United States. By 1810, that number had risen to 186,446. Most of these were in the North, but Revolutionary sentiments also motivated Southern slaveholders.

5182:

or professional people seeking opportunity on this ... special Black frontier. Finally, thousands came as soldiers, and when the war was over, many of young men remained there or after a stay of some months in the North, they returned in order to complete their education.

5251:

When Democrats took control of Tennessee in 1888, they passed laws making voter registration more complicated and ended the most competitive political state in the South. Voting by Black people in rural areas and small towns dropped sharply, as did voting by poor whites.

4936:

The Black community also established schools for Black children, since they were often banned from entering public schools. Richard Allen organized the first Black Sunday school in America; it was established in Philadelphia during 1795. Then five years later, the priest

6458:

where he described in much detail the effects of white supremacy upon Black Americans, and predicated in the long run the Jim Crow regime was unsustainable, as he argued that after the war African-Americans would be not willing to accept a permanent second class status.

5884:, Stowers had led an assault on German trenches, continuing to lead and encourage his men even after being wounded twice. Stowers died from his wounds, but his men continued the fight on a German machine gun nest near Bussy farm in Champagne, and eventually defeated the 6117:

seniority rule in Congress are chairmen or occupy strategic places on most of the Senate and House committees. If I came out for the antilynching bill now, they will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can't take the risk".

6383:. While they somewhat lived in better conditions than the South (for instance, they could vote and send children to better schools), they nevertheless faced widespread discrimination due to bigotry and fear of competition of housing and jobs among white residents. 6307:, which served in the Pacific, was assigned "mopping up" duties on the islands that the Americans mostly controlled. Black servicemen greatly resented segregation and those serving in Europe complained that German POWs were served better food than what they were. 4620:

By 1800, a small number of slaves had joined Christian churches. Free Black people in the North set up their own networks of churches and in the South the slaves sat in the upper galleries of white churches. Central to the growth of community among Blacks was the

4037:

women but it gave enslaved women better access to information on the ship's crew, fortifications, and daily routine, but little opportunity to communicate this to the men confined in the ship's hold. As an example, women instigated a 1797 insurrection aboard the

4324:

At this time, slavery existed in all American colonies. In the North, 2% of people owned enslaved people, most of whom were personal servants. In the south, 25% of the population relied on the labour of enslaved people. Southern slavery usually took the form of

6156:

In June 1941 as the deadline for the march approached, Roosevelt asked for it to be cancelled, saying that 100, 000 Black people demonstrating in Washington would create problems for him. On 18 June 1941, Randolph met with Roosevelt with the mayor of New York,

6340:

December 1944 showed that integration did not mean the collapse of military discipline as many claimed that it would, and was a factor in the later desegregation of the armed forces. A total of 708 African Americans were killed in combat during World War II.

4967:

are alluded to throughout the paper. These anti-slavery sentiments were popular among both white abolitionists and African-American slaves. Enslaved people rallied around these ideas with rebellions against their masters as well as white bystanders during the

5997:

sharecroppers as living under a system very close to slavery. A visiting British journalist wrote she "had traveled over most of Europe and part of Africa, but I have never seen such terrible sights as I saw yesterday among the sharecroppers of Arkansas".

5776:"The red hand division during nine days of violent fight was always an exceptional model for the victorious advance of the fourth army. Dear Friends of America you will be back home to the other side of the ocean, don' t forget ‘’ The Red Hand Division." 7374:

documented how former enslaved people fought to keep their families together and he also documented that they struggled against tremendous odds in order to define themselves as free people. Other historians wrote about rebellions, both small and large.

4956:

The revolt of enslaved Haitians against their white slave owners, which began in 1791 and lasted until 1801, was a primary source of fuel for both enslaved people and abolitionists arguing for the freedom of Africans in the U.S. In the 1833 edition of

5336:

organization dedicated to destroying the Republican Party in the South, especially by terrorizing Black leaders, was formed. Klansmen hid behind masks and robes to hide their identity while they carried out violence and property damage. The Klan used

8722: 7276:

has always been a major research topic among white scholars, but until the 1950s, they generally focused on the political and constitutional themes of slavery which were debated over by white politicians; they did not study the lives of the enslaved

6564:, where many skilled jobs in the defense industry were concentrated. More of these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South. They were better educated and they had better skills than the people who did not migrate. 4854:

might have afforded them employment, but many owners of textile mills refused to hire Black workers. These owners considered whites to be more reliable and educable. This resulted in many Black people performing unskilled labor. Black men worked as

13857:

Hall, Stephen Gilroy. "'To Give a Faithful Account of the Race': History and Historical Consciousness in the African-American Community, 1827–1915". PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1999. 470 pp. DAI 2000 60(8): 3084-A. DA9941339 Fulltext:

5223:

In the face of years of mounting violence and intimidation directed at Blacks as well as whites sympathetic to their cause, the U.S. government retreated from its pledge to guarantee constitutional protections to freedmen and women. When President

4790:. They used the traditional arguments against slavery, protesting it on moral, economic, and political grounds. Their role in the antislavery movement not only aided the abolitionist cause but also was a source of pride to the Black community. 3444:, either to European slavery or to servitude in the Americas, approximately 388,000 landed in North America. After arriving in various European colonies in North America, the enslaved Africans were sold to white colonists, primarily to work on 5389:

era accompanied the most cruel wave of "racial" suppression that America has yet experienced. Between 1890 and 1940, millions of African Americans were disenfranchised, killed, and brutalized. According to newspaper records kept at the

4941:

established a school for Black youth. Black Americans regarded education as the surest path to economic success, moral improvement and personal happiness. Only the sons and daughters of the Black middle class had the luxury of studying.

5436:. There, they produced a manifesto in which they called for an end to racial discrimination, full civil liberties for African Americans and recognition of human brotherhood. The organization which they established came to be called the 6299:, which served in Italy, was noted for the antagonistic relations between its white officers and Black soldiers. In an attempt to ease the racial tensions, the 92nd Division was integrated in 1944 by having the all Japanese-American 4976:

of 1831. Leaders and plantation owners were also very concerned about the consequences Haiti's revolution would have on early America. Thomas Jefferson, for one, was wary of the "instability of the West Indies", referring to Haiti.

4827:

Over 1 million enslaved people were moved from the older seaboard slave states, with their declining economies, to the rich cotton states of the southwest; many others were sold and moved locally. Ira Berlin (2000) argues that this

6133:, whom were all returned. Later in 1938, the conservative Southern Democrats allied themselves with conservative Republicans, forming an alliance in Congress which sharply limited Roosevelt's ability to pass liberal legislation. 3291: 3178: 4537:. Additionally, free Black people's rights were also restricted in many places. Most were denied the right to vote and were excluded from public schools. Some Black people sought to fight these contradictions in court. In 1780, 3899:

the 10th century many of the tribes had embraced Islam. Those villages in West Africa which were lucky enough to be in good conditions for growth and success, prospered. They also contributed their success to the slave trade.

5271:

was used in many states temporarily to exempt illiterate white voters from literacy tests. As power became concentrated under the Democratic Party in the South, the party positioned itself as a private club and instituted

5818: 5374:, that started in Mississippi in 1875 but had chapters arise and was prominent in the 1876 election campaign in South Carolina, as well as in North Carolina; and other White Line organizations such as rifle clubs. 5166:

hopefully help his fellow African Americans and other minority groups such as Chinese immigrants and Native Americans. He even supported efforts to end restrictions on former Confederates' political participation.

5025:

to the Constitution protects property owners against deprivation of their property without due process of law. Although the Supreme Court has never explicitly overruled the Dred Scott case, the Court stated in the

13866: 6784:, to speak out for an end to southern racial violence and police brutality, equal opportunity in employment, equal access in education and public accommodations. The organizers of the march were called the " 6149:

learned the military was to remain segregated after all despite the president's warm words. Roosevelt had begun a program of rearmament, and feeling the president was not to be trusted, Randolph formed the

4807:

would solidify the North in its opposition to slavery, and press forward the abolitionist movement. President Lincoln would later invite Stowe to the White House in honor of this book that changed America.

5410:

including local offices. Meanwhile, the lynchings were used as a weapon of terror to keep millions of African-Americans living in a constant state of anxiety and fear. Most Black people were denied their

5344:

The anti-Republican and anti-freedmen sentiment only briefly went underground, as violence arose in other incidents, especially after Louisiana's disputed state election in 1872, which contributed to the

9567: 4429:, fought in the American Revolution for over six years. He and the other African-American soldiers fought in order to improve their white neighbor's views of them and advance their own fight of freedom. 4227:

This—combined with the ambiguous nature of the social status of Black people and the difficulty in using any other group of people as forced servants—led to the subjugation of Black people into slavery.

5034:

in 1868, which begins by stating, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."

4012:

there were already people of African descent in America. A few countries in Africa would buy, sell, and trade other enslaved Africans, who were often prisoners of war, with the Europeans. The people of

18174: 18169: 6428:

saw a white mob smash up Black homes while lynching 2 Black men. In Detroit, which expanded massively during the war years with 50, 000 Black people from the South and 200, 000 "hillbilly" whites from

6035:, sided with Smith and agreed to cancel the directive. As it turned out, the most effective way for Black sharecroppers to escape a life of poverty in the South was to move to the North or California. 7305:

history with a variety of innovative strategies, including the founding of the Association for the Study of Negro Life, the development of outreach activities, the creation of Negro History Week (now

5903:

Stowers was recommended for the Medal of Honor shortly after his death, but according to the Army, the nomination was misplaced. Many believed the recommendation had been intentionally ignored due to

5779:"Our friendship has been cemented in the blood of the brave and such a link will be never destroyed Remember your General who is proud to have commanded you and be sure of his endless recognition. ." 5635:. Graduates were hired by major national corporations. They were active in the Urban League, the United Negro College Fund and the NAACP, and were much more likely to be Episcopalians than Baptists. 5089: 6702:. This decision applied to public facilities, especially public schools. Reforms occurred slowly and only after concerted activism by African Americans. The ruling also brought new momentum to the 4371:

considered freeing enslaved people to assist with the war effort, but they also removed language from the Declaration of Independence that included the promotion of slavery amongst the offenses of

5955:

Nevertheless, the newly established Black communities in the North nearly all endured. Joe Trotter explains how the Blacks built new institutions for their new communities in the Pittsburgh area:

5362:

often solicited newspaper coverage, and had distinct political goals: to turn Republicans out of office and suppress or dissuade Black voting in order to regain power in 1876. Groups included the

13048: 7394:

course between 2022 and 2024. The course is expected to be launched in 2024. The goal of the course is to expand student understanding of black history, culture, art, literature, and academics.

18181: 6173:

The largest group of Black people worked in the cotton farms of the Deep South as sharecroppers or tenant farmers; a few owned their farms. Large numbers of whites also were tenant farmers and

4306:

on the earliest date allowed by the Constitution. Despite the ban, small to moderate cargoes of enslaved Africans continued to be illegally brought into the U.S., only ending for good in 1859.

3163: 17922: 6055:(who was a close friend of Bethune's), was notably sympathetic towards African-Americans and constantly in private urged her husband to do more to try help Black Americans. The fact that the 5598: 4317:

in South Carolina. The colony had about 56,000 enslaved Blacks, outnumbering whites two-to-one. About 150 enslaved people rose up, seizing guns, ammunition, and killing twenty whites before

5341:, especially murder and threats of murder, arson and intimidation. The Klan's excesses led to the passage of legislation against it, and with Federal enforcement, it was destroyed by 1871. 6000:

The New Deal did not have a specific program for Black people only, but it sought to incorporate them in all the relief programs that it began. The most important relief agencies were the

6072:

1930s being Democrats, this tended to pull the national Democratic Party to the right on many issues while Southern politicians formed a powerful bloc in Congress. When a Black minister,

3095: 5948:

After the war ended and the soldiers returned home, tensions were very high, with serious labor union strikes and inter-racial riots in major cities. The summer of 1919 was known as the

4747:

which required Northerners to return enslaved people who escaped to the North to their owners. The compromise of 1850 would maintain a shaky peace until the election of Lincoln in 1860.

3173: 10561: 10521: 6215: 5965:); organizations such as the NAACP, Urban League, and Garvey Movement; social clubs, restaurants, and baseball teams; hotels, beauty shops, barber shops, and taverns, all proliferated. 18186: 6266:

Over 1.9 million Black people served in uniform during World War II. They served in segregated units. Black women served in the Army's WAAC and WAC, but very few served in the Navy.

3158: 9504:

Michael Woods E. " What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature" (paper presented at the

4803:

tells the story of the life of an enslaved person and the brutality that is faced by that life day after day. It would sell over 100,000 copies in its first year. The popularity of

4232:

was the first colony to legalize slavery in 1641. Other colonies followed suit by passing laws that made slave status heritable and non-Christian imported servants slaves for life.

6504:), and other musicals of the 1940s opened new roles for Black people in Hollywood. They broke through old stereotypes and far surpassed the limited, poorly paid roles available in 14289: 4685:, which was the only slave revolt that led to an independent country. Many slave owners fled to the United States with tales of horror and massacre that alarmed Southern whites. 7859: 6282:

saw a shoot-out between white and Black soldiers that left one dead. In an attempt to solve the problem of racial violence, the War Department in 1943 commissioned the director

5448:(NAACP) a year later, in 1909. Under the leadership of Du Bois, the NAACP mounted legal challenges to segregation and it also lobbied legislatures on behalf of Black Americans. 5054: 4270:

By the turn of the 18th century, enslaved Africans had come to fully supplant indentured servants in proving the labor source for the rapidly expanding plantation system of the

1811: 10887: 5759:

by General Pershing. The African American Regiments earned glory in the decisive final offensive in Champagne region of France. The two Regiments were decorated by the French

17857: 7869: 7769: 6060:

people were twice likely to be unemployed as whites, and one-fifth of all people receiving federal relief payments were Black, which was double their share of the population.

4530: 2457: 1727: 4850:

to 233,000 by the 1820s. They sometimes sued to gain their freedom or purchased it. Some slave owners freed their bondspeople and a few state legislatures abolished slavery.

5725:, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters", which was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other American unit in the war. 171 members of the 369th were awarded the 198: 6153:, announcing plans for a huge civil rights march in Washington DC that would demand desegregation of the military and the factories in the defense industry on 1 July 1941. 8033: 7725: 1870: 1822: 6210: 6039:

with an eye to preparing a new generation who would become leaders of grass-roots constituencies that could be mobilized at some future date for civil rights. President

3168: 3120: 12879: 13907: 5627:

Businesses operated at the local level, and included beauty shops, barber shops, funeral parlors and the like. Booker T. Washington organized them nationally into the

3130: 3125: 20997: 19282: 15986: 15165: 5822:

Colored messengers of Motorcycle Corps, 372nd Headquarters, who kept communication lines alive at all hours during the big drive in Champagne, Argonne and at Verdun.

3396: 3140: 988: 540: 11239:

The Social Situation of the Black Executive: Black and White Identities in the Corporate World in Problem of the Century: Racial Stratification in the United States

9598: 9545: 7710: 20977: 9106: 10127:

The number of free Blacks grew during this time as well. By 1830 there were 319,000 free Blacks in the United States. About 150,000 lived in the northern states.

7715: 5815:

thus the job of protecting vital facilities fell to the all-black 1st Separate Infantry, the only unit the military believed could be trusted with this mission.

4598:. Despite the challenges of living in the new country, most free Black people fared far better than the nearly 800,000 enslaved Blacks. Even so, many considered 3110: 9575: 5279:

Although African Americans quickly started litigation to challenge such provisions, early court decisions at the state and national level went against them. In

21946: 21021: 18707: 18702: 18251: 16983: 16840: 15848: 15667: 12936:

Pero Gaglo Dagbovie, "Making Black History Practical and Popular: Carter G. Woodson, the Proto Black Studies Movement, and the Struggle for Black Liberation".

7664: 7216:(D-CA) was announced as the first African-American woman to run for vice-president on a major party presidential ticket. She was elected vice president in the 6012:, which employed 2,000,000 or more workers nationwide under federal control, 1935–42. All races had had the same wage rates and working conditions in the WPA. 5117: 5031: 4786:

According to Patrick C. Kennicott, the largest and most effective abolitionist speakers were Black people who spoke before the countless local meetings of the

4649: 3544: 2013: 850: 707: 6185:

The problem was very low prices for farm products and the New Deal solution was to raise them by cutting production. It accomplished this in the South by the

5593:(1886–1970). Membership in the NAACP rapidly increased as it mounted an anti-lynching campaign in reaction to ongoing southern white violence against blacks. 4933:

and other towns, where they could work as artisans and create businesses. Others were able to buy land and farm in frontier areas further from white control.

4351:

The latter half of the 18th century was a time of significant political upheaval on the North American continent. In the midst of cries for independence from

20775: 18514: 18386: 16971: 16289: 11475:

Rinaldi, Richard A. (2004). The US Army In World War I: Orders Of Battle. Tiger Lily Publications LLC. ISBN 9780972029643. - Total pages: 244"Rinaldi p. 98".

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From 1890 to 1908, starting with Mississippi and ending with Georgia, ten of eleven Southern states adopted new constitutions or amendments that effectively

5228:

withdrew Union troops from the South in 1877 as a result of a national compromise on the election, Black people lost most of their political power. Men like

5121: 3045: 3035: 1854: 1278: 6051:

to advise him. Roosevelt ordered that federal agencies such as the CCC, WPA and PWA were not to discriminate against Black Americans. The president's wife,

5992:

of the population and 16% of the unemployed while in Pittsburgh blacks were 8% of the population and 40% of the unemployed. In January 1934, the journalist

18945: 3658: 3457: 3115: 1792: 13248: 9645: 5021:

the Court went on to hold that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in federal territories because enslaved people are personal property and the

21069: 20917: 16012: 16002: 13982:

Hine, Darlene Clark (2007). "African American Women and Their Communities in the Twentieth Century: The Foundation and Future of Black Women's Studies".

10831: 7899: 7779: 6737:. It entailed a series of actions to deny state funding to integrated schools and instead fund privately run "segregation academies" for white students. 4329:

who lived and worked on plantations. These statistics show the early imbalance that would eventually tip the scale and rid the United States of slavery.

3105: 3100: 1014: 1004: 12075: 11209: 6921:

By this time, African Americans who questioned the effectiveness of nonviolent protest had gained a greater voice. More militant Black leaders, such as

21224: 17081: 15808: 15655: 8043: 7809: 7119:, which serves as a political bloc for issues relating to African Americans. The appointment of Black people to high federal offices—including General 7093:, who ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, brought unprecedented support and leverage to Black people in politics. 6027:, in early 1935 wrote up a directive to ensure that Southern landlords were paying sharecroppers for their labor (which most of them did not), Senator 5305: 4873:

often meant that Black people were not welcome or would be mistreated in White businesses and other establishments. To counter this, Black people like

3504: 1720: 1247: 810: 12596: 9255: 7112:. There were 8,936 Black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 Black mayors. 6733:, state legislators, school board members and other public officials mounted a campaign of obstructionism and outright defiance to integration called 4697:. There was a 70% increase in the number of slaves in the United States in only 20 years. They were overwhelmingly concentrated on plantations in the 17670: 16805: 16726: 11654:

Christopher G. Wye, The New Deal and the Negro community: Toward a broader conceptualization." The Journal of American History 59.3 (1972): 621–639.

11272: 10289:

Rohrs, Richard C. (August 2012). "The Free Black Experience in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina: Refining Generalization about Race Relations".

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the strategist who has been called the "invisible man" of the Civil Rights Movement; labor organizer and initiator of the march, A. Philip Randolph;

6560:

In the Second Great Migration, more than five million African Americans moved to cities in states in the Northeast, Midwest, and West, including the

6100: 5022: 3135: 3015: 1652: 5613:(part of the American Federation of labor) all were established during this period and found support among African Americans, who became urbanized. 18164: 16208: 15833: 15782: 12498:

Taylor Shockley, Megan (2003). "Working For Democracy: Working-Class African-American Women, Citizenship, and Civil Rights in Detroit, 1940–1954".

9231:"Africans in America | African | Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History | Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress" 4755: 3749:

Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade. These regions were:

1205: 835: 784: 9208: 19528: 19419: 18839: 18712: 17952: 15843: 15661: 15556: 15094: 7257: 5456:

and small businesses which could serve their communities. The main organizer of national and local self-help organizations was Alabama educator

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While the majority of free Black people lived in poverty, some were able to establish successful businesses that catered to the Black community.

2331: 845: 661: 8851: 21951: 21941: 21074: 18781: 18756: 15978: 14557: 8386:

Incredibly, most of the 42 million members of the African-American community descend from this tiny group of less than half a million Africans.

8138: 4712:

allowed any Black person to be claimed as a runaway unless a White person testified on their behalf. A number of free Black people, especially

3370: 3271: 2018: 1890: 1744: 980: 5713:

cause following America's entry into the war. More than two million African-American men rushed to register for the draft. By the time of the

5522:

During the first half of the 20th century, the largest internal population shift in U.S. history took place. Starting about 1910, through the

21315: 20982: 19320: 19239: 18766: 18761: 17693: 17141: 15965: 12915: 10576: 10536: 10343: 9270: 5200: 4902:, such as social clubs or literary societies. Because of discrimination at the higher levels of the church hierarchy, some Black people like 3680:

who were forced into slavery after they were captured during African wars or raids. They were captured and brought to America as part of the

3563: 3389: 1713: 4877:

developed their own communities with Black-owned businesses. Black doctors, lawyers, and other businessmen were the foundation of the Black

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astronomer, mathematician, almanac author, surveyor, and farmer, who in 1791 assisted in the initial survey of the boundaries of the future

18482: 18318: 18027: 18017: 17675: 17665: 15873: 15813: 15712: 15459: 15387: 15288: 15199: 15175: 15081: 14962: 14878: 14801: 14749: 14669: 14123: 13179: 13065: 8289: 8023: 7799: 7359:(1969), which are all narrative accounts of critical wartime episodes that focused on how Black people interacted with their white allies. 7320: 7309:, in February), and the publication of a popular Black history magazine. Woodson democratized, legitimized, and popularized Black history. 4342: 3440:, led to a large-scale transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic; of the roughly 10–12 million Africans who were sold by the 3325: 3305: 3065: 2557: 2542: 2029: 875: 815: 700: 639: 617: 584: 551: 496: 452: 430: 397: 364: 331: 14392: 6206: 20952: 20947: 20735: 20717: 19449: 19358: 18524: 18296: 16644: 15992: 15754: 15569: 8294: 8195: 5929: 5665: 4918: 4493:

and to grant it trading and settlement rights on the West African coast." Peters and the other African Americans on Nova Scotia left for

3070: 3050: 1669: 1626: 994: 756: 14387: 14201:

Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39)

13011: 19498: 19200: 18744: 17688: 17683: 16335: 16281: 16245: 15818: 15207: 13827:(2002) argues that slavery emerged as a central element of the collective identity of African Americans in the post-Reconstruction era. 7931: 7039: 6650: 6537:

and Second Great Migrations shown through changes in African American share of population in major U.S. cities, 1916–1930 and 1940–1970

6031:

stormed into his office and shouted: "Young fella, you can't do this to my niggers, paying checks to them". The Agriculture Secretary,

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secretly worked with Northern supporters to raise funds and provide representation for African Americans in additional cases, such as

21492: 21054: 19605: 19307: 18403: 17907: 17016: 15891: 15828: 15823: 15776: 15185: 14737: 14697: 10891: 8334: 8123: 7874: 7759: 7011: 6992: 6825: 6622: 6603: 6517: 6380: 5516: 4522: 4356: 4098: 4079: 3000: 2877: 1911: 893: 830: 825: 792: 778: 713: 71: 52: 12752: 7323:, such as Woodson, and the Black history that is now well established in mainline universities. Quarles grew up in Boston, attended 6197:

Once mechanization came to cotton (after 1945), the tenants and sharecroppers were largely surplus; they moved to towns and cities.

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system and laws, and a breakdown in traditional family units, African-American communities have been suffering from extremely high

7217: 7179: 6809: 6769: 6718: 5653: 5276:, closing Black people out of the only competitive contests. By 1910 one-party white rule was firmly established across the South. 4744: 3630: 3382: 3320: 3085: 3040: 1159: 1145: 1009: 960: 913: 908: 855: 805: 750: 17: 14377: 13414:

Scheiber, Jane Lang, and Harry N. Scheiber. "The Wilson administration and the wartime mobilization of black Americans, 1917–18."

5289:

upheld state provisions. This encouraged other Southern states to adopt similar measures over the next few years, as noted above.

4497:

in 1792. Peters died soon after they arrived, but the other members of his party lived on in their new home where they formed the

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was passed in the Southern states. Beginning in the early 20th century, in response to poor economic conditions, segregation and

3567: 3286: 3030: 3025: 3010: 1616: 1237: 840: 799: 770: 13710:

Williams, Doretha. "Kansas Grows the Best Wheat and the Best Race Women: Black Women's Club Movement in Kansas 1900–30." (2011)

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and sold into slavery with little or no hope of rescue. By 1819 there were exactly 11 free and 11 slave states, which increased

4561:

states passed emancipation acts between 1780 and 1804; most of these arranged for gradual emancipation and a special status for

4472:. Peters was born in present-day Nigeria and belonged to the Yoruba tribe, and ended up being captured and sold into slavery in 4105: 78: 19369: 18776: 18771: 18739: 18509: 18413: 18376: 18323: 18157: 15901: 15740: 15725: 15650: 15633: 13690:

Wiese, Andrew. "Black Housing, White Finance: African American Housing and Home Ownership in Evanston, Illinois, before 1940."

8398: 8304: 8264: 8185: 8128: 7946: 7849: 7735: 7158:

in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Not only was Winfrey the world's only Black billionaire but she has been the only Black person on the

6379:

in large numbers to munitions centers in the North and West to take advantage of the shortages caused by the war, sparking the

6304: 6296: 5807:

Enlisted men of the 1st Separate Battalion, an all African-American unit, examining weapons in the old army arms room prior to

5695: 3005: 2990: 2897: 903: 742: 727: 11451: 11276: 6335:

proved their value in combat. Approximately 75 percent of the soldiers who served in the European theater as truckers for the

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movement urged African Americans to look to Africa for inspiration and emphasized Black solidarity, rather than integration.

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and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually replaced by the system of chattel slavery used in the

3587: 3433: 2957: 2034: 2023: 1885: 1839: 1834: 1807: 1691: 1319: 1283: 1224: 1132: 882: 764: 721: 529: 319: 15672: 5709:

The U.S. armed forces remained segregated during World War I. Still, many African Americans eagerly volunteered to join the

4963:

it is stated that freed Black people in Haiti were better off than their Jamaican counterparts, and the positive effects of

4529:

set forth the ideals of freedom and equality while providing for the continuation of the institution of slavery through the

4425:

Approximately 5000 free African-American men helped the American Colonists in their struggle for freedom. One of these men,

21687: 21665: 21126: 19590: 19538: 19484: 18886: 18682: 18667: 18531: 18440: 18435: 18369: 16830: 15546: 14459: 11879: 10462: 10437:. The Greenwood Press "Daily life through history" series. Vol. 1. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 177‒366. 10320: 9726: 9083: 9050: 8299: 8244: 8210: 8160: 7981: 7976: 7689: 7362:

Black historians attempted to reverse centuries of ignorance. While they were not alone in advocating a new examination of

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Politically and economically, Black people have made substantial strides in the post-civil rights era. Civil rights leader

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with their white neighbors. White opposition to these advancements led to most African Americans living in the South to be

3060: 3020: 2962: 2917: 1777: 221: 9938:

Carlander, Jay; Brownlee, Elliot (September 2006). "Antebellum Southern Political Economists and the Problem of Slavery".

8077: 7025: 6636: 6112:, pressed President Roosevelt to support the anti-lynching bill, but his support was half-hearted at best. Roosevelt told 5220:

inferior to those provided for white Americans, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.

4112: 85: 21104: 19533: 19469: 18832: 18657: 18494: 18464: 18246: 17825: 17037: 16752: 16169: 15919: 15472: 15412: 15002: 14516: 8190: 8175: 7961: 7328: 7136: 6522: 6141: 5912: 5797: 5610: 2947: 2927: 2772: 2341: 2187: 1679: 1166: 921: 301: 8737: 6274:

trainees resulted in several outbreaks of racial violence with Black trainees sometimes being lynched. In the so-called

5717:

in November 1918, over 350,000 African Americans had served with the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front.

5479:, becoming the first prominent journalist to examine America's racial divide; it was extremely successful. Sociologist 4224:. When servants were freed, they became competition for resources. Additionally, released servants had to be replaced. 138: 19543: 19518: 19503: 19232: 18900: 18647: 18541: 18457: 18301: 18082: 17882: 17033: 17011: 16747: 16234: 15997: 15858: 15790: 15730: 15524: 15027: 15017: 14933: 13859: 13502:

The Harlem Reader: A Celebration of New York's Most Famous Neighborhood, from the Renaissance Years to the 21st Century

12683: 11381: 10789: 10761: 10505: 10387: 10353: 10229: 9826: 9674: 9646:

https://www.academia.edu/40720522/A_Precis_of_Sources_relating_to_genealogical_research_on_the_Sierra_Leone_Krio_people

9307: 9116: 8838: 8614: 8517: 8463: 8435: 8239: 7241: 6937:, called for Black people to defend themselves, using violence, if necessary. From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, the 6689: 6554: 6534: 6388: 5933: 5523: 5512: 5498: 5286: 4890: 4771: 4486: 4437: 4256: 4044:

by stealing weapons and passing them to the men below as well as engaging in hand-to-hand combat with the ship's crew.

3579: 3075: 3055: 2609: 2474: 1906: 1674: 1231: 999: 860: 732: 14388:

Historical resources related to African American history provided free for public use by the State Archives of Florida

13089:

Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century

6726:

Law enforcement responded to protesters with batons, electric cattle prods, fire hoses, attack dogs and mass arrests.

21931: 21926: 21366: 21049: 20922: 19396: 19173: 18794: 17184: 16835: 15896: 15886: 15422: 15059: 14896: 14479: 14245: 14093: 13788:

Dorsey, Allison. "Black History Is American History: Teaching African American History in the Twenty-first Century."

13446: 13147: 11834: 10442: 10204: 9702: 9174: 8955: 8547: 7150:

Economic progress for Black people reaching the extremes of wealth has been slow. According to Forbes richest lists,

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small plots of lands they were granted. They also did not receive the same privileges and opportunities as the white

4422:'s ascension to commander of the Continental Army in 1775, the additional recruitment of Black people was forbidden. 4326: 4145: 4094: 3626: 1955: 1787: 898: 888: 289: 217: 118: 67: 13347:

Allen, Walter R., et al. "From Bakke to Fisher: African American Students in US Higher Education over Forty Years."

11345: 11015: 21936: 21471: 21084: 20826: 19297: 19184: 18722: 18687: 18672: 18430: 18032: 17276: 17246: 17062: 16791: 16195: 15449: 15278: 15111: 15071: 14950: 14484: 14329: 11132:

Rupert Vance, "The 20th-century South as Viewed by English-speaking Travelers, 1900–1955" in Thomas D. Clark, ed.,

11103:

August Meier, "Booker T. Washington and the Negro Press: With Special Reference to the Colored American Magazine."

9230: 8155: 7784: 7669: 7124: 5831: 5534:, whose influence reached nationwide. Black intellectual and cultural circles were influenced by thinkers such as 5204: 4445: 4411: 3583: 3365: 3301: 2912: 2562: 1975: 1875: 1192: 967: 606: 9924:

Douglas R, Egerton, "Slaves to the Marketplace: Economic Liberty and Black Rebelliousness in the Atlantic World".

9465:

Egerton, Douglas R. "Slaves to the Marketplace: Economic Liberty and Black Rebelliousness in the Atlantic World".

9006: 5190:

A large group of African-American spectators stands on the banks of Buffalo Bayou to witness a baptism (ca. 1900).

21431: 21411: 21111: 21099: 19575: 19513: 18729: 18652: 18447: 18291: 18022: 17887: 17592: 17231: 16396: 16130: 16086: 15482: 14980: 14836: 14132:(2002), proposes new racial and ethnic terminology and classifications for the study of black people and history. 13658: 13534:

African American Women and Social Action: The Clubwomen and Volunteerism from Jim Crow to the New Deal, 1896–1936

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Fred C. Frey and T. Lynn Smith, "The Influence of the AAA Cotton Program Upon the Tenant, Cropper, and Laborer,"

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union had his union issue a resolution calling for the government to desegregate the military. As the First Lady

5260: 5229: 4735:, a problem gripped the nation: what to do about the territories won from Mexico. Henry Clay, the man behind the 3413: 2867: 2734: 2552: 2479: 1385: 1127: 1078: 11680:

Kruman, Mark S. (1975). "Quotas for Blacks: The Public Works Administration and the Black Construction Worker".

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are known for partaking in the event of selling their prisoners of war and other unwanted people off as slaves.

18825: 18499: 18393: 18308: 17912: 15866: 15735: 15502: 14028: 12349: 11189: 11021:, accessed 6 April 2008. A state historical marker erected in 1950 noted that 150 blacks died and three whites. 8668: 8643: 8587: 8200: 8145: 8106: 7991: 7966: 7951: 7941: 7936: 7079: 6996: 6742: 6607: 6396:

people made up 8% of the workforce in defense industry factories (Black people made up 10% of the population).

6392: 6065: 5628: 5590: 4751: 4482: 4433: 4083: 3595: 3276: 2952: 2902: 868: 737: 56: 13082:

Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass

12844:

Pettit, Becky (2004). "Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in US incarceration".

11206: 10851: 8762: 6351:. This led in turn to the integration of the Air Force and the other services by the early 1950s. In his book 4837:

provides the most extensive account of the role of Black abolitionists in the American anti-slavery movement.

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serving as a mediator, where in a compromise it was agreed that the march would be cancelled in exchange for

6009: 5984: 5714: 4783:

in Britain and the United States in the 1840–1860 period developed large, complex campaigns against slavery.

4525:

of 1787 sought to define the foundation for the government of the newly formed United States of America. The

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Hopkins, Leroy T. (1986). "Bethel African Methodist Church in Lancaster: Prolegomenon to a Social History".

9175:"How Slavery Affected African American Families, Freedom's Story, TeacherServe®, National Humanities Center" 5444:

race riot of 1908, a group of concerned Whites joined the leadership of the Niagara Movement and formed the

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Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South

8917:

Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South

8904:

Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South

8399:"America's Black Holocaust Museum | How Many Africans Were Really Taken to the U.S During the Slave Trade?" 8234: 8118: 8101: 8038: 7854: 7834: 7794: 7651: 7363: 7273: 7253: 7233: 6710:

against segregated public transportation systems sprang up in the South, the most notable of which was the

6150: 4787: 3634: 3532: 3516: 3508: 2995: 2887: 2872: 2857: 2824: 2123: 1802: 1177: 1151: 1137: 1107: 1097: 1048: 974: 507: 267: 14431: 14276:

The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Volume VI: Advocate of the Social Gospel, September 1948–March 1963

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rights for African Americans. Southern Black men began to vote and they were also elected to serve in the

4485:

had. Peters sailed to London in order to complain to the government. "He arrived at a momentous time when

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Christopher Robert Reed. "Black Chicago Political Realignment during the Great Depression and New Deal."

11064:(New York: Random House, 2002). For the systematic oppression and terror inflicted, see Leon F. Litwack, 8329: 8324: 7956: 7829: 7789: 7391: 7367: 6899: 6895: 6817: 6694: 6445: 6186: 6089: 6016: 6001: 5952:

with outbreaks of racial violence killing about 1,000 people across the nation, most of whom were Black.

5764: 5622: 5453: 5411: 4611: 4565:, so there were still a dozen "permanent apprentices" into the 19th century. In 1787 Congress passed the 4368: 3642: 3218: 3208: 3203: 3198: 2942: 2414: 2205: 2175: 2113: 2062: 1990: 1880: 1601: 1495: 1068: 1058: 14140: 6862: 6526:

Graph showing the percentage of the African American population living in the American South, 1790–2010.

5826:

Eventually the 1st Separate was mustered into active service and re-designated the 1st Battalion of the

21094: 20962: 20932: 19916: 19671: 19560: 19490: 18961: 18642: 18579: 18569: 18119: 17877: 17837: 17194: 16888: 16200: 16185: 16050: 15564: 14906: 14682: 14652: 14617: 10601: 9200: 8319: 8220: 7116: 6471: 6425: 6056: 5539: 5371: 4709: 4636:(1800–1830s) has been called the "central and defining event in the development of Afro-Christianity." 4399: 4367:, a man who owned over 200 enslaved people. Other Southern statesmen were also major slaveholders. The 4287: 4279: 4193: 3646: 3536: 3472: 3449: 3233: 3213: 2716: 2651: 2424: 2326: 2293: 2080: 1965: 1197: 1182: 1042: 13031:

Sam Wineburg and Chauncey Monte-Sano, "'Famous Americans': The Changing Pantheon of American Heroes,"

11320: 10866: 8855: 8370: 7289:

of white scholars generally cast Black people as pawns of white Carpetbaggers during this period, but

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violence directed at civil rights workers and their host families. The disappearance of three youths,

6643: 6076:, delivered the opening prayer at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia in 1936, Senator 5530:

In the 1920s, the concentration of Black people in New York led to the cultural movement known as the

5402:

estimated that lynchings not reported by the newspapers, plus similar executions under the veneer of "

5394:, about 5,000 men, women, and children were murdered in documented extrajudicial mob violence—called " 4119: 3684:. African Americans are descended from various ethnic groups, mostly from ethnic groups that lived in 92: 21644: 20760: 20591: 20561: 20496: 19981: 19620: 19600: 19570: 19479: 19413: 19386: 19352: 19095: 18876: 18551: 18364: 18196: 17757: 17256: 17094: 16901: 16690: 16675: 16665: 16624: 16546: 16511: 16081: 15148: 14975: 14945: 14714: 14407: 13953:

Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks (1992). "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race".

13395:

Jim Crow and the Wilson administration: protesting federal segregation in the early twentieth century

9469:

26, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 617–639. America: History & Life, EBSCOhost (accessed October 24, 2012).

9149: 7131:, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, 2001–04, Secretary of State in, 2005–09; 6907: 6888: 6880: 6327:

Through the Army was reluctant to send Black units into combat, famous segregated units, such as the

5060: 5048: 4973: 4964: 3622: 3559: 3188: 2932: 2892: 2181: 1606: 1535: 1500: 1073: 562: 13598:

Orser, W. Edward. "Secondhand Suburbs: Black Pioneers in Baltimore's Edmondson Village, 1955–1980."

12804:

Shayla C. Nunnally, "African American Perspectives on the Obama Presidency," in William Crotty, ed.

6081:

Roosevelt, marking the first time that a Democratic candidate for president had won the Black vote.

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Arnesen, Eric. "Up From Exclusion: Black and White Workers, Race, and the State of Labor History,"

11308: 8985: 7819: 7659: 7336: 6915: 6911: 6867: 6856: 6311: 6310:

The Navy was segregated and Black sailors were usually assigned menial work such as stevedores. At

5830:. In France, unsure of what to do with an African-American regiment, the 372nd was attached to the 5468: 5109: 4816: 4732: 4352: 3625:

reported that 46,936,733 respondents identified as African Americans, forming roughly 14.2% of the

3615: 3488: 2767: 2547: 2394: 2278: 2052: 1933: 1575: 1480: 1440: 1035: 15126: 14115:

Trotter, Joe W. "African-American History: Origins, Development, and Current State of the Field,"

12923: 12630:

Stewart E. Tolnay, "The great migration and changes in the northern black family, 1940 to 1990."

8081: 7378:

In the 21st century, Black history is considered mainstream. Since it was recognized by President

5891: 5515:

shown through changes in African American share of population in major U.S. cities, 1910–1940 and

4889:, usually the first community institution to be established. Starting in the early 1800s with the 21733: 21626: 21011: 20426: 20196: 19861: 19841: 19756: 19711: 19287: 19244: 19227: 19065: 19034: 18986: 18907: 18574: 18124: 17778: 17747: 17527: 17467: 17332: 17075: 16685: 16680: 16660: 16551: 16541: 16536: 16516: 16066: 15594: 14911: 14856: 14657: 14395:

Photographs of African-American life and racial attitudes, 1850–1940, from the collection of the

14079:

Rabinowitz, Howard N. "More Than the Woodward Thesis: Assessing The Strange Career of Jim Crow",

13995: 13627:

Hip Hop's Amnesia: From Blues and the Black Women's Club Movement to Rap and the Hip Hop Movement

10704:

Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction

10115: 10020:

Carson, Clayborne, Emma J. Lapsansky-Werner, and Gary B. Nash, "A Prelude to War: The 1850s," in

8688: 8480: 7428: 7332: 7312: 7294: 6985: 6596: 6488: 6275: 5835: 5671: 5563: 5281: 5267:, states dramatically decreased Black voter registration and turnout, in some cases to zero. The 5128:

was an important institution established to create social and economic order in Southern states.

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rule, many pointed out the hypocrisy inherent in colonial slaveholders' demands for freedom. The

4072: 3281: 3223: 2686: 2646: 2369: 2268: 2146: 1960: 1540: 1530: 1525: 1505: 45: 14602: 14046: 13938: 13801: 13777: 12982: 12945: 9402: 6836:. It was at this event, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, that King delivered his historic " 5236:, who migrated to Kansas, where Blacks had much more freedom and it was easier to acquire land. 4917:, which allowed for their participation, including roles as elders and preachers. For instance, 3882:

East and Southeast Africa, the region of Mozambique-Madagascar included the modern countries of

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African American Mosaic: A Documentary History from the Slave Trade to the Twenty-First Century

13764:

Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. "Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington".

13620: 11734:

A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade

10665: 10222:

As long as they don't move next door: segregation and racial conflict in American neighborhoods

9666: 9626: 8533: 8259: 7864: 7493: 7458: 6805: 6757: 6721:(SCLC) organized across the South with tactics such as boycotts, voter registration campaigns, 6711: 6546: 6404: 6250: 6104: 5908: 5680:

African-American soldiers of the U.S. Army marching northwest of Verdun, France 5 November 1918

5433: 5133: 4988: 4903: 4899: 4667: 4633: 4626: 4473: 3677: 3607: 3500: 3496: 1980: 1970: 1950: 1642: 1621: 1455: 1370: 1314: 386: 237: 147: 13303: 12342:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000

11824: 10497: 10491: 9661:

The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870

9380: 9132: 8537: 7315:(1904–1996) had a significant impact on the teaching of African-American history. Quarles and 6918:, was a capstone to more than a decade of major legislation during the civil rights movement. 21726: 21585: 21339: 21059: 20596: 20411: 20041: 19946: 19926: 19896: 19585: 19580: 19327: 19292: 19190: 19154: 18848: 18564: 18077: 17942: 17897: 17713: 17432: 17397: 17216: 17199: 17006: 16923: 16501: 16496: 16371: 16094: 15645: 15628: 15604: 15497: 15492: 15439: 15261: 15229: 15037: 15022: 14612: 14587: 14572: 14382: 13810:

Ernest, John. "Liberation Historiography: African-American Historians before the Civil War,"

13137: 12450:

Lee Finkle, "The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest during World War II",

9692: 9025:"First enslaved Africans arrive in Jamestown, setting the stage for slavery in North America" 8509: 8503: 8013: 7229: 6801: 6703: 6683: 6441: 6315: 6040: 5710: 5441: 5414:

under Jim Crow laws, and they were therefore unable to protect themselves or their families.

5027: 4910: 4870: 4829: 4794: 4415: 4321:. The local militia soon intercepted and killed most of the slaves involved in the uprising. 4248:: setting forth that all children upon birth would inherit the same status of their mother . 3633:

as citizens of modern African states. African Americans have made major contributions to the

3599: 3591: 3461: 2604: 2594: 2526: 2489: 2273: 2263: 2163: 1844: 1490: 1485: 1360: 1086: 650: 595: 573: 249: 158: 13541:

Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference

13352: 13113:

Black Women in Nineteenth-Century American Life: Their Words, Their Thoughts, Their Feelings

12791: 12327: 10805: 10377: 6557:(1910–1940). Some historians prefer to distinguish between the movements for those reasons. 5980: 4993: 279: 21672: 21637: 21621: 21347: 21323: 21079: 20967: 20765: 20646: 20551: 20361: 19991: 19149: 18881: 18806: 18214: 17977: 17788: 17740: 17612: 17502: 17407: 17174: 17164: 17136: 17001: 16855: 16772: 16591: 16556: 16461: 16436: 16125: 15622: 15574: 15514: 15350: 15271: 15131: 15054: 15012: 14891: 14841: 14826: 14809: 14709: 14597: 14567: 14357: 14267: 13833:"Ideology and Race in American History," in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson, eds, 13098: 9325:"From '20. and odd' to 10 million: The growth of the slave population in the United States" 7609: 7568: 7543: 7523: 7198: 7109: 6753: 6553:, and it lasted until 1970. It was much larger and of a different character than the first 6530: 6356: 6348: 6162: 6113: 5644: 5507: 5457: 5290: 5244: 5125: 5095: 4926: 4799: 4713: 4490: 4449: 4217: 4009: 3681: 3524: 3437: 3360: 2812: 2057: 1849: 1782: 1701: 1580: 1545: 1450: 1425: 1122: 1112: 419: 408: 353: 13383:

Hemmingway, Theodore. “Prelude to Change: Black Carolinians in the War Years, 1914–1920.”

13130:

Encyclopedia Of African American Culture And History: The Black Experience In The Americas

11517: 9427: 6347:'s order to end discrimination in the Armed Forces in July 1948, with the promulgation of 6314:

on 17 July 1944, while mostly Black stevedores were loading up two Navy supply ships, an

6136:

After Congress passed the Selective Service Act in September 1940 establishing the draft,

5880:—the first African American to be so honored for actions in World War I. During action in 4390:

This did not deter Black people, free and enslaved, from participating in the Revolution.

3663: 8: 21487: 21426: 20842: 20803: 20351: 20311: 20261: 20171: 20131: 20106: 20061: 19866: 19821: 19666: 19646: 19615: 19610: 19553: 19464: 19259: 19212: 19162: 19123: 18589: 17947: 17862: 17342: 17131: 17021: 16951: 16576: 16526: 16481: 16471: 16456: 16446: 16431: 16411: 16386: 16376: 16366: 16120: 15940: 15930: 15372: 15121: 14814: 14732: 14727: 14677: 14577: 14445: 14401: 14098: 13805: 13358:

Breen, William J. “Black Women and the Great War: Mobilization and Reform in the South.”

13163: 12886: 12749: 12724: 8877: 7695: 7679: 7498: 7468: 7418: 7306: 7190: 7101: 6960: 6934: 6844: 6785: 6738: 6453: 6412: 6158: 6073: 6048: 5793: 5786: 5586: 5391: 5366:, that started from white militias in Grant Parish, Louisiana, in 1874 and spread in the 5294: 5232:

began speaking of leaving the South. This idea culminated in the 1879–80 movement of the

5225: 5152: 4859: 4821: 4736: 4725: 4566: 4498: 4338: 4209: 4164: 3815: 3638: 3441: 3228: 2706: 2668: 2085: 1916: 1565: 1515: 1470: 1460: 1445: 1435: 1420: 1400: 1375: 1365: 1355: 1117: 942: 932: 342: 233: 229: 18594: 14033:

McMillen, Neil R. "Up from Jim Crow: Black History Enters the Profession's Mainstream."

13311:

Creating Black Americans: African American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present

13167:

The Atlas of African-American History and Politics: From the Slave Trade to Modern Times

12140:

Sandra Bolzenius, "Asserting Citizenship: Black Women in the Women's Army Corps (wac)",

10956:

Connie L. Lester, "Disenfranchising Laws", Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture

10404: 9480:

Black majority: Negroes in colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion

7335:

in Baltimore, where he stayed, despite the fact that he received a lucrative offer from

7209:, often to pursue increased economic opportunities in now-desegregated southern cities. 6902:, and the tragic murders of two activists associated with the march, inspired President 4866:

Americans competed with the Irish and Germans in jobs and had to share space with them.

2711: 21721: 21707: 21702: 21456: 21159: 20927: 20911: 20904: 20883: 20875: 20869: 20832: 20666: 20576: 20556: 20481: 20461: 20451: 20431: 20346: 20231: 20176: 20121: 20026: 19806: 19721: 19380: 19364: 19344: 19110: 19075: 19002: 18662: 18599: 18342: 17800: 17567: 17547: 17452: 17377: 17204: 17109: 17099: 17087: 16978: 16875: 16850: 16596: 16571: 16476: 16416: 16391: 16361: 16351: 15950: 15945: 15935: 15925: 15638: 15616: 15136: 14995: 14970: 14940: 14901: 14784: 14627: 13991: 13970: 13942: 13897: 13889: 13664: 13651: 13452: 13262: 12861: 12515: 12455: 11884: 10165: 10157: 10051: 9955: 9908: 9887: 9659: 9357: 9324: 8801: 7553: 7548: 7513: 7503: 7453: 7433: 7316: 7282: 7232:

gains of the 1950s–1970s, due to government neglect, unfavorable social policies, high

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comprise 0.25% of America's economic elite and comprise 13.6% of the U.S. population.

5169:

The aftermath of the Civil War accelerated the process of a national African-American

4909:

Free Black people also established Black churches in the South before 1800. After the

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Bridges of Reform: Interracial Civil Rights Activism in Twentieth-Century Los Angeles

13456: 13442: 13231:

Major Problems in African-American History: From Freedom to "Freedom Now," 1865–1990s

13143: 12978: 12941: 12679: 12345: 11830: 11377: 10955: 10785: 10757: 10732: 10501: 10438: 10383: 10349: 10298: 10225: 10200: 10169: 10055: 9959: 9822: 9816: 9698: 9670: 9640:

A Precis of Sources relating to genealogical research on the Sierra Leone Krio people

9362: 9344: 9303: 9276: 9112: 8951: 8834: 8793: 8664: 8639: 8632: 8610: 8583: 8577: 8543: 8513: 8459: 8431: 7904: 7588: 7578: 7301: 7167: 7147:—also demonstrates the increasing visibility of Black people in the political arena. 7140: 7076: 6903: 6884: 6852: 6399:

Racial tensions were also high between whites and ethnic minorities that cities like

6372: 6320: 6288: 6239: 6220: 6145: 6109: 6052: 6044: 5975: 5917: 5567: 5535: 5138: 4759: 4587: 4538: 4515: 4419: 4271: 4213: 4205: 4197: 3907: 3476: 2404: 2245: 1752: 1697: 1520: 1475: 1415: 1390: 1345: 1288: 307: 207: 18817: 14092:

Reidy, Joseph P. "Slave Emancipation Through the Prism of Archives Records" (1997),

13650:(2008)- 720pp comprehensive history of civil rights issue in the North, 1930s–2000s 13586:

To Place Our Deeds: The African American Community in Richmond, California, 19101963

13214: 13123: 12865: 7174:

The dramatic political breakthrough came in the 2008 election, with the election of

7071: 4681:

A number of events continued to shape views on slavery. One of these events was the

4666:

As the United States grew, the institution of slavery became more entrenched in the

2784: 21692: 21682: 21616: 21611: 21461: 21204: 21189: 21179: 21149: 20890: 20837: 20686: 20671: 20636: 20501: 20446: 20436: 20331: 20206: 20141: 20016: 19931: 19891: 19881: 19871: 19856: 19851: 19826: 19716: 19100: 19015: 18978: 18265: 18236: 18231: 18129: 18097: 18070: 17795: 17412: 17382: 17372: 17367: 16934: 16561: 16441: 16406: 16304: 16219: 16214: 15705: 15143: 15106: 15032: 14990: 14886: 14846: 14647: 14642: 14316:

The African-American Archive: The History of the Black Experience Through Documents

14176:

Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy

13962: 13881: 13434: 13328:

We Ain't What We Ought To Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama

13299: 12853: 12507: 11689: 11577:

Trotter, "Reflections on the Great Migration to Western Pennsylvania", pp. 156–157.

11269:

Pageants, Parlors, and Pretty Women: Race and Beauty in the Twentieth-Century South

10843: 10832:"Lincoln and the Ethics of Emancipation: Universalism, Nationalism, Exceptionalism" 10192: 10149: 10043: 9947: 9352: 9336: 8785: 8741: 8048: 7804: 7583: 7558: 7438: 7413: 7290: 7245: 7237: 7154:

was the richest African American of the 20th century and has been the world's only

7128: 6930: 6859:

that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions.

6781: 6773: 6336: 6130: 6122: 6096: 6077: 6032: 6028: 5579: 5477:

Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy

5437: 5429: 5174: 4728:

that required states to be admitted to the union in pairs, one slave and one free.

4705: 4645: 4595: 4403: 4364: 3872: 3701: 2779: 2636: 2464: 2399: 2379: 2288: 1550: 1430: 1395: 1293: 1216: 1211: 693: 518: 14235: 10140:(1979). "The Emergence of Black communities in the Pacific Northwest: 1865–1910". 9340: 5751:

were integrated under the 157th Red Hand Division commanded by the French General

5259:

most Black people and many poor whites. Using a combination of provisions such as

5144: 3420:

in the 16th and 17th centuries. Formerly enslaved Spaniards who had been freed by

187: 21906: 21863: 21818: 21590: 21575: 21451: 21421: 21390: 21199: 21184: 21169: 20987: 20616: 20606: 20566: 20546: 20506: 20381: 20371: 20336: 20296: 20281: 20216: 20081: 20031: 19961: 19846: 19796: 19781: 19771: 19766: 19746: 19731: 19726: 19701: 19641: 19565: 19168: 19139: 19134: 19090: 19070: 19049: 19021: 18260: 18087: 17997: 17992: 17923:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

17773: 17728: 17582: 17572: 17552: 17537: 17437: 17312: 17302: 16941: 16629: 16566: 16521: 16421: 15427: 15360: 15256: 15217: 15101: 15044: 14916: 14819: 14717: 14637: 14632: 14582: 14064:

Listening For Our Past: A Lay Guide To African American Oral History Interviewing

13438: 13288:

Not Slave, Not Free: The African American Economic Experience since the Civil War

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to the other three regions of the United States. It took place from 1941 through

6542: 6501: 6408: 6344: 6328: 6255: 6126: 6108:

was withdrawn on 21 February 1938. Both civil rights leaders and the First Lady,

6085: 6020: 5869: 5847: 5760: 5726: 5602: 5551: 5464: 5346: 5330: 5299: 5239: 5064: 4579: 4395: 4391: 4314: 4030: 3853: 3784: 3769: 3713: 3540: 2807: 2614: 2364: 2283: 1611: 1555: 1510: 1410: 485: 245: 14351: 14344:

How Reimagining the African-American Past Can Remake America's Racial Future by

13756:

The Early Black History Movement, Carter G. Woodson, and Lorenzo Johnston Greene

11499: 11485: 11241:. in Elijah Anderson and Douglas S. Massey, ed. (Russell Sage Foundation, 2001). 11079: 6368: 6189:, which gave landowners acreage reduction contracts, by which they were paid to 5100: 21436: 21238: 21219: 20808: 20656: 20641: 20571: 20521: 20486: 20471: 20456: 20416: 20396: 20386: 20341: 20326: 20306: 20076: 20046: 20036: 20006: 19996: 19906: 19876: 19676: 19302: 19254: 19144: 18697: 18102: 18065: 18055: 17815: 17810: 17752: 17587: 17517: 17447: 17442: 16946: 16870: 16309: 15377: 15355: 15333: 15311: 15306: 14831: 14762: 14692: 14437: 14211:

Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South

14110:

The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide

13253: 13120:

Encyclopedia of African-American Civil Rights: From Emancipation to the Present

13047: 12857: 12330:." American Armed Forces Press Service, February 15, 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-10 10047: 9256:"Part 2 - Sexual Violence Against African American Slaves And Its Legacy Today" 7740: 7700: 7699:– 1948–1949 radio dramas that retell African-American history, many written by 7645: 7637: 7573: 7478: 7473: 7286: 7206: 7097: 6837: 6829: 6761: 6722: 6699: 6008:

relief programs in 1933–35 (run by local towns and cities), and especially the

5877: 5851: 5752: 5737: 5575: 5571: 4998: 4958: 4812: 4477: 4469: 4173: 4003: 3826: 3689: 3266: 2691: 2661: 2419: 2409: 2240: 1298: 375: 225: 13685:

Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century

13671:

Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915–1945

12593:"In Motion: African American Migration Experience, The Second Great Migration" 12129:

The Employment of Negro Troops, Vol. 8, The United States Army in World War II

11693: 11542:

Trotter, "Reflections on the Great Migration to Western Pennsylvania", p. 154.

11512:

Joe W. Trotter, "Reflections on the Great Migration to Western Pennsylvania."

10847: 10382:. A nation divided. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. p. 8. 10034:

Kennicott, Patrick C. (1970). "Black Persuaders in the Antislavery Movement".

9951: 9108:

Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia

8579:

Bound for Canaan: The Underground Railroad and the War for the Soul of America

7285:

and the late 19th century, Black people became major actors in the South. The

7193:, in which millions of African Americans have returned to the South including 6436:

Politically, Black people left the Republican Party and joined the Democratic

3704:. The major ethnic groups that the enslaved Africans belonged to included the 21920: 21808: 21631: 21214: 21144: 20992: 20858: 20681: 20611: 20516: 20366: 20301: 20286: 20276: 20236: 20161: 20151: 20111: 20096: 19986: 19976: 19936: 19886: 19761: 19686: 19656: 17655: 17637: 17627: 17597: 17542: 17497: 17482: 17427: 17417: 17402: 17352: 17347: 17317: 17114: 17042: 16865: 15519: 15296: 13548:

Higher Education for African Americans before the Civil Rights Era, 1900–1964

13507: 12699: 10302: 9348: 9137:

Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Volume 1: To 1877

8797: 8776:

Westbury, Susan (1985). "Slaves of Colonial Virginia: Where They Came From".

7623: 7533: 7508: 7387: 7213: 7151: 7090: 6797: 6789: 6777: 6745:, was one of the plaintiff African-American communities involved in the 1954 6479: 6449: 6279: 6178: 6174: 5993: 5594: 5386: 5314: 5273: 5264: 5210: 5157: 5018: 4969: 4938: 4546: 4229: 3792: 3788: 3765: 3729: 3571: 3480: 3421: 3417: 3335: 3330: 14369: 14204: 13648:

Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North

13335:

Black Trials: Citizenship from the Beginnings of Slavery to the End of Caste

8532: 7100:

became the first African-American elected governor in U.S. history. In 1992

4302:

Legal importation of enslaved Africans halted in 1808 when the newly formed

3527:. Disputes over slavery between the Northern and Southern states led to the 21878: 21873: 21853: 21848: 21843: 21833: 21823: 21803: 21798: 21738: 21580: 21174: 21154: 20676: 20631: 20626: 20586: 20421: 20401: 20356: 20291: 20226: 20211: 20126: 20116: 20071: 20021: 20011: 20001: 19971: 19966: 19956: 19941: 19901: 19836: 19816: 19811: 19791: 19786: 19776: 19736: 19691: 19661: 19044: 17967: 17735: 17660: 17632: 17617: 17602: 17557: 17532: 17512: 17422: 17392: 17387: 17357: 17307: 17159: 16845: 15508: 15444: 14985: 14286:

Let Freedom Ring: A Documentary History of the Modern Civil Rights Movement

13818: 13739: 13567: 13485:

Bridges of Memory; Chicago's First Wave of Black Migration: An Oral History

13378:

The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972

12960:

Meier, August, "Benjamin Quarles and the Historiography of Black America",

11147:

The Great Black Migration: A Historical Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic

10493:

Forging freedom: the formation of Philadelphia's Black community, 1720‒1840

10487: 9366: 7824: 7684: 7443: 7278: 7252:

in the world. The Southern states, which historically had been involved in

7249: 7175: 7120: 7083: 6956: 6876: 6828:(SNCC). Also active behind the scenes and sharing the podium with King was 6813: 6550: 6493: 6483: 6259: 5896: 5785:

During World War I, the 372nd Infantry Regiment was composed of segregated

5656:

based on her invention of the first successful hair straightening process.

5559: 5555: 5480: 5399: 5363: 5358: 5326: 5186: 4886: 4878: 4874: 4780: 4721: 4675: 4622: 4615: 4550: 4542: 4494: 4426: 4407: 4252: 3800: 3780: 3737: 3733: 3717: 3705: 2819: 2631: 2359: 2222: 178: 14187:

Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War

9681:, originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976). 5899:

and President George H.W. Bush at the Medal of Honor presentation ceremony

5676: 5543: 5090:

African-American officeholders during and following the Reconstruction era

4158: 21828: 21793: 21788: 21783: 21778: 21507: 21441: 21194: 21164: 20791: 20755: 20696: 20691: 20651: 20601: 20536: 20531: 20441: 20391: 20321: 20316: 20256: 20241: 20091: 20086: 19951: 19831: 19801: 19741: 19706: 18967: 17987: 17972: 17820: 17783: 17622: 17577: 17562: 17327: 17322: 17169: 15400: 15328: 15244: 15064: 14789: 14425: 14298:(19 vols, 1972), oral histories with ex-slaves conducted in the 1930s by 14221:

Sources of the African-American Past: Primary Sources in American History

13562:

Black Power in Dixie: A Political History of African Americans in Atlanta

7518: 7483: 7379: 7183: 6938: 6793: 6283: 6211:

Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military § World War II

5808: 5403: 4511: 4462: 4458: 4376: 4291: 4201: 3834: 3830: 3808: 3773: 3721: 3709: 3697: 3685: 3547:, which abolished slavery in the U.S., except as punishment for a crime. 3425: 2985: 2641: 2494: 2374: 2158: 14396: 14309: 14279: 14260: 14214: 14133: 14067: 14014: 13759: 13749: 13321: 13224: 13204: 13135: 13106: 13092: 13075: 12774:"Yahoo Finance - Stock Market Live, Quotes, Business & Finance News" 12560:

Great Events from History II: Arts and Culture Series volume 3:1937–1954

12519: 11811: 10433:

Randall M. Miller, ed. (2009). "The New Nation Takes Shape, 1789‒1820".

10099:

Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America

9891: 9818:

The Life of Benjamin Banneker: The First African-American Man of Science

9454:

Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America

6099:

read out on the floor of the House of Representatives an account of the

21868: 21838: 21547: 21466: 21446: 21253: 20818: 20476: 20406: 20376: 20246: 20221: 20166: 20066: 19681: 19651: 17522: 17507: 17477: 17472: 17221: 17189: 17028: 16996: 15487: 15395: 15301: 15234: 15007: 14341: 14050: 13946: 13893: 13825:

Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of African American Identity

13388: 13363: 13194: 12635: 12459: 12439:

Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945

11655: 11108: 10943: 10161: 9912: 8805: 8696: 8661:

The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America

7448: 7423: 7159: 6999: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6821: 6610: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6475: 6429: 6024: 5949: 5885: 5632: 5467:

reformers were concerned about the Black condition. In 1908 after the

5367: 5233: 5013: 4750:

In 1851 the battle between enslaved people and slave owners was met in

4698: 4694: 4689: 4599: 4554: 4553:

to gain release from slavery. A free Black businessman in Boston named

4457:

York. Well-known African-Americans who fought for the British include

4372: 4363:

for human rights and personal freedom around the world, was written by

4186: 4038: 3911: 3891: 3883: 3761: 3753: 3725: 3603: 3515:. During this period, numerous enslaved African Americans escaped into 3465: 3429: 2090: 1829: 628: 474: 17858:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)

15323: 13700:

Wiese, Andrew. "Places of Our Own: Suburban Black Towns before 1960."

13610:

Black Pickett Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class

11440:

Negro Combat Troops in the World War. The story of the 371 St Infantry

9131:

John Murrin, Paul Johnson, James McPherson, Alice Fahs, Gary Gerstle,

8723:"2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country" 5684: 5599:

Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League

4557:

sought to be excused from paying taxes since he had no voting rights.

20796: 20266: 20251: 18136: 17982: 17487: 17271: 17209: 17104: 15153: 14772: 14622: 13835:

Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward

13497: 13263:

Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019

12511: 12328:"African Americans Gain Fame as World War II Red Ball Express Drivers 11442:, Éditeur Worcester, Mass : Commonwealth Press, 1929, p. 57 11427:

Negro Combat Troops in the World War :The Story of the 371st Infantry

11289:

Style and Status: Selling Beauty to African American Women, 1920–1975

11201:

Juliet E.K. Walker, "Black Entrepreneurship: An Historical Inquiry."

11004:

White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction

9272:

Slave Breeding: Sex, Violence, and Memory in African American History

7132: 6922: 6505: 6421: 5721:

years of a terrible war. One of the most distinguished units was the

5338: 4885:

issues. Further supporting the growth of the Black Community was the

4855: 4659: 4654: 4360: 4221: 3915: 3445: 3315: 2656: 2389: 2168: 1995: 241: 16783: 14087: 13885: 13845: 13527:

Defining the Struggle: National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880–1915

11666:

Raymond Wolters, "The New Deal and the Negro." in John Braeman, ed.

10780:

Carson, Clayborne; Lapsansky-Werner, Emma J.; Nash, Gary B. (2011).

10405:"National Register Nominations: Pocahontas Island Historic District" 10153: 9657:

Walker, James W (1992). "Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone".

8789: 7123:, Chairman of the U.S. Armed Forces Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1989–93, 6974: 6847:, and other events were credited with putting pressure on President 6585: 5732: 5148:

African-American children in South Carolina picking cotton, ca. 1870

4468:

Thomas Peters was one of the large numbers of African Americans who

4061: 3582:

to other regions of the United States in search of opportunity. The

34: 20156: 18609: 18604: 18114: 15529: 15467: 15239: 15158: 14363: 14011:

Hine Sight: Black Women and the Re-Construction of American History

13966: 13867:"Coming of Age: The Transformation of Afro-American Historiography" 11531:

African Americans in Pennsylvania: Shifting Historical Perspectives

10986: 10967: 10345:

Slave religion: the "invisible institution" in the antebellum South

10086:

Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South

9882:

Edward Raymond Turner, "The Abolition of Slavery in Pennsylvania".

9870:

Slave religion: the "invisible institution" in the antebellum South

9299:

The Anti-Slavery Project: From the Slave Trade to Human Trafficking

7744: 7105: 6910:, which struck down barriers to black enfranchisement. In 1966 the 6730: 6343:

The distinguished service of these units was a factor in President

5839: 5395: 5377: 5124:, ratified in 1870, extended the right to vote to Black males. The 5006: 4914: 4591: 4562: 4384: 3887: 3861: 3598:

against African Americans. In 1954, these efforts coalesced into a

2701: 2626: 2619: 17873:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

11252:

Black Gold: A History of the African-American Elite Market Segment

11080:"The Second Amendment: Toward an Afro-Americanist Reconsideration" 10654:

The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics

167: 21773: 21497: 21416: 21307: 20745: 17226: 14345: 14130:

Black History and Black Identity: A Call for a New Historiography

13925:

Harris, Robert L., Jr. "The Flowering of Afro-American History".

13555:

Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration

12973:

Abul Pitre and Ruth Ray, "The Controversy Around Black History",

7202: 6772:, which brought more than 250,000 marchers to the grounds of the 6768:

Perhaps the high point of the Civil Rights Movement was the 1963

6707: 6400: 5959:

Black churches, fraternal orders, and newspapers (especially the

4824:

in ending slavery and legislating equal rights for freed slaves.

4575: 3857: 3846: 3804: 3757: 2789: 2095: 21553: 14408:"African American Place of Origin Genealogy – FamilySearch Wiki" 14074:

Black Mosaic: Essays in Afro-American History and Historiography

13840:

Franklin, John Hope. "Afro-American History: State of the Art,"

13409:

Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore

12547:

Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II

10888:"Post-Civil War History: African Americans After Reconstruction" 6303:

together with one white regiment assigned to it. The segregated

5428:

In response to these and other setbacks, in the summer of 1905,

21284: 20813: 18060: 14335: 14209:

Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds.

13349:

RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences

10968:

Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon",

10754:

Forgotten Time: The Yazoo-Mississippi Delta after the Civil War

10348:(Updated ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 7860:

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African-American communities

5881: 5843: 5055:

Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War

5030:

that at least one part of it had already been overruled by the

5002: 4717: 4549:

constitution that declared all men were born free and equal in

3876: 3796: 3520: 2696: 14383:

Comparative status of African-Americans in Canada in the 1800s

14169:

A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States

13617:

The Anti-lynching Crusaders: A Study of Black Women's Activism

12750:"Condi and Oprah aren't good role models for Black motherhood" 11062:

At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America

9403:"NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography" 9150:"NPS Ethnography: African American Heritage & Ethnography" 8564:

Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860

7870:

Association for the Study of African American Life and History

7770:

Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States

6182:

as well as daily laborers (mostly Black, with least control).

6088:

became the first Black people to appear on television, albeit

5001:, a former enslaved person displays the telltale criss-cross, 4332: 21712: 19548: 17872: 13781: 12949: 12773: 12648:"Mercy Seat Films – 'THEY CLOSED OUR SCHOOLS' – Film Credits" 11464:

Scott'Official History of the American Negro in the world war

10987:

Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon"

10938:

Glen Schwendemann, "St. Louis and the" Exodusters" of 1879."

10678:

The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents

10379:

Civil War Petersburg: Confederate city in the crucible of war

8685:

Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present

7194: 5492: 5445: 5432:

and 28 other prominent, African-American men met secretly at

5333: 4678:

was the first, in 1780 passing an act for gradual abolition.

4018: 3906:

Origins and percentages of African Americans imported to the

3865: 3842: 3819: 3693: 2469: 14397:

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University

14257:

I Have a Dream: Writings and Speeches That Changed the World

13139:

Historical Dictionary of the Civil Rights Movement (2nd ed.)

12573:

Bright Boulevards, Bold Dreams: The Story of Black Hollywood

12142:

International Journal of Military History and Historiography

10914:

New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States

9627:

https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1991_num_31_121_2116

8946:

White, Deborah Gray; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013).

7726:

African-American history of agriculture in the United States

6227: 5864:

Distinctive unit Insignia: 372 MP Bn. Red hand on right side

5860: 5850:—one of the highest honors bestowed by the French military. 5803: 5652:(1867–1919); she built a national franchise business called 5112:

made Black people full U.S. citizens (and this repealed the

4797:

published a novel that changed how many would view slavery.

4387:

which called for abolition, but these were largely ignored.

17917: 13634:

American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland

13187:

Before the Mayflower: A History of Black America, 1619–1962

12997:

Teacher Information Guide AP African American Studies Pilot

11452:

Mairie de Château-Thierry, base monument du 372 US régiment

10927:

Plessy v. Ferguson: race and inequality in Jim Crow America

7743:– the notion that African Americans have been subjected to 7327:

as an undergraduate, and received a graduate degree at the

6455:

An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy

5800:

was re-designated the 1st Battalion of the 372nd Infantry.

4402:. 5,000 Black people, including Prince Hall, fought in the 4216:

slave traders. Virginia settlers treated these captives as

4014: 3838: 3558:

began, in which African Americans living in the South were

2499: 12725:"African American Members of the U.S. Congress: 1870–2020" 11305:

On Her Own Ground: The Life and Times of Madam C.J. Walker

10779: 7186:

and was re-elected as the president of the United States.

5446:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

14306:

African American Religious History: A Documentary Witness

14141:"Textbook Racism. How scholars sustained white supremacy" 14112:(Greenwood, 2001). 442pp; 17 topical chapters by experts. 13593:

Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890–1930

13156:

Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, eds.

13136:

Richardson, Christopher M.; Ralph E. Luker, eds. (2014).

12407: 12405: 12403: 12401: 12399: 12397: 12296: 12294: 12292: 12265: 12263: 12261: 12219: 12217: 12215: 12213: 12173: 12171: 12169: 12167: 12165: 12163: 12097: 12095: 12093: 12091: 12089: 12087: 12085: 12083: 12040: 12038: 12024: 12022: 12020: 11993: 11991: 11925: 11923: 11921: 11848: 11846: 11066:

Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow

11034:, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2007, pp. 70–76. 10631: 10199:. Penguin academics (2 ed.). Boston: Prentice Hall. 9644:

Journal of Sierra Leone Studies, Vol. 3; Edition 1, 2014

8829:

Carson, Clayborne, Emma Lapsansky-Werner, and Gary Nash.

8825: 8823: 8821: 8819: 8817: 8815: 7163: 6207:

Military history of African Americans § World War II

13512:

Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963

12619:

Fly Away: The Great African American Cultural Migrations

12014:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 764 & 766 10782:

The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans

10197:

The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans

10022:

The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans

8831:

The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans

7711:

Military history of African Americans in the Vietnam War

5895:

Stowers' sisters, Georgina Palmer and Mary Bowens, with

5666:

Military history of African Americans § World War I

5313:

agricultural, domestic and menial laborers. Many became

5120:

granted full U.S. citizenship to African Americans. The

4583:

Black people were free, and 49.1% of those in Maryland.

4394:, a free Black tradesman, was the first casualty of the 4194:

first captive Africans were brought via Dutch slave ship

20998:

Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam

20776:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)" 14426:

Pioneering African American oral history video excerpts

13572:

Black Los Angeles: American Dreams and Racial Realities

13201:

From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans

8950:. Boston/ New York: Bedford/ St. Martin's. p. 27. 8763:"African Americans - A new direction | Britannica" 8481:"The American Revolution and the Black Loyalist Exodus" 7716:

National Museum of African American History and Culture

7406: 6219:

Black soldiers tracking a sniper Omaha Beachhead, near

5309:(1904), but again the Supreme Court upheld the states. 4297: 4265: 3483:, led to great social upheavals for African Americans; 21022:

African American founding fathers of the United States

19375:

Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement

19240:

John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights

14057:

Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980

13641:

Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920

13520:

At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–1968

13245:

To Make Our World Anew: A History of African Americans

12761:

African-American News&Issues: Publisher's Analysis

12394: 12289: 12258: 12210: 12160: 12080: 12035: 12017: 11988: 11918: 11843: 11346:"Commemorating the Great War – World War I Centennial" 11226:

Our kind of people: Inside America's black upper class

11173:

Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920

11044:

History, Adeyemi College of Education Dept of (2008).

9805:, New York: Hill and Wang, paperback, 1994, pp. 82–83. 9779:, New York: Hill and Wang, paperback, 1994, pp. 78–79. 9133:"Expansion, Immigration, and Regional Differentiation" 9007:"African slaves arrive at Point Comfort (Hampton), VA" 8812: 7665:

African American founding fathers of the United States

6433:

another race riot in Harlem left 6 Black people dead.

5038: 4815:, a Massachusetts congressmen and antislavery leader, 4650:

African American founding fathers of the United States

4489:

were pushing a bill through Parliament to charter the

3871:

West Central Africa, the largest region, included the

18847: 14252:

by a white Harvard professor; focus on race relations

14233: 13294:

Nash, Gary B. "The African Americans' Revolution" in

10496:. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. 9843:

Canaan Land: A Religious History of African Americans

8710:

Freedom's Pragmatist: Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights

8508:. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 8505:

The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery

8310:

History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida

7260:, now produce the highest rates of incarceration and 7115:

The 39 African-American members of Congress form the

3772:, where captives as far away as the Upper and Middle 13516:

Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965

13369:

Finley, Randy. "Black Arkansans and World War One."

13318:

The African American Religious Experience in America

13211:

The Harder We Run: Black Workers Since the Civil War

13158:

Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History

12820:"Kamala Harris Is Biden's Choice for Vice President" 12486:

Bitter Fruit: African American Women in World War II

10993:, Vol. 17, 2000, pp. 12–13, accessed March 10, 2008. 10403:

Vega, Caridad de la; Rustin Quaide (February 2008).

8575: 8034:

19th-century African-American civil rights activists

7599: 7319:

provided a bridge between the work of historians in

6004:

for young men (who worked in segregated units), the

4724:. Fears of an imbalance in Congress led to the 1820 3659:

Slavery in the colonial history of the United States

3458:

slavery in the colonial history of the United States

21070:

Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument

14393:

Randolph Linsly Simpson African-American Collection

13103:

Black Women in America – An Historical Encyclopedia

12818:Glueck, Katie; Burns, Alexander (August 11, 2020). 12475:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 762–763 12391:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 775–776 12317:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 772–773 12286:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 773–774 12157:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 771–772 11985:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 348–349 11959:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 345–346 11946:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 344–346 11915:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 342–343 11553:

Race Riots & Resistance: The Red Summer of 1919

10982: 10980: 10435:

The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life in America

10000:"The Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act" 9622:

A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone

7900:

African-American veterans lynched after World War I

7780:

Racial segregation of churches in the United States

6047:, and created an unofficial "black cabinet" led by 5194: 4189:, who traveled through the Southwest in the 1530s. 4086:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3578:, over 6 million primarily rural African Americans 3292:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

59:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 13719:Hamilton Park: A Planned Black Community in Dallas 13247:(2000). 672pp; 10 long essays by leading scholars 11395: 11393: 10272:Journal of the Lancaster County Historical Society 9856:Religion and the founding of the American Republic 9792:, New York: Hill and Wang, paperback, 1994, p. 78. 9658: 9125: 8948:Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans 8631: 8044:List of photographers of the civil rights movement 7810:Plantation complexes in the Southern United States 7189:The post-civil rights era is also notable for the 14199:Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 14108:Strickland, Arvarh E., and Robert E. Weems, eds. 13579:African-American Urban History since World War II 13203:(2001), standard textbook; first edition in 1947 13060:Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. 11186:Black bourgeoisie: The rise of a new middle class 11121:Up From History: the life of Booker T. Washington 11060:For the story of the lynchings, see Philip Dray, 11050:. Dept. of History, Adeyemi College of Education. 11016:"Military Report on Colfax Riot, 1875", from the 11009: 10432: 10402: 9937: 9665:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 9302:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 344. 8054:Post–civil rights era in African-American history 6951:Post-Civil Rights era in African-American history 6101:lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels 6019:(PWA), headed by long-time civil rights activist 21918: 19606:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 17908:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 14467: 14004:Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future 13678:The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom 13619:(PhD dissertation, University of Georgia, 2008) 13402:Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 13298:ed. by Jane Kamensky and Edward G. Gray (2012), 13266:(One World, 2021). 528pp; anthology of 80 essays 13238:Children of Fire: A History of African Americans 13118:Lowery, Charles D., and John F. Marszalek, eds. 12454:, December 1973, Vol. 60, Issue 3, pp. 692–713, 11763: 11761: 11759: 11611: 11609: 10977: 10719:. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013 8729: 8634:The Jim Crow Laws and Racism in American History 8275:History of African Americans in Dallas-Ft. Worth 6420:(Mexican-American) and Black youths for wearing 6319:on the charges of mutiny, their defense lawyer, 5317:, sharing the crop with the white land owners.. 4739:, once more rose to the challenge, to craft the 4518:and Britain rather than be returned to slavery. 19596:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 19529:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights 19420:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 17953:Black players in professional American football 17903:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) 14230:(1990), oral histories of civil rights movement 13423:African American Experience During World War II 13233:(2000), reader in primary and secondary sources 13072:The Routledge Atlas of African American History 12497: 12426:African American Experience During World War II 12116:African American Experience During World War II 12105:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 768. 11500:"Freddie Stowers, Corporal, United States Army" 11486:"Freddie Stowers, Corporal, United States Army" 11390: 9381:"11. The Cotton Revolution | THE AMERICAN YAWP" 9235:Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA 8424:Schneider, Dorothy; Schneider, Carl J. (2007). 6692:handed down a landmark decision in the case of 5638: 5406:", may have amounted to about 20,000 killings. 21075:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument 13955:Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 13725: 13296:The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution 12415:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 775 12304:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 774 12273:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 773 12255:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 770 12247: 12245: 12243: 12241: 12239: 12237: 12235: 12233: 12227:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 771 12207:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 711 12194:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 710 12181:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 772 12048:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 767 12032:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 766 12001:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 764 11972:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 347 11933:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 343 11902:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 342 11869:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 285 11856:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 341 11826:Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion Of Freedom 11797:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 164 11784:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 194 11771:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 378 11723:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 213 11632:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 208 11619:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 193 10775: 10773: 10187: 10185: 10183: 10181: 10179: 9903:Franklin W. Knight, "The Haitian Revolution", 9884:Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 9694:Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History 8945: 8139:List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era 6545:of more than 5 million African Americans from 5782:General Goybet commanding the 157th Division. 5417: 4452:, recruited 300 African-American men into his 4375:. A number of free Black people, most notably 4313:The most serious slave rebellion was the 1739 2019:Education of freed people during the Civil War 21947:History of ethnic groups in the United States 21269: 20983:List of lynching victims in the United States 19321:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 18833: 16799: 14738:Drafting and ratification of the Constitution 14453: 14296:The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography 13464: 12806:The Obama Presidency: Promise and Performance 11756: 11606: 11603:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 87 11590:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 18 11250:Blaine J. Branchik, and Judy Foster Davis, " 9821:(2nd ed.). Maryland Historical Society. 9746: 9744: 9637: 9631: 9076:"From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery" 8878:"RACE - The Power of an Illusion . Go Deeper" 8609:. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. 7397: 6278:on 24–25 June 1943 in the Lancashire town of 5201:Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era 4906:simply founded separate Black denominations. 4444:who was willing to join the Loyalist forces. 3390: 1721: 17666:Historically black colleges and universities 15662:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 14428:at The National Visionary Leadership Project 13952: 13577:Kusmer, Kenneth L. and Joe W. Trotter, eds. 13471:Civil rights movement § Further reading 13411:(Oxford History of the United States) (2007) 13404:(Oxford History of the United States) (1997) 13276:Franklin, John Hope, and August Meier, eds. 13180:Bibliography of slavery in the United States 11822: 11529:Joe W. Trotter, and Eric Ledell Smith, eds. 11321:"The Price of Freedom: Printable Exhibition" 11032:Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War 9198: 9043:"New World Exploration and English Ambition" 8854:. The Black Collegian Online. Archived from 8738:"African Immigrant Population on Rise in US" 8290:History of African Americans in Philadelphia 8024:History of civil rights in the United States 7800:List of museums focused on African Americans 7108:became the first Black woman elected to the 5693: 4945: 4251:As European colonists engaged in aggressive 2030:Historically black colleges and universities 19450:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights 12817: 12230: 11047:Themes in humanities and African experience 10770: 10756:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia. 10602:"Ten days from today I left the plantation" 10482: 10480: 10176: 8852:"African Roots of African-American Culture" 8833:. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2011. 8501: 8295:History of African Americans in San Antonio 8196:South Carolina in the civil rights movement 7300:During the first half of the 20th century, 5987:poster promoting the benefits of employment 5930:United States home front during World War I 5357:While not as widely known as the Klan, the 5063:was an executive order issued by President 4333:American Revolution and early United States 4262:Black women were often raped by white men. 2014:Education during the slave period in the US 21316:A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion 21276: 21262: 19499:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership 18840: 18826: 16806: 16792: 14460: 14446: 13852:Carter G. Woodson: A Life in Black History 13373:49#3 (1990): 249–77. doi:10.2307/40030800. 13243:Kelley, Robin D. G., and Earl Lewis, eds. 12376:Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940–1965 11078:Diamond, Robert J. Cottrol and Raymond T. 10627:"Dred Scott's fight for freedom 1846–1857" 9741: 7932:History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state) 5736:157th I.D. Red Hand flag drawn by General 5493:Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance 4758:demonstrated the growing conflict between 4347:African Americans in the Revolutionary War 3499:gradually abolished slavery. However, the 3479:become independent and transform into the 3448:plantations. A group of enslaved Africans 3397: 3383: 2337:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 1728: 1714: 21493:Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor 21055:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument 17883:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) 15186:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 14192:Bracey, John H., and Manisha Sinha, eds. 14105:(1984), on the white historian of slavery 13901: 12964:, June 1980, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 101–116. 12880:"One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008" 12617:Rutkoff, Peter M., and William B. Scott. 12074:(1936), 1#4, pp. 483–505 at pp. 501, 503 11880:"John Bubbles, The Dancer, Is Dead at 84" 10224:. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. 10033: 9519:"Declarations of Independence, 1770–1783" 9356: 9104: 8602: 8542:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 363. 8458:(2nd ed.). New York: Hill and Wang. 8335:History of African Americans in Baltimore 7875:Legacy Museum of African American History 7760:Mass racial violence in the United States 7059:Learn how and when to remove this message 6826:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee 6670:Learn how and when to remove this message 6518:Second Great Migration (African American) 6511: 6424:. On 15 June 1943, in Beaumont, Texas, a 6043:appointed the first federal black judge, 5923: 5654:Madame C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company 5616: 4980: 4178:"Slaves working in 17th-century Virginia" 4146:Learn how and when to remove this message 3676:African Americans are the descendants of 3507:operation by slave labor, entrenched the 1793:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 119:Learn how and when to remove this message 21283: 21090:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change 19130:University of Georgia desegregation riot 14138: 13661:: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit 13280:. (1982), short biographies by scholars. 13111:Loewenberg, Bert James and Ruth Bogin. 13046: 12587: 12585: 12583: 12581: 11872: 11134:Travels in the New South: A Bibliography 10717:"The Reconstruction Period, an Overview" 10477: 10341: 9691:Taylor, Bankole Kamara (February 2014). 9268: 8941: 8939: 8937: 8935: 8933: 8931: 8929: 8927: 8925: 8775: 8606:Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era 8353: 8250:Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska 8134:History of African Americans in Kentucky 8019:Civil rights movement in popular culture 7997: 7885:African American Military History Museum 7815:List of plantations in the United States 7218:2020 United States presidential election 7070: 6944: 6861: 6810:Southern Christian Leadership Conference 6770:March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom 6752: 6719:Southern Christian Leadership Conference 6529: 6521: 6367: 6249: 6214: 5979: 5905:institutional racism in the Armed Forces 5890: 5859: 5817: 5802: 5731: 5683: 5675: 5546:; arts and letters flourished. Writers 5506: 5376: 5238: 5185: 5143: 5099: 4992: 4653: 4504: 4343:History of the United States (1776–1789) 4172: 4157: 3662: 3618:, which outlawed racial discrimination. 3495:sides, and after the conflict ended the 3464:population was of African descent, both 21004:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence 20741:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus" 20736:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round" 15341:Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. 14021:A Companion to African American History 13304:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199746705.013.0015 13070:Earle, Jonathan, and Malcolm Swanston. 11043: 10269: 10024:(Boston: Prentice Hall, 2011), 206–207. 9070: 9068: 8735: 8453: 8285:History of African Americans in Houston 8280:History of African Americans in Detroit 8270:History of African Americans in Chicago 7880:Texas African American History Memorial 7775:Racial segregation in the United States 7765:Race and ethnicity in the United States 7750:List of expulsions of African Americans 6764:" speech during the March on Washington 5832:French Army's 157th "Red Hand" Division 5757:Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army) 5381:Robert McDaniels lynched. Apr. 13, 1937 5173:. Some civil rights activists, such as 4895:African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church 3513:westward expansion of the United States 261:This article is part of a series on the 216:Left-right from top: 1840 depiction of 14: 21919: 20918:African-American women in the movement 19370:White House Conference on Civil Rights 19201:"Segregation now, segregation forever" 18782:Topics related to the African diaspora 17888:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW) 14354:– African American History and Culture 14226:Hampton, Henry, and Steve Fayer, eds. 13864: 13546:Gasman, Marybeth and Roger L. Geiger. 13428: 13278:Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century 13199:Franklin, John Hope, and Alfred Moss, 13009: 12994: 12843: 12671: 11679: 11369: 10916:(New York 1980), 79–80. December 2012. 10751: 10426: 10375: 10191: 10136: 9814: 9690: 9684: 9656: 9650: 9619: 9613: 9322: 9269:Smithers, Gregory D. (November 2012). 9199:Egner Gruber, Kate (January 4, 2021). 8983: 8658: 8629: 8623: 8485:History: A Journal of Student Research 8305:History of African Americans in Austin 8265:History of African Americans in Boston 8186:History of African Americans in Oregon 8129:History of African Americans in Kansas 7947:History of slavery in New York (state) 7850:Politics of the Southern United States 7736:List of monuments to African Americans 7139:, 1993–96; and Supreme Court justices 5488:realistic accounts of Negro town life. 4840: 4762:and Congress on the issue of slavery. 4693:demand for slave labor to develop new 4629:founded separate Black denominations. 4304:United States outlawed the slave trade 4242:European colonization of North America 3602:led by civil rights activists such as 21952:History of the United States by topic 21942:History of the Southern United States 21257: 19359:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections 18821: 18762:Landmark African-American legislation 16813: 16787: 16269: 16031: 15693: 14497: 14441: 14364:Center for Contemporary Black History 13746:African American History Reconsidered 13680:(Northwestern University Press, 2006) 12578: 10691:Black Union Soldiers in the Civil War 10288: 10219: 9752:"The Constitution and the New Nation" 9211:from the original on January 26, 2021 8922: 8368: 8315:African Americans in Washington, D.C. 8029:Timeline of the civil rights movement 7915: 7895:Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia 7890:International African American Museum 7845:History of the Southern United States 7840:Culture of the Southern United States 7706:Military history of African Americans 7383:lack academic credibility and rigor. 7244:. African Americans have the highest 6866:President Johnson signs the historic 6855:, that culminated in the passage the 6064:Democratic Party for leaders such as 3997: 3531:, in which 178,000 African Americans 3434:European colonization of the Americas 2535:Athletic associations and conferences 2024:History of African-American education 21666:Timeline of African-American history 21127:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument 19591:Regional Council of Negro Leadership 19539:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 19485:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights 18962:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company 18887:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore 17893:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) 14055:Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. 13981: 13817:(3), Fall 2002, pp. 413–443 in 13738:(1) March 1998, pp. 146–174 in 13035:(March 2008), 94, #4, pp. 1186–1202. 12988: 11401:"Red Hand Flag – History Detectives" 10829: 10486: 9974:"Growth and Entrenchment of Slavery" 9596: 9543: 9065: 8736:Solomon, Salem (February 17, 2017). 8495: 8449: 8447: 8430:. Infobase Publishing. p. 554. 8300:African Americans in Davenport, Iowa 8245:African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska 8161:African American history of Nebraska 8064: 7982:History of slavery in South Carolina 7977:History of slavery in North Carolina 7690:Timeline of African-American history 7407:Scholars of African-American history 7345:The Negro in the American Revolution 6997:adding citations to reliable sources 6968: 6608:adding citations to reliable sources 6579: 6238:called for the "double victory" or " 5743:From May 1918 to November 1918, the 4833:their world. Benjamin Quarles' work 4704:In 1807, at the urging of President 4639: 4298:Black population in the 19th century 4266:Black population in the 18th century 4084:adding citations to reliable sources 4055: 3744: 3503:, which had an economy dependent on 2458:Association for the Study of African 57:adding citations to reliable sources 28: 19534:Lowndes County Freedom Organization 19470:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 19140:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address 18247:African-American Vernacular English 14432:African-American history connection 13860:ProQuest Dissertations & Theses 13766:Journal of African American History 12599:from the original on April 16, 2007 11829:. PublicAffairs. pp. 437–438. 11077: 10864: 9940:American Nineteenth Century History 8371:"How Many Slaves Landed in the US?" 8191:African Americans in South Carolina 8176:African Americans in North Carolina 7962:History of slavery in West Virginia 7162:list nearly every year since 1995. 7137:United States Secretary of Commerce 6575: 6541:The Second Great Migration was the 6142:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 6084:In November 1936, the American duo 5611:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 5320: 5039:American Civil War and emancipation 3783:region included territory from the 3272:Race and ethnicity in the US census 2773:African-American Vernacular English 2342:National Conference of Black Mayors 24: 20978:African-American churches attacked 19544:Montgomery Improvement Association 19519:Georgia Council on Human Relations 19504:Council of Federated Organizations 19475:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 19233:16th Street Baptist Church bombing 19191:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot 18997:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom 18901:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents 18165:U.S. cities with large populations 17868:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 15028:Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act 15018:Assassination of James A. Garfield 14332:– African-American History Channel 14330:"African American History Channel" 14161: 14139:Yacovone, Donald (April 8, 2018). 13984:Black Women, Gender & Families 13054: 13042: 11751:Black Politics in New Deal Atlanta 11643:A New Deal for the American People 9729:from the original on June 10, 2007 9053:from the original on June 14, 2007 8240:African Americans in New York City 7353:The Negro in the Making of America 6508:produced for all-Black audiences. 6389:Fair Employment Practice Committee 6245: 5934:Great Migration (African American) 5499:Great Migration (African American) 5243:2Sign for "Colored waiting room", 4891:African Methodist Episcopal Church 4772:Abolitionism in the United Kingdom 4586:Among the successful free men was 4440:to any enslaved person owned by a 4359:, a document which would become a 3818:region consisted of mainly modern 3764:) encompassing the coast from the 3671: 3667:African-American slaves in Georgia 3456:in 1619, marking the beginning of 2475:National Black Chamber of Commerce 671: Modern Era 220:and child, 1857 newspaper ads for 25: 21963: 21367:Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl 21050:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute 20923:Jews in the civil rights movement 17038:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013 17034:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 16841:African American founding fathers 15060:Assassination of William McKinley 14322: 13996:10.5406/blacwomegendfami.1.1.0001 13271:Black Leaders of the 19th Century 13269:Litwack, Leon, and August Meier. 13223:(2 vols, 4th edn 2007), textbook 11566:1919, The Year of Racial Violence 11123:(Harvard University Press, 2009). 10465:from the original on June 3, 2007 10323:from the original on June 4, 2007 9928:26, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 617–639. 9139:, Cengage Learning, 2011, p. 108. 9086:from the original on June 4, 2007 8986:"Esteban (?-1539). BlackPast.org" 8849: 8444: 8009:Civil rights movement (1896–1954) 8004:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 7267: 6914:, followed by the passage of the 5976:New Deal § African Americans 5424:Civil rights movement (1896–1954) 5215:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 5082:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 5075: 4776:Abolitionism in the United States 4670:, while northern states began to 4476:. Sold again, he was enslaved in 4246:Virginia Statutes: ACT XII (1662) 3610:This succeeded in persuading the 3179:Places by plurality of population 1845:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 1835:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 1788:Abolitionism in the United States 21901: 21900: 21552: 21546: 21472:Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses 21244:Civil rights movement portal 21237: 21085:Freedom Riders National Monument 20827:The Kingdom of God Is Within You 19339:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches 19298:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests 19185:Second Emancipation Proclamation 18800: 17918:United Negro College Fund (UNCF) 17063:Nadir of American race relations 16767: 16758: 16757: 16722: 16721: 15279:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 15072:Nadir of American race relations 14951:Assassination of Abraham Lincoln 14019:Hornsby Jr., Alton, et al. eds. 13570:, and Ana-Christina Ramon, eds. 13240:(Hill & Wang; 2010), 438 pp. 13025: 13003: 12999:. Washington, DC: College Board. 12995:Waters, Brandi (February 2022). 12975:Western Journal of Black Studies 12967: 12954: 12938:Western Journal of Black Studies 12930: 12908: 12872: 12837: 12811: 12798: 12784: 12766: 12742: 12717: 12692: 12665: 12640: 12624: 12611: 12565: 12552: 12539: 12526: 12491: 12478: 12465: 12444: 12431: 12418: 12381: 12368: 12355: 12333: 12320: 12307: 12276: 12197: 12184: 12147: 12134: 12121: 12108: 12064: 12051: 12004: 11975: 11962: 11949: 11936: 11905: 11892: 11859: 11816: 11800: 11787: 11774: 11743: 11726: 11713: 11700: 11673: 11668:The New Deal: The National Level 11660: 11648: 11635: 11622: 11593: 11580: 11571: 11558: 11545: 11536: 11523: 11506: 11492: 11478: 11469: 11456: 11445: 11432: 11418: 11363: 11338: 11313: 11297: 11281: 11261: 11244: 11231: 11218: 11195: 11178: 11165: 11162:(Oxford University Press, 2007). 11152: 11139: 11126: 11113: 11097: 11071: 11054: 11037: 11024: 10996: 10961: 10949: 10932: 10919: 10906: 10880: 10858: 10830:Ross, Dorothy (September 2009). 10823: 10810:Reconstruction and Its Aftermath 10798: 10745: 10709: 10696: 10683: 9697:. New Africa Press. p. 68. 8156:African Americans in Mississippi 8068: 7785:Racism against African Americans 7731:African-American Historic Places 7670:Black Belt in the American South 7644: 7630: 7616: 7602: 7390:announced that it will pilot an 7331:. In 1953, he began teaching at 7223: 7125:United States Secretary of State 6973: 6788:" of the Civil Rights Movement: 6717:Civil rights groups such as the 6584: 5205:Nadir of American race relations 5195:Nadir of American race relations 4970:Denmark Vesey Conspiracy of 1822 4412:battles of Lexington and Concord 4406:. Many fought side by side with 4208:), thirty miles downstream from 4060: 3584:nadir of American race relations 3539:side. During the war, President 3354: 1876:Black Belt in the American South 1696: 1687: 1686: 1648: 1647: 278: 206: 197: 186: 177: 166: 157: 146: 137: 33: 21112:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum 21100:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial 19576:National Council of Negro Women 19514:Deacons for Defense and Justice 16924:Civil rights movement 1954–1968 16914:Civil rights movement 1865–1896 14981:First transcontinental railroad 14103:U. B. Phillips: A Southern Mind 13921:– via Stockton Wordpress. 13659:The Origins of the Urban Crisis 13529:(Oxford University Press, 2013) 13480:(Oxford University Press, 2010) 13387:65#3 (1980), pp. 212–227. 13362:44#3 (1978), pp. 421–440. 12922:. March 2, 2009. Archived from 10670: 10659: 10646: 10619: 10594: 10554: 10514: 10451: 10396: 10369: 10335: 10309: 10282: 10263: 10238: 10213: 10130: 10121: 10104: 10091: 10078: 10062: 10027: 10014: 9992: 9966: 9931: 9918: 9897: 9876: 9861: 9848: 9835: 9808: 9795: 9782: 9769: 9711: 9590: 9560: 9537: 9511: 9498: 9485: 9472: 9459: 9446: 9420: 9395: 9373: 9316: 9289: 9275:. University Press of Florida. 9262: 9248: 9223: 9192: 9167: 9142: 9098: 9035: 9017: 8999: 8977: 8964: 8909: 8896: 8870: 8843: 8769: 8755: 8715: 8702: 8677: 8652: 8596: 8569: 8166:African Americans in New Jersey 7987:History of slavery in Tennessee 7972:History of slavery in Louisiana 7721:African-American Heritage Sites 7675:American Descendants of Slavery 6984:needs additional citations for 6834:National Council of Negro Women 6595:needs additional citations for 6452:published his bestselling book 6232:The African-American newspaper 6228:A call for "The Double Victory" 6200: 6090:on a British television channel 6015:A rival federal agency was the 5907:. In 1990, under pressure from 5542:, who celebrated Blackness, or 4913:, many Black people joined the 4817:was assaulted and nearly killed 4765: 4286:in the eighteenth century, the 4071:needs additional citations for 4051: 3631:immigrated to the United States 2480:National Council of Negro Women 44:needs additional citations for 18992:Mansfield school desegregation 17913:Thurgood Marshall College Fund 16919:Civil right movement 1896–1954 14234:Hart, Albert Bushnell (1910). 13697:, no. 2 (Winter 1999): 429–60. 13532:Cash, Floris Loretta Barnett. 13431:Racism in the Nation's Service 13115:(Pennsylvania State UP, 1976). 12729:Congressional Research Service 12700:"African American Politicians" 8984:Birzer, D (January 19, 2007). 8778:The William and Mary Quarterly 8556: 8536:and Thomas E. Terrill (2008). 8526: 8478: 8472: 8423: 8417: 8391: 8362: 8356:Black Tudors" The Untold Story 8347: 8255:Black Belt (region of Chicago) 8201:African Americans in Tennessee 8146:African Americans in Louisiana 8107:Black Belt (region of Alabama) 7992:History of slavery in Delaware 7967:History of slavery in Missouri 7952:History of slavery in Virginia 7942:History of slavery in Maryland 7937:History of slavery in Kentucky 7258:post-Reconstruction oppression 7080:President of the United States 6393:National Labor Relations Board 5846:, where they were awarded the 5659: 5629:National Negro Business League 5104:The Emancipation Proclamation. 4752:Lancaster County, Pennsylvania 3652: 3460:; by 1776, roughly 20% of the 3277:Racism against Black Americans 13: 1: 21122:National Voting Rights Museum 21065:Civil Rights Movement Archive 20864:Lynching in the United States 20751:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize" 19206:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door 19179:University of Chicago sit-ins 18946:Davis v. Prince Edward County 18093:Cherokee freedmen controversy 17069:The Negro Motorist Green Book 14300:Works Progress Administration 14146:Chronicle of Higher Education 13371:Arkansas Historical Quarterly 13341: 13225:excerpt and text search vol 1 13101:and Elsa Barkley Brown, eds. 12763:. Retrieved 19 September 2013 12672:Jordan, John (June 9, 2014). 11203:Business and Economic History 10564:The Works of thomas Jefferson 10220:Meyer, Stephen Grant (2001). 9926:Journal of the Early Republic 9638:Browne-Davies, Nigel (2014). 9597:Nash, Gary B. (Summer 2006). 9544:Nash, Gary B. (Summer 2006). 9467:Journal of the Early Republic 9341:10.1080/0144039x.2020.1755502 9201:"Slavery in Colonial America" 9105:Rodriguez, Junius P. (2007). 8576:Bordewich, Fergus M. (2005). 8539:The American South: A History 8216:African Americans in Virginia 8181:African Americans in Oklahoma 8171:African Americans in New York 8151:African Americans in Maryland 8114:African Americans in Arkansas 7927:History of slavery in Florida 7922:History of slavery in Alabama 7755:Lynching in the United States 7236:, changes implemented in the 6912:Chicago Open Housing Movement 6845:Birmingham Children's Crusade 6363: 6140:, the president of all black 5700:for gallantry in action, 1919 5263:, residency requirements and 4432:By contrast, the British and 4212:. They had been kidnapped by 4180:, by an unknown artist, 1670. 3629:. Of those, over 2.1 million 2485:National Pan-Hellenic Council 21751:Slavery in the United States 21746:History of the United States 21117:National Civil Rights Museum 20973:March on Washington Movement 20958:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church 19427:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. 16149:Hispanic and Latino American 15003:Second Industrial Revolution 14837:Nat Turner's slave rebellion 14543:Exploration of North America 14469:History of the United States 13439:10.5149/9781469607214_Yellin 13221:The African-American Odyssey 13219:Hine, Darlene Clark, et al. 13142:. Rowman & Littlefield. 13012:"The Birth of Black Studies" 12846:American Sociological Review 12363:Air Force Integrates 1949–64 11514:Western Pennsylvania History 10342:Raboteau, Albert J. (2004). 10142:The Journal of Negro History 10070:The Caning of Charles Sumner 9907:(2000), 105#1, pp. 103–115; 9620:Thayer, James Steel (1991). 9179:nationalhumanitiescenter.org 8603:McPherson, James M. (1988). 8260:Black history in Puerto Rico 8235:African Americans in Atlanta 8124:African Americans in Georgia 8119:African Americans in Florida 8102:African Americans in Alabama 8039:List of civil rights leaders 7855:Society of the United States 7835:Culture of the United States 7795:Slavery in the United States 7652:Civil rights movement portal 7274:slavery in the United States 6896:Selma Voting Rights Movement 6466: 6446:Committee of Racial Equality 6301:442nd Regimental Combat Team 6286:to make the propaganda film 6151:March on Washington Movement 5639:Women in the beauty business 4167:from Dutch man-of-war, 1619" 4024: 3635:culture of the United States 3412:started with the arrival of 3287:School segregation in the US 2825:Black American Sign Language 2799:Languages and other dialects 1146:Hispanic and Latino American 7: 21503:Michael Row the Boat Ashore 20761:"This Little Light of Mine" 19509:Dallas County Voters League 19455:Atlanta Negro Voters League 19218:Letter from Birmingham Jail 18925:Brown v. Board of Education 17963:Black players in ice hockey 17898:National Urban League (NUL) 17724:American Society of Muslims 16962:Selma to Montgomery marches 16882:Brown v. Board of Education 15673:Indictments of Donald Trump 14864:First Industrial Revolution 14698:Declaration of Independence 14688:Second Continental Congress 14081:Journal of American History 14035:Reviews in American History 13842:Journal of American History 13790:Journal of American History 13733:Reviews in American History 13726:Historiography and teaching 13605:, no. 3 (May 1990): 227–62. 13584:Moore, Shirley Ann Wilson. 13360:Journal of Southern History 13033:Journal of American History 12792:"QuickFacts: United States" 12621:. (Johns Hopkins UP, (2010) 12452:Journal of American History 12340:and Private George Watson. 12144:39#2 (2019) : 208–231. 11808:Illinois Historical Journal 11350:www.worldwar1centennial.org 11188:(1957) pp. 53–59. 135–137. 10836:Journal of American History 10291:Journal of Southern History 9803:American Slavery: 1619–1877 9790:American Slavery: 1619–1877 9777:American Slavery: 1619–1877 9568:""Who Were the Loyalists?"" 9506:Journal of American History 9080:The Terrible Transformation 9047:The Terrible Transformation 8919:, p. 29. Chapel Hill, 1998. 8906:, p. 27. Chapel Hill, 1998. 8712:(U Press of Florida, 2013). 8683:Finkelman, Paul. ed. 2009. 8456:American Slavery, 1619–1877 8369:Gates, Henry Louis (2014). 8330:African Americans in France 8325:African Americans in Israel 7957:History of slavery in Texas 7830:Religion of Black Americans 7790:Racism in the United States 7595: 7392:AP African American Studies 7368:racism in the United States 7321:historically Black colleges 6900:Selma to Montgomery marches 6818:Congress on Racial Equality 6747:Brown v. Board of Education 6695:Brown v. Board of Education 6095:In April 1937, Congressman 6017:Public Works Administration 5969: 5876:was posthumously awarded a 5789:units as well as draftees. 5763:for their gallantry in the 5704: 5645:African-American businesses 5623:African-American businesses 5454:African-American newspapers 5418:Early civil rights movement 5412:right to keep and bear arms 4731:In 1850, after winning the 4612:Religion of Black Americans 4605: 4545:used language from the new 4369:Second Continental Congress 4357:Declaration of Independence 4290:resembled an "extension of 3856:extended from southeastern 3791:in the modern countries of 3550:After the war ended with a 3511:and expanded it during the 3432:in California in 1579. The 2114:African-American businesses 10: 21968: 21095:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 20963:Holt Street Baptist Church 20933:16th Street Baptist Church 19917:Annie Bell Robinson Devine 19561:Nashville Student Movement 19491:An Appeal for Human Rights 18120:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 17878:Nashville Student Movement 16889:Children of the plantation 16270: 16032: 15694: 15565:Killing of Osama bin Laden 14653:First Continental Congress 14498: 14360:– African American Odyssey 14338:– PBS 4-Part Series (2007) 13927:American Historical Review 13468: 13465:Activism and urban culture 13177: 13173: 12858:10.1177/000312240406900201 12500:Michigan Historical Review 12374:Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., 10974:, accessed March 10, 2008. 10925:Williamjames Hull Hoffer, 10806:"Fruits of Reconstruction" 10376:Greene, A. Wilson (2006). 10068:Williamjames Hull Hoffer, 10048:10.1177/002193477000100102 9905:American Historical Review 9815:Bedini, Silvio A. (1999). 9432:Slave-ships.blogspot.co.uk 9295: 9205:American Battlefield Trust 8974:(Prentice Hall, 2011), 38. 8354:Kauffman, Miranda (2018). 8320:African Americans in Ghana 8221:First Africans in Virginia 8206:African Americans in Texas 7398:Knowledge of Black history 7355:(1964, updated 1987), and 7341:The Negro in the Civil War 7339:. Quarles' books included 7117:Congressional Black Caucus 7008:"African-American history" 6954: 6948: 6681: 6619:"African-American history" 6515: 6498:Eddie "Rochester" Anderson 6204: 6057:Civil Works Administration 5973: 5927: 5669: 5663: 5620: 5496: 5421: 5359:paramilitary organizations 5208: 5198: 5093: 5079: 5052: 5042: 4986: 4949: 4788:National Negro Conventions 4769: 4710:Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 4643: 4609: 4400:American Revolutionary War 4336: 4319:fleeing to Spanish Florida 4095:"African-American history" 4001: 3829:region stretched from the 3656: 3473:American Revolutionary War 2652:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 2327:Congressional Black Caucus 2294:African Diaspora Religions 2081:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 250:2020 George Floyd protests 68:"African-American history" 21898: 21761: 21653: 21645:South Carolina Lowcountry 21599: 21568: 21561: 21544: 21521: 21480: 21399: 21383: 21358: 21299: 21292: 21233: 21135: 21037: 20851: 20784: 20726: 20705: 20592:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson 20562:Modjeska Monteith Simkins 19634: 19626:Women's Political Council 19621:Wednesdays in Mississippi 19616:United Auto Workers (UAW) 19601:Southern Regional Council 19571:Northern Student Movement 19480:Committee for Freedom Now 19440: 19387:Memphis sanitation strike 19353:Voting Rights Act of 1965 19275: 19096:Savannah Protest Movement 19058: 18916: 18877:Journey of Reconciliation 18869: 18856: 18790: 18757:Index of related articles 18635: 18550: 18274: 18207: 18145: 18045: 18006: 17938: 17931: 17846: 17766: 17758:Doctrine of Father Divine 17704: 17646: 17295: 17150: 17142:Women's suffrage movement 17095:Reconstruction Amendments 16902:Voting Rights Act of 1965 16821: 16743: 16709: 16653: 16617: 16605: 16344: 16318: 16280: 16276: 16265: 16038: 16027: 15700: 15689: 15555: 15458: 15386: 15287: 15198: 15149:Wall Street Crash of 1929 15080: 14961: 14946:Emancipation Proclamation 14877: 14800: 14748: 14715:Articles of Confederation 14668: 14553:Native American epidemics 14533: 14508: 14504: 14493: 14475: 14274:King Jr., Martin Luther. 14265:King Jr., Martin Luther. 14255:King Jr., Martin Luther. 14086:(December 1988): 842–56. 14002:Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. 13865:Harris, Robert L (1982). 13812:American Literary History 13692:Journal of Social History 13062:The Jim Crow Encyclopedia 12534:Women at War with America 12428:(2011), pp. 25–42, 63–80. 11810:(1985) 78#4 pp. 242–256. 11694:10.1080/00236567508584321 11533:(Penn State Press, 2010). 10991:Constitutional Commentary 10970:Constitutional Commentary 10958:, accessed 17 April 2008. 10867:"The Souls of Black Folk" 10784:. Boston: Prentice Hall. 10737:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 9952:10.1080/14664650600956585 9323:Hacker, J. David (2020). 9011:African American Registry 8659:Lemann, Nicholas (1991). 8211:African Americans in Utah 7293:, a Black historian, and 6908:Voting Rights Act of 1965 6889:Philadelphia, Mississippi 6502:Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong 6480:Bill "Bojangles" Robinson 6333:U.S. 761st Tank Battalion 6168: 6131:Ellison "Cotton Ed" Smith 5834:. The soldiers fought in 5694: 5061:Emancipation Proclamation 5049:Emancipation Proclamation 4946:Haiti's effect on slavery 4523:Constitutional Convention 3623:2020 United States census 3580:migrated out of the South 3159:US states and territories 2460:American Life and History 2182:Lift Every Voice and Sing 1891:Treatment of the enslaved 21932:African diaspora history 21927:African-American history 21698:History of Guinea-Bissau 21661:African-American history 21607:Beaufort, South Carolina 21529:African-American culture 19460:Atlanta Student Movement 19409:Civil Rights Act of 1968 19334:1964–1965 Scripto strike 19315:Civil Rights Act of 1964 19213:1963 Birmingham campaign 19106:Civil Rights Act of 1960 19030:Civil Rights Act of 1957 18807:United States portal 18242:African-American English 17671:Inventors and scientists 17363:George Washington Carver 16967:Chicago Freedom Movement 16635:Northern Mariana Islands 15208:Strike wave of 1945–1946 14402:Black History Milestones 14373:– Guide to Black History 13874:Journal of Negro History 13702:Journal of Urban History 13669:Thomas, Richard Walter. 13600:Journal of Urban History 13429:Yellin, Eric S. (2013). 13385:Journal of Negro History 13189:(2018), classic survey; 12675:Born Black in the U.S.A. 12634:75.4 (1997): 1213–1238. 11373:Born Black in the U.S.A. 11105:Journal of Negro History 10940:Journal of Negro History 10752:Willis, John C. (2000). 10676:Michael Vorenberg, ed., 10459:"Freedom and Resistance" 10036:Journal of Black Studies 8972:The Struggle For Freedom 8358:. Oneworld Publications. 8340: 7820:African-American culture 7660:African-American culture 7337:Johns Hopkins University 6868:Civil Rights Act of 1964 6857:Civil Rights Act of 1964 6360:efforts to the utmost". 6068:, who went to Congress. 5749:372nd American Regiments 5643:Although most prominent 5230:Benjamin "Pap" Singleton 5141:bottomlands were Black. 5116:decision). In 1868, the 5110:Civil Rights Act of 1866 4923:Gillfield Baptist Church 3616:Civil Rights Act of 1964 3410:African-American history 3361:United States portal 2768:African-American English 2279:African-American Muslims 1840:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 649: 627: 605: 594: 572: 561: 539: 528: 517: 506: 484: 473: 462: 440: 418: 407: 385: 374: 352: 341: 18:African American history 21937:History by ethnic group 21734:History of Sierra Leone 21627:Golden Isles of Georgia 21012:Voter Education Project 20766:"We Shall Not Be Moved" 20427:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 19862:Josephine Dobbs Clement 19288:Chester school protests 19283:Twenty-fourth Amendment 19245:Detroit Walk to Freedom 18987:Tallahassee bus boycott 18908:Baton Rouge bus boycott 18730:African-American firsts 17779:Back-to-Africa movement 17748:Black Hebrew Israelites 17528:Adam Clayton Powell Jr. 17076:Partus sequitur ventrem 16170:Middle Eastern American 15987:Technology and industry 14857:Seneca Falls Convention 14658:Continental Association 14558:Settlement of Jamestown 14378:Black People in History 14371:Encyclopædia Britannica 14310:excerpt and text search 14280:excerpt and text search 14261:excerpt and text search 14215:excerpt and text search 14167:Aptheker, Herbert, ed. 14134:excerpt and text search 14117:OAH Magazine of History 14068:excerpt and text search 14015:excerpt and text search 13760:excerpt and text search 13750:excerpt and text search 13629:(Lexington Books, 2012) 13615:Player, Tiffany Angel. 13504:(2003), primary sources 13322:excerpt and text search 13205:excerpt and text search 13107:excerpt and text search 13093:excerpt and text search 13076:excerpt and text search 11738:excerpt and text search 11228:(2009) pp. 1–18, 63–65. 10848:10.1093/jahist/96.2.379 10116:Oxford University Press 10074:excerpt and text search 9719:"The Revolutionary War" 9329:Slavery & Abolition 8970:Clayborne Carson, ed., 8689:Oxford University Press 8454:Kolchin, Peter (2003). 7429:John Wesley Blassingame 7329:University of Wisconsin 6276:Battle of Bamber Bridge 5874:371st Infantry Regiment 5765:Meuse-Argonne Offensive 5723:369th Infantry Regiment 5672:Woodrow Wilson and race 5282:Williams v. Mississippi 4535:three-fifths compromise 4381:Prince Hall Freemasonry 3282:Reparations for slavery 2370:Back-to-Africa movement 2269:Black Hebrew Israelites 2147:African-American beauty 1167:Middle Eastern American 989:Technology and industry 236:, civil rights leaders 21407:Afro-American religion 21225:Movement photographers 20467:Bernice Johnson Reagon 20187:Martin Luther King Sr. 20182:Martin Luther King Jr. 19752:William Holmes Borders 19524:Highlander Folk School 19414:Poor People's Campaign 19267:St. Augustine movement 19117:Gomillion v. Lightfoot 19040:Katz Drug Store sit-in 19011:Royal Ice Cream sit-in 18973:Montgomery bus boycott 18698:Spingarn Medal winners 18187:States and territories 17958:Black NFL quarterbacks 17458:Martin Luther King Jr. 16990:Dred Scott v. Sandford 16929:Montgomery bus boycott 16290:Admission to the Union 15656:Afghanistan withdrawal 15651:January 6 insurrection 15570:Rise in mass shootings 15542:Virginia Tech shooting 15095:Paris Peace Conference 14869:Second Great Awakening 14608:American Enlightenment 14366:at Columbia University 14294:Rawick, George P. ed. 14174:Baker, Ray Stannard. 13844:(June 1988): 163–173. 13744:Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. 13707:, no. 3 (1993): 30–54. 13608:Pattillo-McCoy, Mary. 13128:Palmer, Colin A., ed. 13051: 12748:Roy Douglas Malonson, 12704:www.myblackhistory.net 12558:Frank N. Magill, ed., 11224:Lawrence Otis Graham, 11158:Nathan Irvin Huggins, 10972:, Vol. 17, 2000, p. 27 10666:Dred Scott v. Sandford 10524:Nile's Weekly Register 8630:Fremon, David (2000). 8534:William J. Cooper, Jr. 7865:African American Lives 7494:Asa Grant Hilliard III 7459:Henry Louis Gates, Jr. 7086: 6871: 6806:Martin Luther King Jr. 6765: 6758:Martin Luther King Jr. 6712:Montgomery bus boycott 6538: 6527: 6512:Second Great Migration 6381:Second Great Migration 6375: 6263: 6235:The Pittsburgh Courier 6224: 6223:, France. 10 June 1944 6159:Fiorello H. La Guardia 6105:Duck Hill, Mississippi 5988: 5924:Home front and postwar 5900: 5865: 5823: 5811: 5773:General Order No. 245 5740: 5715:armistice with Germany 5701: 5681: 5617:Black-owned businesses 5605:, and union organizer 5570:, William H. Johnson, 5519: 5469:1906 Atlanta Race Riot 5440:. After the notorious 5434:Niagara Falls, Ontario 5382: 5248: 5191: 5184: 5149: 5134:United States Congress 5105: 5010: 4989:Dred Scott v. Sandford 4982:Dred Scott v. Sandford 4974:Nat Turner's Rebellion 4960:Nile's Weekly Register 4904:Richard Allen (bishop) 4663: 4634:Second Great Awakening 4470:fought for the British 4181: 4170: 3980:Mozambique-Madagascar 3668: 3608:Martin Luther King Jr. 3600:broad unified movement 3497:Northern United States 3462:British North American 2752:Dialects and languages 1912:Second Great Migration 1279:Admission to the Union 21762:Related ethnic groups 21727:History of the Gambia 21586:Port Royal Experiment 21400:Religion and folklore 21340:Daughters of the Dust 21060:Civil Rights Memorial 20948:Bethel Baptist Church 20597:Charles Kenzie Steele 20042:Audrey Faye Hendricks 19947:Myrlie Evers-Williams 19927:Patricia Stephens Due 19897:Abraham Lincoln Davis 19832:Colia Lafayette Clark 19586:Operation Breadbasket 19581:National Urban League 19328:Katzenbach v. McClung 19196:Atlanta's Berlin Wall 18849:Civil rights movement 18008:Athletic associations 17943:Negro league baseball 17714:African-American Jews 17433:Ketanji Brown Jackson 17398:Henry Highland Garnet 17257:Negro National Anthem 17007:George Floyd protests 16972:Post–civil rights era 16282:Territorial evolution 15646:George Floyd Protests 15629:Unite the Right rally 15498:Oklahoma City bombing 15493:Republican Revolution 15440:Space Shuttle program 15262:Civil Rights Movement 15230:North Atlantic Treaty 15038:Sherman Antitrust Act 15023:Chinese Exclusion Act 14613:French and Indian War 14603:Prelude to Revolution 14588:First Great Awakening 14548:European colonization 14342:Living Black History: 14336:"Africans in America" 14171:. (7 vols, 1951–1994) 14009:Hine, Darlene Clark. 13676:Washburn, Patrick S. 13483:Black Jr., Timuel D. 13469:Further information: 13418:10.3 (1969): 433–458. 13309:Painter, Nell Irvin. 13229:Holt, Thomas C., ed. 13097:Hine, Darlene Clark, 13087:Finkelman, Paul, ed. 13080:Finkelman, Paul, ed. 13050: 12977:2002 26(3): 149–154. 12940:2004 28(2): 372–383. 12678:Dorrance Publishing. 12562:(1993) pp. 1159–1163. 11823:Conrad Black (2005). 11568:(Cambridge UP, 2014). 11516:(1995) 78#4: 153–158 11376:Dorrance Publishing. 11370:Jordan, John (2014). 11271:(2014), quote p. 96. 11190:Online free to borrow 11184:E. Franklin Frazier, 11145:Steven A. Reich, ed. 10929:(UP of Kansas, 2012). 8562:Leonard L. Richards, 8479:Bibko, Julia (2016). 8014:Civil rights movement 7998:Civil rights movement 7349:Lincoln and the Negro 7230:civil rights movement 7214:Senator Kamala Harris 7180:presidential election 7074: 6955:Further information: 6945:Post-civil rights era 6916:1968 Fair Housing Act 6906:to call for the full 6865: 6843:This march, the 1963 6802:National Urban League 6760:delivers his famous " 6756: 6704:Civil Rights Movement 6684:Civil rights movement 6533: 6525: 6442:Franklin D. Roosevelt 6371: 6253: 6218: 6041:Franklin D. Roosevelt 5983: 5928:Further information: 5894: 5863: 5821: 5806: 5755:. He was awarded the 5735: 5687: 5679: 5670:Further information: 5587:South Side of Chicago 5540:Léopold Sédar Senghor 5510: 5442:Springfield, Illinois 5380: 5242: 5189: 5179: 5147: 5103: 5028:Slaughter-House Cases 4996: 4965:American Emancipation 4871:Racial discrimination 4830:Second Middle Passage 4795:Harriet Beecher Stowe 4688:The invention of the 4657: 4531:fugitive slave clause 4505:American independence 4487:English abolitionists 4288:colony South Carolina 4176: 4161: 3666: 3164:US metropolitan areas 2991:List of neighborhoods 2605:Alabama Creole people 2595:African-American Jews 2527:Negro league baseball 2490:National Urban League 2442:Civic/economic groups 2274:African-American Jews 2164:African-American hair 2026:, after the Civil War 1855:Post–civil rights era 1270:Territorial evolution 563:Post-World War II Era 244:, young boy touching 21673:Atlantic slave trade 21348:Gullah Gullah Island 21105:other King memorials 21080:Freedom Rides Museum 21017:1960s counterculture 20968:Edmund Pettus Bridge 20647:Walter Francis White 20552:Alexander D. Shimkin 19066:New Year's Day March 19035:Ministers' Manifesto 18882:Executive Order 9981 18215:Afro-Seminole Creole 17741:Azusa Street Revival 17613:Booker T. Washington 17137:Underground Railroad 17002:Free people of color 16856:Atlantic slave trade 16196:Palestinian American 15623:Obergefell v. Hodges 15515:September 11 attacks 15351:Second-wave feminism 15272:Cuban Missile Crisis 15132:Bath School disaster 15050:Spanish–American War 15013:The Gospel of Wealth 14892:California Gold Rush 14852:Mexican–American War 14842:Nullification crisis 14810:Era of Good Feelings 14710:Confederation period 14618:Proclamation of 1763 14568:Atlantic slave trade 13913:on December 21, 2016 13850:Goggin, Jacqueline. 13407:Patterson, James T. 13400:Patterson, James T. 13376:Graham, Hugh Davis. 13099:Rosalyn Terborg-Penn 13010:Soderstrom, Daniel. 12808:(2012), pp. 127–150. 12549:(2000), pp. 113–129. 12536:(1984), pp. 128–129. 12061:(1989), pp. 147–189. 11645:(1991), pp. 172–193. 11438:Chester D. Heywood, 11018:Congressional Record 10689:Hondon B. Hargrove, 9867:Albert J. Raboteau, 9841:Albert J. Raboteau, 9296:Quirk, Joel (2011). 8502:Foner, Eric (2010). 8082:adding missing items 7610:United States portal 7569:Joel Augustus Rogers 7544:Gwendolyn Midlo Hall 7524:David Levering Lewis 7333:Morgan State College 7212:On August 11, 2020, 6993:improve this article 6743:Prince Edward County 6604:improve this article 6357:Walter Francis White 6349:Executive Order 9981 6163:Executive Order 8802 6114:Walter Francis White 5920:at the White House. 5798:District of Columbia 5458:Booker T. Washington 5291:Booker T. Washington 5032:Fourteenth Amendment 4927:Petersburg, Virginia 4919:First Baptist Church 4733:Mexican–American War 4596:District of Columbia 4491:Sierra Leone Company 4450:Governor of Virginia 4163:"Landing Negroes at 4080:improve this article 4010:Atlantic slave trade 3932:West Central Africa 3682:Atlantic slave trade 3588:civil rights efforts 3560:granted equal rights 3545:Thirteenth Amendment 3525:Underground Railroad 3438:Atlantic slave trade 3436:, and the resulting 3321:Criminal stereotypes 3096:District of Columbia 2813:Afro-Seminole Creole 2255:Non-Christian groups 1850:Black power movement 1814:during the Civil War 1783:Atlantic slave trade 1193:Palestinian American 409:Era of Good Feelings 354:Confederation period 291:Timeline and periods 228:, aftermath of 1921 53:improve this article 21488:Charleston red rice 21300:Film and television 20843:Mary McLeod Bethune 20804:Sermon on the Mount 20771:"We Shall Overcome" 20352:William Lewis Moore 20132:Frank Minis Johnson 20107:Richie Jean Jackson 20062:Donald L. Hollowell 19867:Charles E. Cobb Jr. 19672:Gwendolyn Armstrong 19667:William G. Anderson 19647:Victoria Gray Adams 19611:The Freedom Singers 19465:Black Panther Party 19250:March on Washington 19163:Garner v. Louisiana 19124:Boynton v. Virginia 18610:Trinidad and Tobago 18225:Black American Sign 18052:By African descent 18046:Ethnic subdivisions 18033:Southwestern (SWAC) 17948:Baseball color line 17863:Black Panther Party 17767:Political movements 17684:in computer science 17343:Carol Moseley Braun 17132:Tulsa race massacre 17125:Treatment of slaves 16957:March on Washington 16952:Birmingham movement 16645:U.S. Virgin Islands 16131:Lithuanian American 16087:Vietnamese American 15433:End of the Cold War 15423:Invasion of Grenada 15373:Iran hostage crisis 15122:Tulsa race massacre 14929:Election of Lincoln 14924:Dred Scott decision 14912:Kansas–Nebraska Act 14815:Missouri Compromise 14733:Northwest Ordinance 14723:Pennsylvania Mutiny 14718:and Perpetual Union 14678:American Revolution 14593:War of Jenkins' Ear 14358:Library of Congress 14352:Library of Congress 14304:Sernett, Milton C. 14219:Finkenbine, Roy E. 14128:Wright, William D. 14099:Roper, John Herbert 14072:Quarles, Benjamin. 13806:History Cooperative 13748:(2010); 255 pages; 13717:Wilson, William H. 13553:Grossman, James R. 13209:Harris, William H. 13164:Smallwood, Arwin D. 12920:Pew Research Center 12887:Pew Research Center 12378:(Washington, 1981). 12057:Anthony J. Badger, 11555:(Peter Lang, 2008). 11136:(vol 2, 1962) p. 18 11002:Allen W. Trelease, 10942:46.1 (1961): 32–46 10112:Black Abolitionists 9886:, (1912): 129–142. 9624:. pp. 215–230. 9603:Phi Kappa Phi Forum 9550:Phi Kappa Phi Forum 7696:Destination Freedom 7680:Black History Month 7499:Nikole Hannah-Jones 7469:Annette Gordon-Reed 7419:Lerone Bennett, Jr. 7357:Black Abolitionists 7307:Black History Month 7242:incarceration rates 7191:New Great Migration 7102:Carol Moseley-Braun 6961:New Great Migration 6935:Black Panther Party 6739:Farmville, Virginia 6572:lived in the West. 6484:Cab Calloway's Band 6074:Marshall L. Shepard 6049:Mary McLeod Bethune 5650:Madame C. J. Walker 5582:gained prominence. 5475:published the book 5398:." The journalist 5351:Coushatta massacres 5226:Rutherford B. Hayes 4860:construction worker 4841:The Black community 4835:Black Abolitionists 4822:Radical Republicans 4756:The Christiana Riot 4726:Missouri Compromise 4567:Northwest Ordinance 4499:Sierra Leone Creole 4398:and of the ensuing 4339:American Revolution 4218:indentured servants 4210:Jamestown, Virginia 3845:, and southwestern 3702:Southeastern Africa 3627:American population 3487:fought on both the 3442:Barbary slave trade 3424:arrived aboard the 2717:Sierra Leone Creole 2678:Specific ancestries 2563:Southwestern (SWAC) 2086:Black History Month 1917:New Great Migration 1871:Agriculture history 1128:Lithuanian American 1079:Vietnamese American 343:American Revolution 234:March on Washington 230:Tulsa race massacre 21722:History of Senegal 21708:History of Nigeria 21703:History of Liberia 21457:John the Conqueror 21160:Michael Eric Dyson 21045:In popular culture 20928:Fifth Circuit Four 20912:Loving v. Virginia 20905:Hernandez v. Texas 20884:Buchanan v. Warley 20876:Separate but equal 20870:Plessy v. Ferguson 20833:Frederick Douglass 20667:Robert F. Williams 20577:Kelly Miller Smith 20557:Fred Shuttlesworth 20482:Frederick D. Reese 20462:George Raymond Jr. 20452:A. Philip Randolph 20432:Fay Bellamy Powell 20347:Queen Mother Moore 20232:Z. Alexander Looby 20177:Coretta Scott King 20122:Barbara Rose Johns 20102:Jimmie Lee Jackson 20027:William E. Harbour 19807:Stokely Carmichael 19722:Randolph Blackwell 19392:King assassination 19381:Loving v. Virginia 19365:March Against Fear 19345:How Long, Not Long 19223:Children's Crusade 19174:Cambridge movement 19111:Ax Handle Saturday 19076:Greensboro sit-ins 19003:Give Us the Ballot 18708:US representatives 18703:US cabinet members 18595:Dominican Republic 18182:Metropolitan areas 18023:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 17848:Civic and economic 17826:Self-determination 17647:Education, science 17568:Fred Shuttlesworth 17548:A. Philip Randolph 17453:Coretta Scott King 17378:Frederick Douglass 17205:Harlem Renaissance 17110:Separate but equal 17100:Reconstruction era 17088:Plessy v. Ferguson 16979:Cornerstone Speech 16893:Civil Rights Acts 16876:Black Lives Matter 16851:American Civil War 16295:Historical regions 16251:Transgender people 15809:Capital punishment 15668:Support of Ukraine 15617:Black Lives Matter 15525:War in Afghanistan 15450:Invasion of Panama 15406:Iran–Contra affair 15267:Early–mid Cold War 15137:Harlem Renaissance 14996:Compromise of 1877 14971:Reconstruction era 14907:Fugitive Slave Act 14902:Compromise of 1850 14847:Westward expansion 14785:Louisiana Purchase 14628:Stamp Act Congress 14573:King William's War 14237:The Southern South 14122:(4), Summer 1993, 13831:Fields, Barbara J. 13656:Sugrue, Thomas J. 13646:Sugrue, Thomas J. 13591:Osofsky, Gilbert. 13476:Bernstein, Shana. 13393:Patler, Nicholas. 13351:4.6 (2018): 41–72 13064:(Greenwood, 2008) 13052: 12824:The New York Times 12755:2006-05-20 at the 12652:Mercyseatfilms.com 12437:David M. Kennedy, 12118:(2011), pp. 43–62. 11885:The New York Times 11564:David F. Krugler, 11212:2016-11-05 at the 11160:Harlem renaissance 10865:Du Bois, W. E. B. 10854:on April 21, 2012. 10652:Don Fehrenbacher, 10606:historylink101.com 10317:"The Black Church" 10110:Benjamin Quarles, 9599:"African-American" 9546:"African-American" 9434:. February 2, 2011 8915:Gomez, Michael A: 8902:Gomez, Zahkeem A: 8582:. Harper Collins. 8427:Slavery in America 8080:; you can help by 7916:Regional histories 7554:Nell Irvin Painter 7549:Zora Neale Hurston 7514:Barbara Krauthamer 7504:William Loren Katz 7454:John Hope Franklin 7434:John Henrik Clarke 7317:John Hope Franklin 7295:Ulrich B. Phillips 7182:against candidate 7087: 6965:Black Lives Matter 6872: 6798:Whitney Young, Jr. 6766: 6735:Massive Resistance 6539: 6528: 6500:, Lena Horne, and 6438:New Deal Coalition 6376: 6264: 6225: 6138:A. Philip Randolph 5989: 5962:Pittsburgh Courier 5913:Defense Department 5901: 5866: 5824: 5812: 5770:December 12, 1918 5741: 5702: 5682: 5607:A. Philip Randolph 5548:Zora Neale Hurston 5532:Harlem Renaissance 5520: 5503:Harlem Renaissance 5473:Ray Stannard Baker 5471:got him involved, 5392:Tuskegee Institute 5383: 5295:Tuskegee Institute 5269:grandfather clause 5249: 5192: 5171:identity formation 5163:Frederick Douglass 5150: 5106: 5086:Reconstruction era 5045:American Civil War 5011: 4952:Haitian Revolution 4931:Richmond, Virginia 4745:fugitive slave act 4741:compromise of 1850 4737:compromise of 1820 4695:cotton plantations 4683:Haitian Revolution 4664: 4454:Ethiopian regiment 4182: 4171: 4029:In the account of 3998:The Middle Passage 3669: 3612:federal government 3568:racial segregation 3566:, and a system of 3556:Reconstruction era 3529:American Civil War 2726:Sexual orientation 2600:Afro-Puerto Ricans 2553:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 2188:Self-determination 2152:Black is beautiful 1818:Reconstruction era 1248:Transgender people 811:Capital punishment 464:Reconstruction Era 21914: 21913: 21894: 21893: 21769:African Americans 21678:History of Angola 21634:(protected site) 21542: 21541: 21534:Culture of Africa 21513:Robot Hive/Exodus 21481:Music and culture 21374:Vibration Cooking 21324:A Soldier's Story 21251: 21250: 21028:Eyes on the Prize 20943:A.G. Gaston Motel 20938:Kelly Ingram Park 20898:Sweatt v. Painter 20582:Mary Louise Smith 20542:Cleveland Sellers 20527:Michael Schwerner 20492:Gloria Richardson 20272:Thurgood Marshall 20192:Bernard Lafayette 19922:John Wesley Dobbs 19436: 19435: 19155:Birmingham attack 19135:Rock Hill sit-ins 19086:Sibley Commission 19081:Nashville sit-ins 18953:Gebhart v. Belton 18939:Briggs v. Elliott 18932:Bolling v. Sharpe 18893:Sweatt v. Painter 18815: 18814: 18643:African Americans 18515:Dallas–Fort Worth 18110:Black Southerners 18041: 18040: 17493:Thurgood Marshall 17463:Bernard Lafayette 17058:Million Man March 16815:African Americans 16781: 16780: 16739: 16738: 16735: 16734: 16300:American frontier 16261: 16260: 16191:Lebanese American 16176:Egyptian American 16111:Estonian American 16101:Albanian American 16095:European American 16072:Japanese American 16062:Filipino American 16023: 16022: 15685: 15684: 15681: 15680: 15634:COVID-19 pandemic 15537:Hurricane Katrina 15478:Los Angeles riots 15368:Watergate scandal 15213:Start of Cold War 15181:Manhattan Project 14768:Whiskey Rebellion 14598:King George's War 14563:Thirteen Colonies 14524:Pre-Columbian Era 14314:Wright, Kai, ed. 14271:(1963/1964; 2000) 14268:Why We Can't Wait 14228:Voices of Freedom 14185:Berlin, Ira, ed. 13625:Rabaka, Reiland. 13316:Pinn, Anthony B. 13185:Bennett, Lerone, 12962:Civil War History 12896:on March 27, 2009 12778:finance.yahoo.com 12473:Freedom from Fear 12413:Freedom from Fear 12389:Freedom from Fear 12361:Alan L. Gropman, 12344:. 2nd end, 2002. 12315:Freedom from Fear 12302:Freedom from Fear 12284:Freedom from Fear 12271:Freedom from Fear 12253:Freedom from Fear 12225:Freedom from Fear 12205:Freedom from Fear 12192:Freedom from Fear 12179:Freedom from Fear 12155:Freedom from Fear 12103:Freedom from Fear 12046:Freedom From Fear 12030:Freedom From Fear 12012:Freedom From Fear 11999:Freedom From Fear 11983:Freedom From Fear 11970:Freedom From Fear 11957:Freedom From Fear 11944:Freedom From Fear 11931:Freedom From Fear 11913:Freedom From Fear 11900:Freedom From Fear 11867:Freedom From Fear 11854:Freedom From Fear 11795:Freedom From Fear 11782:Freedom From Fear 11769:Freedom From Fear 11732:Harvard Sitkoff, 11721:Freedom From Fear 11708:Freedom From Fear 11670:(1975) 1:170–217. 11630:Freedom From Fear 11617:Freedom From Fear 11601:Freedom From Fear 11588:Freedom From Fear 11303:A'Lelia Bundles, 11287:Susannah Walker, 11237:Elijah Anderson, 11068:(New York, 1998). 11030:Nicholas Lemann, 10912:Joel Williamson, 10193:Carson, Clayborne 9854:James H. Hutson, 9282:978-0-8130-5915-0 8663:. Vintage Press. 8405:. January 6, 2014 8229:In other regions: 8098: 8097: 7905:White nationalism 7589:Carter G. Woodson 7579:Charles H. Wesley 7302:Carter G. Woodson 7246:imprisonment rate 7156:Black billionaire 7141:Thurgood Marshall 7069: 7068: 7061: 7043: 6904:Lyndon B. Johnson 6885:Michael Schwerner 6853:Lyndon B. Johnson 6680: 6679: 6672: 6654: 6492:(1943) (starring 6474:(1943) (starring 6387:strengthened the 6373:Rosie the Riveter 6321:Thurgood Marshall 6289:The Negro Soldier 6240:Double V campaign 6221:Vierville-sur-Mer 6146:Eleanor Roosevelt 6110:Eleanor Roosevelt 6053:Eleanor Roosevelt 6045:William H. Hastie 5918:George H. W. Bush 5690:369th (15th N.Y.) 5568:Lois Mailou Jones 5331:white supremacist 5139:Mississippi Delta 5126:Freedmen's Bureau 5096:Freedmen's Bureau 5005:scars from being 4805:Uncle Tom's Cabin 4800:Uncle Tom's Cabin 4640:Antebellum period 4588:Benjamin Banneker 4539:Elizabeth Freeman 4501:ethnic identity. 4420:George Washington 4280:Revolutionary War 4272:Southern Colonies 4257:sugar plantations 4206:Hampton, Virginia 4156: 4155: 4148: 4130: 3995: 3994: 3908:Thirteen Colonies 3776:Valley were sold; 3745:Regions of Africa 3477:Thirteen Colonies 3407: 3406: 3344: 3343: 3242: 3241: 3016:Dallas-Fort Worth 2833: 2832: 2743: 2742: 2687:Americo-Liberians 2570: 2569: 2508: 2507: 2433: 2432: 2302: 2301: 2246:Womanist theology 2196: 2195: 2138:Symbols and ideas 1924: 1923: 1803:Antebellum period 1798:Revolutionary War 1753:African Americans 1738: 1737: 1660: 1659: 1289:American frontier 1188:Lebanese American 1173:Egyptian American 1103:Estonian American 1093:Albanian American 1087:European American 1064:Japanese American 1054:Filipino American 678: 677: 651:Post-Cold War Era 308:Pre-Columbian Era 270: 129: 128: 121: 103: 16:(Redirected from 21959: 21904: 21903: 21693:History of Ghana 21688:History of Congo 21683:History of Benin 21617:Eulonia, Georgia 21612:Daufuskie Island 21566: 21565: 21556: 21550: 21297: 21296: 21278: 21271: 21264: 21255: 21254: 21242: 21241: 21205:Charles M. Payne 21190:Steven F. Lawson 21180:David Halberstam 21150:Clayborne Carson 20891:Hocutt v. Wilson 20838:W. E. B. Du Bois 20687:Sammy Younge Jr. 20672:Q. V. Williamson 20637:Wyatt Tee Walker 20502:Bernice Robinson 20447:Lincoln Ragsdale 20437:Rodney N. Powell 20332:Douglas E. Moore 20207:Sanford R. Leigh 20142:J. Charles Jones 20017:Fannie Lou Hamer 19932:Joseph Ellwanger 19892:Jonathan Daniels 19882:Claudette Colvin 19872:Annie Lee Cooper 19857:Kathleen Cleaver 19852:Eldridge Cleaver 19827:Shirley Chisholm 19717:Gloria Blackwell 19308:workers' murders 19255:"I Have a Dream" 19150:Anniston bombing 19101:Greenville Eight 19016:Little Rock Nine 18979:Browder v. Gayle 18867: 18866: 18842: 18835: 18828: 18819: 18818: 18805: 18804: 18803: 18767:Lynching victims 18266:Louisiana Creole 18237:American English 18125:Louisiana Creole 18098:Choctaw freedmen 17936: 17935: 17473:Huddie Ledbetter 17413:Fannie Lou Hamer 17383:W. E. B. Du Bois 17373:Claudette Colvin 17368:Shirley Chisholm 17185:Family structure 17053:Military history 16935:Browder v. Gayle 16808: 16801: 16794: 16785: 16784: 16771: 16761: 16760: 16725: 16724: 16654:Outlying islands 16611:Washington, D.C. 16606:Federal District 16305:Manifest destiny 16278: 16277: 16267: 16266: 16209:Native Americans 16181:Iranian American 16155:Mexican American 16141:Serbian American 16126:Italian American 16116:Finnish American 16106:English American 16057:Chinese American 16044:African American 16029: 16028: 15834:Direct democracy 15824:The Constitution 15783:Higher education 15706:American Century 15691: 15690: 15144:Great Depression 15117:Women's suffrage 15107:Roaring Twenties 15033:Haymarket affair 14991:Enforcement Acts 14780:Jeffersonian era 14728:Shays' Rebellion 14648:Intolerable Acts 14643:Boston Tea Party 14578:Queen Anne's War 14506: 14505: 14495: 14494: 14462: 14455: 14448: 14439: 14438: 14422: 14420: 14418: 14412:Familysearch.org 14251: 14196:, (2 vols, 2004) 14157: 14155: 14153: 14062:Nelson, Hasker. 13999: 13978: 13933:(5): 1150–1161. 13922: 13920: 13918: 13912: 13906:. Archived from 13905: 13871: 13796:(4): 1171–1177. 13754:Dagbovie, Pero. 13639:Spear, Allan H. 13632:Self, Robert O. 13560:Hornsby, Alton. 13525:Carle, Susan D. 13460: 13333:Weiner, Mark S. 13236:Holt, Thomas C. 13153: 13091:(5 vols, 2009), 13036: 13029: 13023: 13022: 13020: 13018: 13007: 13001: 13000: 12992: 12986: 12985:Fulltext: Ebsco. 12971: 12965: 12958: 12952: 12934: 12928: 12927: 12926:on May 13, 2009. 12912: 12906: 12905: 12903: 12901: 12895: 12889:. Archived from 12884: 12876: 12870: 12869: 12841: 12835: 12834: 12832: 12830: 12815: 12809: 12802: 12796: 12795: 12788: 12782: 12781: 12770: 12764: 12746: 12740: 12739: 12737: 12735: 12721: 12715: 12714: 12712: 12710: 12696: 12690: 12689: 12669: 12663: 12662: 12660: 12658: 12644: 12638: 12628: 12622: 12615: 12609: 12608: 12606: 12604: 12589: 12576: 12569: 12563: 12556: 12550: 12543: 12537: 12532:D'Ann Campbell, 12530: 12524: 12523: 12512:10.2307/20174036 12495: 12489: 12482: 12476: 12469: 12463: 12448: 12442: 12435: 12429: 12422: 12416: 12409: 12392: 12385: 12379: 12372: 12366: 12359: 12353: 12337: 12331: 12324: 12318: 12311: 12305: 12298: 12287: 12280: 12274: 12267: 12256: 12249: 12228: 12221: 12208: 12201: 12195: 12188: 12182: 12175: 12158: 12151: 12145: 12138: 12132: 12125: 12119: 12112: 12106: 12099: 12078: 12068: 12062: 12055: 12049: 12042: 12033: 12026: 12015: 12008: 12002: 11995: 11986: 11979: 11973: 11966: 11960: 11953: 11947: 11940: 11934: 11927: 11916: 11909: 11903: 11896: 11890: 11889: 11876: 11870: 11863: 11857: 11850: 11841: 11840: 11820: 11814: 11804: 11798: 11791: 11785: 11778: 11772: 11765: 11754: 11749:Karen Ferguson, 11747: 11741: 11736:(1978) ch. 3, 4 11730: 11724: 11717: 11711: 11704: 11698: 11697: 11677: 11671: 11664: 11658: 11652: 11646: 11639: 11633: 11626: 11620: 11613: 11604: 11597: 11591: 11584: 11578: 11575: 11569: 11562: 11556: 11549: 11543: 11540: 11534: 11527: 11521: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11496: 11490: 11489: 11482: 11476: 11473: 11467: 11462:Emmet J. Scott, 11460: 11454: 11449: 11443: 11436: 11430: 11422: 11416: 11415: 11413: 11411: 11397: 11388: 11387: 11367: 11361: 11360: 11358: 11356: 11342: 11336: 11335: 11333: 11331: 11325:amhistory.si.edu 11317: 11311: 11301: 11295: 11285: 11279: 11265: 11259: 11248: 11242: 11235: 11229: 11222: 11216: 11199: 11193: 11182: 11176: 11171:Allan H. Spear, 11169: 11163: 11156: 11150: 11143: 11137: 11130: 11124: 11119:Robert Norrell, 11117: 11111: 11101: 11095: 11094: 11092: 11090: 11075: 11069: 11058: 11052: 11051: 11041: 11035: 11028: 11022: 11013: 11007: 11000: 10994: 10984: 10975: 10965: 10959: 10953: 10947: 10936: 10930: 10923: 10917: 10910: 10904: 10903: 10901: 10899: 10890:. Archived from 10884: 10878: 10877: 10875: 10873: 10862: 10856: 10855: 10850:. Archived from 10827: 10821: 10820: 10818: 10816: 10802: 10796: 10795: 10777: 10768: 10767: 10749: 10743: 10742: 10736: 10728: 10726: 10724: 10713: 10707: 10700: 10694: 10687: 10681: 10674: 10668: 10663: 10657: 10650: 10644: 10643: 10641: 10639: 10623: 10617: 10616: 10614: 10612: 10598: 10592: 10591: 10589: 10587: 10582:on March 5, 2016 10581: 10575:. Archived from 10570: 10558: 10552: 10551: 10549: 10547: 10542:on March 5, 2016 10541: 10535:. Archived from 10530: 10518: 10512: 10511: 10484: 10475: 10474: 10472: 10470: 10455: 10449: 10448: 10430: 10424: 10423: 10421: 10419: 10412:Heritage Matters 10409: 10400: 10394: 10393: 10373: 10367: 10366: 10364: 10362: 10339: 10333: 10332: 10330: 10328: 10313: 10307: 10306: 10286: 10280: 10279: 10267: 10261: 10260: 10258: 10256: 10242: 10236: 10235: 10217: 10211: 10210: 10189: 10174: 10173: 10138:Taylor, Quintard 10134: 10128: 10125: 10119: 10108: 10102: 10095: 10089: 10082: 10076: 10066: 10060: 10059: 10031: 10025: 10018: 10012: 10011: 10009: 10007: 9996: 9990: 9989: 9987: 9985: 9970: 9964: 9963: 9935: 9929: 9922: 9916: 9901: 9895: 9880: 9874: 9865: 9859: 9852: 9846: 9839: 9833: 9832: 9812: 9806: 9799: 9793: 9786: 9780: 9773: 9767: 9766: 9764: 9762: 9748: 9739: 9738: 9736: 9734: 9715: 9709: 9708: 9688: 9682: 9680: 9664: 9654: 9648: 9643: 9635: 9629: 9625: 9617: 9611: 9610: 9594: 9588: 9587: 9585: 9583: 9578:on March 4, 2016 9574:. Archived from 9564: 9558: 9557: 9541: 9535: 9534: 9532: 9530: 9515: 9509: 9502: 9496: 9489: 9483: 9476: 9470: 9463: 9457: 9450: 9444: 9443: 9441: 9439: 9424: 9418: 9417: 9415: 9413: 9399: 9393: 9392: 9390: 9388: 9377: 9371: 9370: 9360: 9320: 9314: 9313: 9293: 9287: 9286: 9266: 9260: 9259: 9252: 9246: 9245: 9243: 9241: 9227: 9221: 9220: 9218: 9216: 9196: 9190: 9189: 9187: 9185: 9171: 9165: 9164: 9162: 9160: 9146: 9140: 9129: 9123: 9122: 9102: 9096: 9095: 9093: 9091: 9072: 9063: 9062: 9060: 9058: 9039: 9033: 9032: 9021: 9015: 9014: 9003: 8997: 8996: 8994: 8992: 8981: 8975: 8968: 8962: 8961: 8943: 8920: 8913: 8907: 8900: 8894: 8893: 8891: 8889: 8874: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8863: 8858:on March 5, 2007 8850:Perry, James A. 8847: 8841: 8827: 8810: 8809: 8773: 8767: 8766: 8759: 8753: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8742:Voice of America 8733: 8727: 8726: 8719: 8713: 8706: 8700: 8681: 8675: 8674: 8656: 8650: 8649: 8637: 8627: 8621: 8620: 8600: 8594: 8593: 8573: 8567: 8560: 8554: 8553: 8530: 8524: 8523: 8499: 8493: 8492: 8476: 8470: 8469: 8451: 8442: 8441: 8421: 8415: 8414: 8412: 8410: 8395: 8389: 8388: 8383: 8381: 8366: 8360: 8359: 8351: 8093: 8090: 8072: 8071: 8065: 8049:Plantation house 7805:African diaspora 7654: 7649: 7648: 7640: 7635: 7634: 7633: 7626: 7621: 7620: 7619: 7612: 7607: 7606: 7605: 7584:Isabel Wilkerson 7559:Benjamin Quarles 7439:W. E. B. Du Bois 7414:Herbert Aptheker 7313:Benjamin Quarles 7291:W. E. B. Du Bois 7238:criminal justice 7129:Condoleezza Rice 7077:African-American 7064: 7057: 7053: 7050: 7044: 7042: 7001: 6977: 6969: 6931:Eldridge Cleaver 6782:Washington, D.C. 6774:Lincoln Memorial 6675: 6668: 6664: 6661: 6655: 6653: 6612: 6588: 6580: 6576:Civil rights era 6489:Cabin in the Sky 6472:"Stormy Weather" 6337:Red Ball Express 6262:fighter aircraft 6123:Walter F. George 6097:Earl C. Michener 6086:Buck and Bubbles 6078:Ellison D. Smith 6033:Henry A. Wallace 6029:Ellison D. Smith 5699: 5698: 5688:Soldiers of the 5580:Archibald Motley 5438:Niagara Movement 5430:W. E. B. Du Bois 5321:Racial terrorism 5306:Giles v. Teasley 5175:W. E. B. Du Bois 5158:Blanche K. Bruce 4706:Thomas Jefferson 4658:A plantation in 4646:Antebellum South 4474:French Louisiana 4418:. However, upon 4410:soldiers at the 4404:Continental Army 4365:Thomas Jefferson 4151: 4144: 4140: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4088: 4064: 4056: 3940:Bight of Biafra 3921: 3920: 3692:, including the 3475:, which saw the 3399: 3392: 3385: 3359: 3358: 3357: 3306:media depictions 3255: 3254: 3150:Population count 2846: 2845: 2780:Liberian English 2759:English dialects 2756: 2755: 2712:Samaná Americans 2637:Creoles of color 2583: 2582: 2521: 2520: 2465:Black conductors 2446: 2445: 2315: 2314: 2289:Louisiana Voodoo 2211: 2210: 1956:Family structure 1939: 1938: 1886:Military history 1881:Business history 1812:military history 1767: 1766: 1740: 1739: 1730: 1723: 1716: 1700: 1690: 1689: 1651: 1650: 1294:Manifest destiny 1284:Historic regions 1266: 1265: 1206:Native Americans 1178:Iranian American 1152:Mexican American 1138:Serbian American 1123:Italian American 1108:Finnish American 1098:English American 1049:Chinese American 1036:African American 836:Direct democracy 826:The Constitution 785:Higher education 694:American Century 596:Civil Rights Era 574:Civil Rights Era 530:Great Depression 519:Roaring Twenties 387:Jeffersonian Era 297: 296: 292: 282: 268: 257: 256: 210: 201: 190: 181: 170: 161: 150: 141: 124: 117: 113: 110: 104: 102: 61: 37: 29: 21: 21967: 21966: 21962: 21961: 21960: 21958: 21957: 21956: 21917: 21916: 21915: 21910: 21890: 21757: 21654:Related history 21649: 21595: 21591:Stono Rebellion 21576:Bilali Document 21557: 21551: 21538: 21522:Related culture 21517: 21476: 21452:Hot foot powder 21422:Flying Africans 21395: 21391:Gullah language 21379: 21354: 21288: 21282: 21252: 21247: 21236: 21229: 21210:Thomas E. Ricks 21200:Diane McWhorter 21185:Vincent Harding 21170:Adam Fairclough 21137: 21131: 21033: 20988:Freedom Schools 20847: 20780: 20728: 20722: 20713:Omaha, Nebraska 20701: 20617:Hartman Turnbow 20607:Dorothy Tillman 20567:Glenn E. Smiley 20547:Charles Sherrod 20507:Jo Ann Robinson 20382:Charles Neblett 20372:Elijah Muhammad 20337:Harriette Moore 20297:Floyd McKissick 20282:Franklin McCain 20217:Stanley Levison 20082:T. R. M. Howard 20032:Vincent Harding 19962:Walter Fauntroy 19847:Xernona Clayton 19797:John H. Calhoun 19782:Aurelia Browder 19772:Stanley Branche 19767:Raylawni Branch 19747:Joseph E. Boone 19732:Ezell Blair Jr. 19727:Unita Blackwell 19702:Harry Belafonte 19642:Ralph Abernathy 19630: 19566:Nation of Islam 19442: 19432: 19271: 19228:Birmingham riot 19169:Albany Movement 19091:Atlanta sit-ins 19071:Sit-in movement 19054: 19050:Biloxi wade-ins 19022:Cooper v. Aaron 18912: 18858: 18852: 18846: 18816: 18811: 18801: 18799: 18786: 18752:Historic places 18745:US state firsts 18631: 18546: 18270: 18203: 18175:2010 majorities 18170:2000 majorities 18141: 18088:Black Seminoles 18037: 18028:Southern (SIAC) 18011: 18010:and conferences 18009: 18002: 17998:Serena Williams 17993:Jackie Robinson 17927: 17851: 17849: 17842: 17762: 17729:Nation of Islam 17700: 17648: 17642: 17583:Sojourner Truth 17573:Clarence Thomas 17538:Gabriel Prosser 17438:Michael Jackson 17313:Crispus Attucks 17303:Ralph Abernathy 17291: 17247:Musical theater 17146: 17012:Great Migration 16984:COVID-19 impact 16942:Sit-in movement 16817: 16812: 16782: 16777: 16731: 16705: 16649: 16613: 16601: 16340: 16314: 16272: 16257: 16163:Jewish American 16136:Polish American 16077:Korean American 16067:Indian American 16034: 16019: 15874:Merchant Marine 15844:Law enforcement 15696: 15677: 15551: 15547:Great Recession 15454: 15428:Reagan Doctrine 15382: 15361:Stonewall riots 15283: 15257:Project Mercury 15218:Truman Doctrine 15194: 15102:First Red Scare 15076: 15045:Progressive Era 14957: 14917:Bleeding Kansas 14873: 14820:Monroe Doctrine 14796: 14744: 14703:Treaty of Paris 14664: 14638:Boston Massacre 14633:Sons of Liberty 14529: 14500: 14489: 14471: 14466: 14436: 14416: 14414: 14406: 14346:Manning Marable 14325: 14284:Levy, Peter B. 14248: 14240:. D. Appleton. 14164: 14162:Primary sources 14151: 14149: 13916: 13914: 13910: 13886:10.2307/2717569 13869: 13728: 13683:Wiese, Andrew. 13539:Garrow, David. 13536:(Praeger, 2001) 13473: 13467: 13449: 13344: 13326:Tuck, Stephen. 13313:(2006), 480 pp. 13285:Mandle, Jay R. 13258:Keisha N. Blain 13254:Kendi, Ibram X. 13182: 13176: 13160:(5 vols, 1996). 13150: 13057: 13055:Reference books 13045: 13043:Further reading 13040: 13039: 13030: 13026: 13016: 13014: 13008: 13004: 12993: 12989: 12972: 12968: 12959: 12955: 12935: 12931: 12914: 12913: 12909: 12899: 12897: 12893: 12882: 12878: 12877: 12873: 12842: 12838: 12828: 12826: 12816: 12812: 12803: 12799: 12790: 12789: 12785: 12772: 12771: 12767: 12757:Wayback Machine 12747: 12743: 12733: 12731: 12723: 12722: 12718: 12708: 12706: 12698: 12697: 12693: 12686: 12670: 12666: 12656: 12654: 12646: 12645: 12641: 12629: 12625: 12616: 12612: 12602: 12600: 12591: 12590: 12579: 12570: 12566: 12557: 12553: 12545:Daniel Kryder, 12544: 12540: 12531: 12527: 12496: 12492: 12484:Maureen Honey, 12483: 12479: 12471:Kennedy, David 12470: 12466: 12449: 12445: 12436: 12432: 12423: 12419: 12411:Kennedy, David 12410: 12395: 12387:Kennedy, David 12386: 12382: 12373: 12369: 12360: 12356: 12338: 12334: 12326:Williams, Rudi. 12325: 12321: 12313:Kennedy, David 12312: 12308: 12300:Kennedy, David 12299: 12290: 12282:Kennedy, David 12281: 12277: 12269:Kennedy, David 12268: 12259: 12251:Kennedy, David 12250: 12231: 12223:Kennedy, David 12222: 12211: 12203:Kennedy, David 12202: 12198: 12190:Kennedy, David 12189: 12185: 12177:Kennedy, David 12176: 12161: 12153:Kennedy, David 12152: 12148: 12139: 12135: 12126: 12122: 12113: 12109: 12101:Kennedy, David 12100: 12081: 12072:Rural Sociology 12069: 12065: 12056: 12052: 12044:Kennedy, David 12043: 12036: 12028:Kennedy, David 12027: 12018: 12010:Kennedy, David 12009: 12005: 11997:Kennedy, David 11996: 11989: 11981:Kennedy, David 11980: 11976: 11968:Kennedy, David 11967: 11963: 11955:Kennedy, David 11954: 11950: 11942:Kennedy, David 11941: 11937: 11929:Kennedy, David 11928: 11919: 11911:Kennedy, David 11910: 11906: 11898:Kennedy, David 11897: 11893: 11888:. May 20, 1986. 11878: 11877: 11873: 11865:Kennedy, David 11864: 11860: 11852:Kennedy, David 11851: 11844: 11837: 11821: 11817: 11805: 11801: 11793:Kennedy, David 11792: 11788: 11780:Kennedy, David 11779: 11775: 11767:Kennedy, David 11766: 11757: 11748: 11744: 11731: 11727: 11719:Kennedy, David 11718: 11714: 11705: 11701: 11678: 11674: 11665: 11661: 11653: 11649: 11640: 11636: 11628:Kennedy, David 11627: 11623: 11615:Kennedy, David 11614: 11607: 11599:Kennedy, David 11598: 11594: 11586:Kennedy, David 11585: 11581: 11576: 11572: 11563: 11559: 11550: 11546: 11541: 11537: 11528: 11524: 11511: 11507: 11498: 11497: 11493: 11484: 11483: 11479: 11474: 11470: 11461: 11457: 11450: 11446: 11437: 11433: 11423: 11419: 11409: 11407: 11399: 11398: 11391: 11384: 11368: 11364: 11354: 11352: 11344: 11343: 11339: 11329: 11327: 11319: 11318: 11314: 11302: 11298: 11286: 11282: 11267:Blain Roberts, 11266: 11262: 11249: 11245: 11236: 11232: 11223: 11219: 11214:Wayback Machine 11205:(1983): 37–55. 11200: 11196: 11183: 11179: 11170: 11166: 11157: 11153: 11144: 11140: 11131: 11127: 11118: 11114: 11107:(1953): 67–90. 11102: 11098: 11088: 11086: 11076: 11072: 11059: 11055: 11042: 11038: 11029: 11025: 11014: 11010: 11001: 10997: 10985: 10978: 10966: 10962: 10954: 10950: 10937: 10933: 10924: 10920: 10911: 10907: 10897: 10895: 10894:on May 11, 2013 10886: 10885: 10881: 10871: 10869: 10863: 10859: 10828: 10824: 10814: 10812: 10804: 10803: 10799: 10792: 10778: 10771: 10764: 10750: 10746: 10730: 10729: 10722: 10720: 10715: 10714: 10710: 10701: 10697: 10688: 10684: 10675: 10671: 10664: 10660: 10651: 10647: 10637: 10635: 10625: 10624: 10620: 10610: 10608: 10600: 10599: 10595: 10585: 10583: 10579: 10568: 10560: 10559: 10555: 10545: 10543: 10539: 10528: 10520: 10519: 10515: 10508: 10485: 10478: 10468: 10466: 10457: 10456: 10452: 10445: 10431: 10427: 10417: 10415: 10407: 10401: 10397: 10390: 10374: 10370: 10360: 10358: 10356: 10340: 10336: 10326: 10324: 10315: 10314: 10310: 10287: 10283: 10268: 10264: 10254: 10252: 10244: 10243: 10239: 10232: 10218: 10214: 10207: 10190: 10177: 10154:10.2307/2716942 10135: 10131: 10126: 10122: 10109: 10105: 10096: 10092: 10083: 10079: 10067: 10063: 10032: 10028: 10019: 10015: 10005: 10003: 9998: 9997: 9993: 9983: 9981: 9972: 9971: 9967: 9936: 9932: 9923: 9919: 9902: 9898: 9881: 9877: 9866: 9862: 9858:(1998), p. 106. 9853: 9849: 9840: 9836: 9829: 9813: 9809: 9801:Peter Kolchin, 9800: 9796: 9788:Peter Kolchin, 9787: 9783: 9775:Peter Kolchin, 9774: 9770: 9760: 9758: 9750: 9749: 9742: 9732: 9730: 9717: 9716: 9712: 9705: 9689: 9685: 9677: 9655: 9651: 9636: 9632: 9618: 9614: 9595: 9591: 9581: 9579: 9566: 9565: 9561: 9542: 9538: 9528: 9526: 9517: 9516: 9512: 9503: 9499: 9491:Michael Gomez, 9490: 9486: 9478:Peter H. Wood, 9477: 9473: 9464: 9460: 9451: 9447: 9437: 9435: 9426: 9425: 9421: 9411: 9409: 9401: 9400: 9396: 9386: 9384: 9379: 9378: 9374: 9321: 9317: 9310: 9294: 9290: 9283: 9267: 9263: 9254: 9253: 9249: 9239: 9237: 9229: 9228: 9224: 9214: 9212: 9197: 9193: 9183: 9181: 9173: 9172: 9168: 9158: 9156: 9148: 9147: 9143: 9130: 9126: 9119: 9103: 9099: 9089: 9087: 9074: 9073: 9066: 9056: 9054: 9041: 9040: 9036: 9023: 9022: 9018: 9005: 9004: 9000: 8990: 8988: 8982: 8978: 8969: 8965: 8958: 8944: 8923: 8914: 8910: 8901: 8897: 8887: 8885: 8876: 8875: 8871: 8861: 8859: 8848: 8844: 8828: 8813: 8790:10.2307/1920429 8774: 8770: 8761: 8760: 8756: 8746: 8744: 8734: 8730: 8721: 8720: 8716: 8708:Ellis, Sylvia. 8707: 8703: 8682: 8678: 8671: 8657: 8653: 8646: 8628: 8624: 8617: 8601: 8597: 8590: 8574: 8570: 8561: 8557: 8550: 8531: 8527: 8520: 8500: 8496: 8477: 8473: 8466: 8452: 8445: 8438: 8422: 8418: 8408: 8406: 8397: 8396: 8392: 8379: 8377: 8367: 8363: 8352: 8348: 8343: 8094: 8088: 8085: 8069: 8000: 7918: 7910:White supremacy 7650: 7643: 7636: 7631: 7629: 7622: 7617: 7615: 7608: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7593: 7564:Cedric Robinson 7539:Manning Marable 7529:Leon F. Litwack 7489:Vincent Harding 7464:Eugene Genovese 7409: 7400: 7372:Leon F. Litwack 7325:Shaw University 7272:The history of 7270: 7226: 7145:Clarence Thomas 7065: 7054: 7048: 7045: 7002: 7000: 6990: 6978: 6967: 6953: 6947: 6927:Nation of Islam 6849:John F. Kennedy 6686: 6676: 6665: 6659: 6656: 6613: 6611: 6601: 6589: 6578: 6555:Great Migration 6520: 6514: 6469: 6366: 6345:Harry S. Truman 6329:Tuskegee Airmen 6295:The segregated 6256:Tuskegee Airmen 6248: 6246:Wartime service 6230: 6213: 6203: 6171: 6127:Millard Tydings 5978: 5972: 5936: 5926: 5870:Freddie Stowers 5848:Croix de Guerre 5796:units, the 1st 5761:Croix de Guerre 5727:Legion of Merit 5707: 5696:Croix de Guerre 5674: 5668: 5662: 5641: 5625: 5619: 5603:Nation of Islam 5552:Langston Hughes 5524:Great Migration 5513:Great Migration 5505: 5497:Main articles: 5495: 5465:Progressive Era 5426: 5420: 5323: 5300:Giles v. Harris 5285:(1898), the US 5274:white primaries 5257:disenfranchised 5217: 5207: 5199:Main articles: 5197: 5098: 5092: 5080:Main articles: 5078: 5065:Abraham Lincoln 5057: 5051: 5043:Main articles: 5041: 5023:Fifth Amendment 4991: 4985: 4954: 4948: 4911:Great Awakening 4843: 4778: 4768: 4716:children, were 4668:southern states 4652: 4642: 4618: 4610:Main articles: 4608: 4507: 4396:Boston Massacre 4392:Crispus Attucks 4373:King George III 4349: 4335: 4300: 4268: 4152: 4141: 4135: 4132: 4089: 4087: 4077: 4065: 4054: 4031:Olaudah Equiano 4027: 4006: 4000: 3972:Bight of Benin 3854:Bight of Biafra 3770:Casamance River 3747: 3674: 3672:African origins 3661: 3655: 3541:Abraham Lincoln 3454:Virginia Colony 3452:in the English 3403: 3355: 3353: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3296: 3252: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3183: 3145: 3121:Omaha, Nebraska 3086:Historic places 3080: 2972: 2843: 2835: 2834: 2829: 2794: 2753: 2745: 2744: 2739: 2721: 2673: 2615:Black Seminoles 2580: 2579:Sub-communities 2572: 2571: 2558:Southern (SIAC) 2518: 2510: 2509: 2504: 2459: 2443: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2346: 2312: 2304: 2303: 2298: 2284:Nation of Islam 2250: 2227: 2208: 2198: 2197: 2192: 2133: 2100: 2067: 2039: 2000: 1976:Musical theater 1936: 1926: 1925: 1907:Great Migration 1764: 1734: 1662: 1661: 1263: 1255: 1254: 1160:Jewish American 1133:Polish American 1113:German American 1069:Korean American 1059:Indian American 1030: 1022: 1021: 876:Merchant Marine 846:Law enforcement 714:Racial violence 688: 680: 679: 486:Progressive Era 294: 290: 271: 269:History of the 255: 254: 253: 252: 246:President Obama 213: 212: 211: 203: 202: 193: 192: 191: 183: 182: 173: 172: 171: 163: 162: 153: 152: 151: 143: 142: 125: 114: 108: 105: 62: 60: 50: 38: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 21965: 21955: 21954: 21949: 21944: 21939: 21934: 21929: 21912: 21911: 21899: 21896: 21895: 21892: 21891: 21889: 21888: 21883: 21882: 21881: 21876: 21871: 21866: 21861: 21856: 21846: 21841: 21836: 21831: 21826: 21821: 21816: 21811: 21806: 21801: 21796: 21791: 21786: 21781: 21776: 21771: 21765: 21763: 21759: 21758: 21756: 21755: 21754: 21753: 21743: 21742: 21741: 21731: 21730: 21729: 21724: 21710: 21705: 21700: 21695: 21690: 21685: 21680: 21675: 21670: 21669: 21668: 21657: 21655: 21651: 21650: 21648: 21647: 21642: 21641: 21640: 21629: 21624: 21619: 21614: 21609: 21603: 21601: 21597: 21596: 21594: 21593: 21588: 21583: 21578: 21572: 21570: 21569:History topics 21563: 21559: 21558: 21545: 21543: 21540: 21539: 21537: 21536: 21531: 21525: 21523: 21519: 21518: 21516: 21515: 21510: 21505: 21500: 21495: 21490: 21484: 21482: 21478: 21477: 21475: 21474: 21469: 21464: 21459: 21454: 21449: 21444: 21439: 21437:Black cat bone 21434: 21429: 21424: 21419: 21414: 21409: 21403: 21401: 21397: 21396: 21394: 21393: 21387: 21385: 21381: 21380: 21378: 21377: 21370: 21362: 21360: 21356: 21355: 21353: 21352: 21344: 21336: 21328: 21320: 21312: 21303: 21301: 21294: 21290: 21289: 21281: 21280: 21273: 21266: 21258: 21249: 21248: 21234: 21231: 21230: 21228: 21227: 21222: 21220:Akinyele Umoja 21217: 21212: 21207: 21202: 21197: 21192: 21187: 21182: 21177: 21172: 21167: 21162: 21157: 21152: 21147: 21141: 21139: 21133: 21132: 21130: 21129: 21124: 21119: 21114: 21109: 21108: 21107: 21097: 21092: 21087: 21082: 21077: 21072: 21067: 21062: 21057: 21052: 21047: 21041: 21039: 21035: 21034: 21032: 21031: 21024: 21019: 21014: 21009: 21008: 21007: 20995: 20990: 20985: 20980: 20975: 20970: 20965: 20960: 20955: 20950: 20945: 20940: 20935: 20930: 20925: 20920: 20915: 20908: 20901: 20894: 20887: 20880: 20879: 20878: 20866: 20861: 20855: 20853: 20849: 20848: 20846: 20845: 20840: 20835: 20830: 20823: 20822: 20821: 20816: 20809:Mahatma Gandhi 20806: 20801: 20800: 20799: 20788: 20786: 20782: 20781: 20779: 20778: 20773: 20768: 20763: 20758: 20753: 20748: 20743: 20738: 20732: 20730: 20724: 20723: 20721: 20720: 20718:South Carolina 20715: 20709: 20707: 20703: 20702: 20700: 20699: 20694: 20689: 20684: 20679: 20674: 20669: 20664: 20659: 20657:Hosea Williams 20654: 20649: 20644: 20642:Hollis Watkins 20639: 20634: 20629: 20624: 20619: 20614: 20609: 20604: 20599: 20594: 20589: 20584: 20579: 20574: 20572:A. Maceo Smith 20569: 20564: 20559: 20554: 20549: 20544: 20539: 20534: 20529: 20524: 20522:Bernie Sanders 20519: 20514: 20512:Angela Russell 20509: 20504: 20499: 20497:David Richmond 20494: 20489: 20487:Walter Reuther 20484: 20479: 20474: 20472:Cordell Reagon 20469: 20464: 20459: 20457:George Raymond 20454: 20449: 20444: 20439: 20434: 20429: 20424: 20419: 20417:Charles Person 20414: 20409: 20404: 20399: 20394: 20389: 20387:Huey P. Newton 20384: 20379: 20374: 20369: 20364: 20359: 20354: 20349: 20344: 20342:Harry T. Moore 20339: 20334: 20329: 20327:Cecil B. Moore 20324: 20319: 20314: 20309: 20307:James Meredith 20304: 20299: 20294: 20289: 20284: 20279: 20274: 20269: 20264: 20259: 20254: 20249: 20244: 20239: 20234: 20229: 20224: 20219: 20214: 20209: 20204: 20199: 20194: 20189: 20184: 20179: 20174: 20169: 20164: 20159: 20154: 20149: 20144: 20139: 20137:Clarence Jones 20134: 20129: 20124: 20119: 20114: 20109: 20104: 20099: 20094: 20089: 20084: 20079: 20077:Zilphia Horton 20074: 20069: 20064: 20059: 20054: 20049: 20047:Lola Hendricks 20044: 20039: 20037:Dorothy Height 20034: 20029: 20024: 20019: 20014: 20009: 20007:Lawrence Guyot 20004: 19999: 19997:Jack Greenberg 19994: 19989: 19984: 19982:Andrew Goodman 19979: 19974: 19969: 19964: 19959: 19954: 19949: 19944: 19939: 19934: 19929: 19924: 19919: 19914: 19909: 19907:Joseph DeLaine 19904: 19899: 19894: 19889: 19884: 19879: 19877:Dorothy Cotton 19874: 19869: 19864: 19859: 19854: 19849: 19844: 19839: 19834: 19829: 19824: 19822:J. L. Chestnut 19819: 19814: 19809: 19804: 19799: 19794: 19789: 19784: 19779: 19774: 19769: 19764: 19759: 19757:Amelia Boynton 19754: 19749: 19744: 19739: 19734: 19729: 19724: 19719: 19714: 19709: 19704: 19699: 19694: 19689: 19684: 19679: 19677:Arnold Aronson 19674: 19669: 19664: 19659: 19654: 19649: 19644: 19638: 19636: 19632: 19631: 19629: 19628: 19623: 19618: 19613: 19608: 19603: 19598: 19593: 19588: 19583: 19578: 19573: 19568: 19563: 19558: 19557: 19556: 19546: 19541: 19536: 19531: 19526: 19521: 19516: 19511: 19506: 19501: 19496: 19495: 19494: 19482: 19477: 19472: 19467: 19462: 19457: 19452: 19446: 19444: 19438: 19437: 19434: 19433: 19431: 19430: 19423: 19416: 19411: 19406: 19405: 19404: 19399: 19389: 19384: 19377: 19372: 19367: 19362: 19355: 19350: 19349: 19348: 19336: 19331: 19324: 19317: 19312: 19311: 19310: 19303:Freedom Summer 19300: 19295: 19293:Bloody Tuesday 19290: 19285: 19279: 19277: 19273: 19272: 19270: 19269: 19264: 19263: 19262: 19257: 19247: 19242: 19237: 19236: 19235: 19230: 19225: 19220: 19210: 19209: 19208: 19198: 19193: 19188: 19181: 19176: 19171: 19166: 19159: 19158: 19157: 19152: 19142: 19137: 19132: 19127: 19120: 19113: 19108: 19103: 19098: 19093: 19088: 19083: 19078: 19073: 19068: 19062: 19060: 19056: 19055: 19053: 19052: 19047: 19042: 19037: 19032: 19027: 19026: 19025: 19013: 19008: 19007: 19006: 18994: 18989: 18984: 18983: 18982: 18970: 18965: 18958: 18957: 18956: 18949: 18942: 18935: 18920: 18918: 18914: 18913: 18911: 18910: 18905: 18897: 18889: 18884: 18879: 18873: 18871: 18864: 18854: 18853: 18845: 18844: 18837: 18830: 18822: 18813: 18812: 18810: 18809: 18797: 18791: 18788: 18787: 18785: 18784: 18779: 18774: 18769: 18764: 18759: 18754: 18749: 18748: 18747: 18742: 18737: 18727: 18726: 18725: 18720: 18718:Visual artists 18715: 18710: 18705: 18700: 18695: 18690: 18685: 18680: 18678:Mathematicians 18675: 18670: 18665: 18660: 18655: 18650: 18639: 18637: 18633: 18632: 18630: 18629: 18628: 18627: 18619: 18614: 18613: 18612: 18607: 18602: 18597: 18592: 18584: 18583: 18582: 18577: 18572: 18567: 18556: 18554: 18548: 18547: 18545: 18544: 18539: 18534: 18529: 18528: 18527: 18522: 18517: 18512: 18502: 18497: 18495:South Carolina 18492: 18487: 18486: 18485: 18477: 18472: 18467: 18465:North Carolina 18462: 18461: 18460: 18450: 18445: 18444: 18443: 18433: 18428: 18427: 18426: 18418: 18417: 18416: 18410:Massachusetts 18408: 18407: 18406: 18396: 18391: 18390: 18389: 18379: 18374: 18373: 18372: 18362: 18357: 18356: 18355: 18345: 18340: 18339: 18338: 18328: 18327: 18326: 18321: 18311: 18306: 18305: 18304: 18299: 18289: 18284: 18278: 18276: 18272: 18271: 18269: 18268: 18263: 18258: 18257: 18256: 18255: 18254: 18252:social context 18249: 18239: 18229: 18228: 18227: 18217: 18211: 18209: 18205: 18204: 18202: 18201: 18200: 18199: 18194: 18184: 18179: 18178: 18177: 18172: 18162: 18161: 18160: 18149: 18147: 18143: 18142: 18140: 18139: 18134: 18133: 18132: 18122: 18117: 18112: 18107: 18106: 18105: 18103:Creek Freedmen 18100: 18095: 18090: 18080: 18078:Alabama Creole 18075: 18074: 18073: 18068: 18063: 18058: 18049: 18047: 18043: 18042: 18039: 18038: 18036: 18035: 18030: 18025: 18020: 18018:Central (CIAA) 18014: 18012: 18007: 18004: 18003: 18001: 18000: 17995: 17990: 17985: 17980: 17975: 17970: 17965: 17960: 17955: 17950: 17945: 17939: 17933: 17929: 17928: 17926: 17925: 17920: 17915: 17910: 17905: 17900: 17895: 17890: 17885: 17880: 17875: 17870: 17865: 17860: 17854: 17852: 17847: 17844: 17843: 17841: 17840: 17835: 17834: 17833: 17823: 17818: 17813: 17811:Pan-Africanism 17808: 17803: 17798: 17793: 17792: 17791: 17781: 17776: 17770: 17768: 17764: 17763: 17761: 17760: 17755: 17753:Black theology 17750: 17745: 17744: 17743: 17733: 17732: 17731: 17726: 17716: 17710: 17708: 17702: 17701: 17699: 17698: 17697: 17696: 17694:in STEM fields 17691: 17686: 17678: 17673: 17668: 17663: 17658: 17652: 17650: 17649:and technology 17644: 17643: 17641: 17640: 17635: 17630: 17625: 17620: 17615: 17610: 17605: 17600: 17595: 17590: 17588:Harriet Tubman 17585: 17580: 17575: 17570: 17565: 17560: 17555: 17550: 17545: 17540: 17535: 17530: 17525: 17520: 17518:Michelle Obama 17515: 17510: 17505: 17500: 17495: 17490: 17485: 17480: 17475: 17470: 17465: 17460: 17455: 17450: 17448:Barbara Jordan 17445: 17443:Harriet Jacobs 17440: 17435: 17430: 17425: 17420: 17415: 17410: 17405: 17400: 17395: 17390: 17385: 17380: 17375: 17370: 17365: 17360: 17355: 17350: 17345: 17340: 17335: 17333:Amelia Boynton 17330: 17325: 17320: 17315: 17310: 17305: 17299: 17297: 17296:Notable people 17293: 17292: 17290: 17289: 17284: 17279: 17274: 17269: 17264: 17259: 17254: 17249: 17244: 17239: 17234: 17232:LGBT community 17229: 17224: 17219: 17214: 17213: 17212: 17202: 17197: 17192: 17187: 17182: 17177: 17172: 17167: 17162: 17156: 17154: 17148: 17147: 17145: 17144: 17139: 17134: 17129: 17128: 17127: 17117: 17112: 17107: 17102: 17097: 17092: 17084: 17079: 17072: 17065: 17060: 17055: 17050: 17045: 17040: 17031: 17026: 17025: 17024: 17019: 17009: 17004: 16999: 16994: 16986: 16981: 16976: 16975: 16974: 16969: 16964: 16959: 16954: 16949: 16947:Freedom Riders 16944: 16939: 16931: 16921: 16916: 16911: 16910: 16909: 16904: 16899: 16891: 16886: 16878: 16873: 16871:Black genocide 16868: 16863: 16858: 16853: 16848: 16843: 16838: 16833: 16827: 16825: 16819: 16818: 16811: 16810: 16803: 16796: 16788: 16779: 16778: 16776: 16775: 16765: 16755: 16753:Historiography 16750: 16744: 16741: 16740: 16737: 16736: 16733: 16732: 16730: 16729: 16719: 16713: 16711: 16707: 16706: 16704: 16703: 16698: 16693: 16691:Navassa Island 16688: 16683: 16678: 16676:Johnston Atoll 16673: 16668: 16666:Howland Island 16663: 16657: 16655: 16651: 16650: 16648: 16647: 16642: 16637: 16632: 16627: 16625:American Samoa 16621: 16619: 16615: 16614: 16609: 16607: 16603: 16602: 16600: 16599: 16594: 16589: 16584: 16579: 16574: 16569: 16564: 16559: 16554: 16549: 16547:South Carolina 16544: 16539: 16534: 16529: 16524: 16519: 16514: 16512:North Carolina 16509: 16504: 16499: 16494: 16489: 16484: 16479: 16474: 16469: 16464: 16459: 16454: 16449: 16444: 16439: 16434: 16429: 16424: 16419: 16414: 16409: 16404: 16399: 16394: 16389: 16384: 16379: 16374: 16369: 16364: 16359: 16354: 16348: 16346: 16342: 16341: 16339: 16338: 16336:The West Coast 16333: 16328: 16322: 16320: 16316: 16315: 16313: 16312: 16310:Indian removal 16307: 16302: 16297: 16292: 16286: 16284: 16274: 16273: 16263: 16262: 16259: 16258: 16256: 16255: 16254: 16253: 16248: 16243: 16231: 16224: 16223: 16222: 16217: 16205: 16204: 16203: 16201:Saudi American 16198: 16193: 16188: 16186:Iraqi American 16183: 16178: 16166: 16159: 16158: 16157: 16145: 16144: 16143: 16138: 16133: 16128: 16123: 16121:Irish American 16118: 16113: 16108: 16103: 16091: 16090: 16089: 16084: 16079: 16074: 16069: 16064: 16059: 16051:Asian American 16047: 16039: 16036: 16035: 16025: 16024: 16021: 16020: 16018: 16017: 16016: 16015: 16010: 16005: 16000: 15995: 15983: 15982: 15981: 15979:Sexual slavery 15969: 15962: 15955: 15954: 15953: 15948: 15943: 15938: 15933: 15928: 15916: 15915: 15914: 15909: 15904: 15899: 15894: 15889: 15877: 15870: 15863: 15862: 15861: 15856: 15851: 15849:Postal service 15846: 15841: 15839:Foreign policy 15836: 15831: 15826: 15821: 15816: 15811: 15806: 15794: 15787: 15786: 15785: 15773: 15772: 15771: 15759: 15758: 15757: 15745: 15744: 15743: 15738: 15733: 15728: 15716: 15709: 15701: 15698: 15697: 15687: 15686: 15683: 15682: 15679: 15678: 15676: 15675: 15670: 15665: 15658: 15653: 15648: 15643: 15642: 15641: 15631: 15626: 15619: 15614: 15613: 15612: 15607: 15602: 15597: 15592: 15587: 15582: 15577: 15567: 15561: 15559: 15553: 15552: 15550: 15549: 15544: 15539: 15534: 15533: 15532: 15527: 15517: 15512: 15505: 15500: 15495: 15490: 15485: 15480: 15475: 15470: 15464: 15462: 15456: 15455: 15453: 15452: 15447: 15442: 15437: 15436: 15435: 15430: 15425: 15415: 15413:Crack epidemic 15410: 15409: 15408: 15403: 15392: 15390: 15384: 15383: 15381: 15380: 15378:Moral Majority 15375: 15370: 15365: 15364: 15363: 15356:Gay liberation 15353: 15348: 15346:Counterculture 15343: 15338: 15337: 15336: 15334:Fall of Saigon 15331: 15326: 15316: 15315: 15314: 15312:Apollo program 15309: 15307:Project Gemini 15299: 15293: 15291: 15285: 15284: 15282: 15281: 15276: 15275: 15274: 15264: 15259: 15254: 15249: 15248: 15247: 15242: 15237: 15232: 15225:Early Cold War 15222: 15221: 15220: 15210: 15204: 15202: 15196: 15195: 15193: 15192: 15191: 15190: 15189: 15188: 15178: 15173: 15163: 15162: 15161: 15156: 15151: 15141: 15140: 15139: 15134: 15129: 15124: 15119: 15114: 15104: 15099: 15098: 15097: 15086: 15084: 15078: 15077: 15075: 15074: 15069: 15068: 15067: 15062: 15057: 15052: 15042: 15041: 15040: 15035: 15030: 15025: 15020: 15015: 15005: 15000: 14999: 14998: 14993: 14988: 14983: 14978: 14967: 14965: 14959: 14958: 14956: 14955: 14954: 14953: 14948: 14938: 14937: 14936: 14931: 14926: 14921: 14920: 14919: 14909: 14904: 14897:Prelude to War 14894: 14889: 14887:Antebellum Era 14883: 14881: 14875: 14874: 14872: 14871: 14866: 14861: 14860: 14859: 14854: 14849: 14844: 14839: 14834: 14832:Trail of Tears 14827:Jacksonian era 14824: 14823: 14822: 14817: 14806: 14804: 14798: 14797: 14795: 14794: 14793: 14792: 14787: 14777: 14776: 14775: 14770: 14763:Federalist Era 14760: 14758:Bill of Rights 14754: 14752: 14746: 14745: 14743: 14742: 14741: 14740: 14735: 14730: 14725: 14720: 14707: 14706: 14705: 14700: 14695: 14693:Lee Resolution 14690: 14685: 14674: 14672: 14666: 14665: 14663: 14662: 14661: 14660: 14655: 14650: 14645: 14640: 14635: 14630: 14625: 14620: 14615: 14610: 14600: 14595: 14590: 14585: 14580: 14575: 14570: 14565: 14560: 14555: 14550: 14545: 14539: 14537: 14531: 14530: 14528: 14527: 14520: 14512: 14510: 14502: 14501: 14491: 14490: 14488: 14487: 14482: 14476: 14473: 14472: 14465: 14464: 14457: 14450: 14442: 14435: 14434: 14429: 14423: 14404: 14399: 14390: 14385: 14380: 14375: 14367: 14361: 14355: 14349: 14339: 14333: 14326: 14324: 14323:External links 14321: 14320: 14319: 14312: 14302: 14292: 14290:online edition 14282: 14272: 14263: 14253: 14246: 14231: 14224: 14223:(2nd edn 2003) 14217: 14207: 14197: 14190: 14183: 14172: 14163: 14160: 14159: 14158: 14136: 14126: 14124:online edition 14113: 14106: 14096: 14090: 14077: 14070: 14060: 14053: 14041:(4): 543–549. 14031: 14017: 14007: 14000: 13979: 13967:10.1086/494730 13961:(2): 251–274. 13950: 13923: 13880:(2): 107–121. 13862: 13855: 13848: 13838: 13828: 13823:Eyerman, Ron. 13821: 13808: 13786: 13785: 13784: 13772:(2): 239–264. 13762: 13742: 13727: 13724: 13723: 13722: 13715: 13708: 13698: 13688: 13681: 13674: 13667: 13654: 13644: 13637: 13630: 13623: 13613: 13606: 13596: 13589: 13582: 13575: 13565: 13558: 13551: 13544: 13537: 13530: 13523: 13508:Branch, Taylor 13505: 13495: 13481: 13466: 13463: 13462: 13461: 13447: 13426: 13421:Wynn, Neil A. 13419: 13412: 13405: 13398: 13391: 13381: 13374: 13367: 13356: 13343: 13340: 13339: 13338: 13331: 13324: 13314: 13307: 13292: 13283: 13282: 13281: 13267: 13251: 13249:online edition 13241: 13234: 13227: 13217: 13215:online edition 13207: 13197: 13178:Main article: 13175: 13172: 13171: 13170: 13161: 13154: 13148: 13133: 13132:(6 vols, 2005) 13126: 13124:online edition 13116: 13109: 13095: 13085: 13084:(3 vols, 2006) 13078: 13068: 13056: 13053: 13044: 13041: 13038: 13037: 13024: 13002: 12987: 12966: 12953: 12929: 12907: 12871: 12852:(2): 151–169. 12836: 12810: 12797: 12783: 12765: 12741: 12716: 12691: 12685:978-1434914842 12684: 12664: 12639: 12623: 12610: 12577: 12575:(2009), ch. 4. 12571:Donald Bogle, 12564: 12551: 12538: 12525: 12506:(2): 125–157. 12490: 12477: 12464: 12443: 12430: 12417: 12393: 12380: 12367: 12354: 12332: 12319: 12306: 12288: 12275: 12257: 12229: 12209: 12196: 12183: 12159: 12146: 12133: 12120: 12114:Neil A. Wynn, 12107: 12079: 12063: 12050: 12034: 12016: 12003: 11987: 11974: 11961: 11948: 11935: 11917: 11904: 11891: 11871: 11858: 11842: 11835: 11815: 11799: 11786: 11773: 11755: 11742: 11725: 11712: 11699: 11672: 11659: 11647: 11634: 11621: 11605: 11592: 11579: 11570: 11557: 11544: 11535: 11522: 11505: 11491: 11477: 11468: 11455: 11444: 11431: 11417: 11389: 11383:978-1434914842 11382: 11362: 11337: 11312: 11296: 11280: 11260: 11243: 11230: 11217: 11194: 11177: 11164: 11151: 11138: 11125: 11112: 11096: 11070: 11053: 11036: 11023: 11008: 10995: 10976: 10960: 10948: 10931: 10918: 10905: 10879: 10857: 10842:(2): 379–399. 10822: 10797: 10791:978-0205832422 10790: 10769: 10763:978-0813919713 10762: 10744: 10708: 10695: 10682: 10669: 10658: 10645: 10618: 10593: 10553: 10513: 10507:978-0674309340 10506: 10476: 10450: 10443: 10425: 10414:. pp. 6‒7 10395: 10389:978-0813925707 10388: 10368: 10355:978-0195174137 10354: 10334: 10308: 10297:(3): 615‒638. 10281: 10262: 10250:Brotherly Love 10246:"Philadelphia" 10237: 10231:978-0847697014 10230: 10212: 10205: 10175: 10148:(4): 342–354. 10129: 10120: 10103: 10090: 10084:Adam Rothman, 10077: 10061: 10026: 10013: 9991: 9978:Brotherly Love 9965: 9930: 9917: 9896: 9875: 9860: 9847: 9834: 9828:978-0938420590 9827: 9807: 9794: 9781: 9768: 9740: 9710: 9703: 9683: 9676:978-0802074027 9675: 9649: 9630: 9612: 9589: 9572:learnquebec.ca 9559: 9536: 9510: 9497: 9484: 9471: 9458: 9445: 9419: 9394: 9383:. June 7, 2013 9372: 9335:(4): 840–855. 9315: 9309:978-0812243338 9308: 9288: 9281: 9261: 9247: 9222: 9191: 9166: 9141: 9124: 9118:978-1851095445 9117: 9097: 9064: 9034: 9016: 8998: 8976: 8963: 8956: 8921: 8908: 8895: 8869: 8842: 8839:978-0205832422 8811: 8784:(2): 228–237. 8768: 8754: 8728: 8714: 8701: 8676: 8669: 8651: 8644: 8622: 8616:978-0195038637 8615: 8595: 8588: 8568: 8555: 8548: 8525: 8519:978-0195137552 8518: 8494: 8471: 8465:978-0809016303 8464: 8443: 8437:978-1438108131 8436: 8416: 8390: 8361: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8338: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8226: 8225: 8224: 8223: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8142: 8141: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8096: 8095: 8089:September 2020 8075: 8073: 8057: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8006: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7917: 7914: 7913: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7741:Black genocide 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7701:Richard Durham 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7656: 7655: 7641: 7638:History portal 7627: 7613: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7574:Mark S. Weiner 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7479:Herbert Gutman 7476: 7474:Lorenzo Greene 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7399: 7396: 7287:Dunning School 7283:Reconstruction 7269: 7268:Historiography 7266: 7225: 7222: 7207:North Carolina 7098:Douglas Wilder 7067: 7066: 6981: 6979: 6972: 6949:Main article: 6946: 6943: 6881:Andrew Goodman 6838:I Have a Dream 6832:, head of the 6830:Dorothy Height 6796:of the NAACP; 6762:I Have a Dream 6682:Main article: 6678: 6677: 6592: 6590: 6583: 6577: 6574: 6516:Main article: 6513: 6510: 6486:), along with 6468: 6465: 6365: 6362: 6258:in front of a 6247: 6244: 6229: 6226: 6202: 6199: 6179:Tenant farming 6170: 6167: 6066:William Dawson 5974:Main article: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5946: 5945: 5925: 5922: 5878:Medal of Honor 5828:372nd Infantry 5794:National Guard 5787:National Guard 5753:Mariano Goybet 5738:Mariano Goybet 5706: 5703: 5661: 5658: 5640: 5637: 5621:Main article: 5618: 5615: 5591:William Dawson 5576:Jacob Lawrence 5572:Romare Bearden 5566:; and artists 5564:Richard Wright 5494: 5491: 5490: 5489: 5422:Main article: 5419: 5416: 5322: 5319: 5265:literacy tests 5196: 5193: 5122:15th Amendment 5118:14th Amendment 5077: 5076:Reconstruction 5074: 5040: 5037: 4987:Main article: 4984: 4979: 4950:Main article: 4947: 4944: 4915:Baptist Church 4842: 4839: 4820:leader of the 4813:Charles Sumner 4767: 4764: 4760:states' rights 4641: 4638: 4607: 4604: 4506: 4503: 4478:North Carolina 4334: 4331: 4315:Stono Uprising 4299: 4296: 4267: 4264: 4154: 4153: 4068: 4066: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4026: 4023: 4004:Middle Passage 4002:Main article: 3999: 3996: 3993: 3992: 3989: 3985: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3976: 3973: 3969: 3968: 3965: 3961: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3929: 3928: 3925: 3896: 3895: 3880: 3869: 3850: 3827:Bight of Benin 3823: 3812: 3777: 3746: 3743: 3690:Central Africa 3673: 3670: 3657:Main article: 3654: 3651: 3592:discrimination 3501:American South 3485:Black soldiers 3468:and enslaved. 3405: 3404: 3402: 3401: 3394: 3387: 3379: 3376: 3375: 3374: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3348: 3347: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3312: 3309: 3308: 3298: 3297: 3295: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3267:Black genocide 3263: 3260: 3259: 3253: 3250: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3240: 3239: 3237: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3191: 3185: 3184: 3182: 3181: 3176: 3174:US communities 3171: 3166: 3161: 3155: 3152: 3151: 3147: 3146: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3131:South Carolina 3128: 3126:North Carolina 3123: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3092: 3089: 3088: 3082: 3081: 3079: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3048: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2982: 2979: 2978: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2948:South Carolina 2945: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2928:North Carolina 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2870: 2865: 2860: 2854: 2851: 2850: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2837: 2836: 2831: 2830: 2828: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2816: 2815: 2804: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2792: 2787: 2785:Samaná English 2782: 2777: 2776: 2775: 2764: 2761: 2760: 2754: 2751: 2750: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2737: 2735:LGBT community 2731: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2722: 2720: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2692:Creek Freedmen 2689: 2683: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2674: 2672: 2671: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2662:Carmel Indians 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2623: 2622: 2617: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2587: 2581: 2578: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2568: 2567: 2566: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2550: 2545: 2543:Central (CIAA) 2537: 2536: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2529: 2519: 2516: 2515: 2512: 2511: 2506: 2505: 2503: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2462: 2454: 2451: 2450: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2437: 2436: 2431: 2430: 2428: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2410:Pan-Africanism 2407: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2367: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2352: 2348: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2329: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2313: 2310: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2300: 2299: 2297: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2260: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2251: 2249: 2248: 2243: 2241:Black theology 2237: 2234: 2233: 2229: 2228: 2226: 2225: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2209: 2204: 2203: 2200: 2199: 2194: 2193: 2191: 2190: 2185: 2178: 2173: 2172: 2171: 2161: 2156: 2155: 2154: 2143: 2140: 2139: 2135: 2134: 2132: 2131: 2126: 2121: 2116: 2110: 2107: 2106: 2105:Economic class 2102: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2083: 2077: 2074: 2073: 2069: 2068: 2066: 2065: 2060: 2055: 2049: 2046: 2045: 2044:Academic study 2041: 2040: 2038: 2037: 2032: 2027: 2021: 2016: 2010: 2007: 2006: 2002: 2001: 1999: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1937: 1932: 1931: 1928: 1927: 1922: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1909: 1901: 1900: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1865: 1864: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1857: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1827: 1826: 1825: 1815: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1772: 1771: 1765: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1736: 1735: 1733: 1732: 1725: 1718: 1710: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1704: 1694: 1683: 1682: 1680:Historiography 1677: 1672: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1657: 1656: 1655: 1645: 1637: 1636: 1632: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1589: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1478: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1443: 1438: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1335: 1334: 1330: 1329: 1328: 1327: 1325:The West Coast 1322: 1317: 1309: 1308: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1301: 1299:Indian removal 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1273: 1272: 1264: 1261: 1260: 1257: 1256: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1228: 1221: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1202: 1201: 1200: 1198:Saudi American 1195: 1190: 1185: 1183:Iraqi American 1180: 1175: 1163: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1142: 1141: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1118:Irish American 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1083: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1043:Asian American 1039: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 997: 985: 984: 983: 981:Sexual slavery 971: 964: 957: 956: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 918: 917: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 879: 872: 865: 864: 863: 858: 853: 851:Postal service 848: 843: 841:Foreign policy 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 796: 789: 788: 787: 775: 774: 773: 761: 760: 759: 747: 746: 745: 740: 735: 730: 718: 717: 716: 704: 697: 689: 686: 685: 682: 681: 676: 675: 672: 668: 667: 665: 657: 656: 653: 646: 645: 643: 635: 634: 631: 624: 623: 621: 613: 612: 609: 602: 601: 598: 591: 590: 588: 580: 579: 576: 569: 568: 565: 558: 557: 555: 547: 546: 543: 536: 535: 532: 525: 524: 521: 514: 513: 510: 503: 502: 500: 492: 491: 488: 481: 480: 477: 470: 469: 466: 459: 458: 456: 448: 447: 444: 437: 436: 434: 426: 425: 422: 420:Jacksonian Era 415: 414: 411: 404: 403: 401: 393: 392: 389: 382: 381: 378: 376:Federalist Era 371: 370: 368: 360: 359: 356: 349: 348: 345: 338: 337: 335: 327: 326: 323: 315: 314: 311: 295: 288: 287: 284: 283: 275: 274: 264: 263: 226:Harriet Tubman 215: 214: 205: 204: 196: 195: 194: 185: 184: 176: 175: 174: 165: 164: 156: 155: 154: 145: 144: 136: 135: 134: 133: 132: 127: 126: 41: 39: 32: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 21964: 21953: 21950: 21948: 21945: 21943: 21940: 21938: 21935: 21933: 21930: 21928: 21925: 21924: 21922: 21909: 21908: 21897: 21887: 21884: 21880: 21877: 21875: 21872: 21870: 21867: 21865: 21862: 21860: 21857: 21855: 21852: 21851: 21850: 21847: 21845: 21842: 21840: 21837: 21835: 21832: 21830: 21827: 21825: 21822: 21820: 21817: 21815: 21812: 21810: 21807: 21805: 21802: 21800: 21797: 21795: 21792: 21790: 21787: 21785: 21782: 21780: 21777: 21775: 21772: 21770: 21767: 21766: 21764: 21760: 21752: 21749: 21748: 21747: 21744: 21740: 21737: 21736: 21735: 21732: 21728: 21725: 21723: 21720: 21719: 21718: 21714: 21711: 21709: 21706: 21704: 21701: 21699: 21696: 21694: 21691: 21689: 21686: 21684: 21681: 21679: 21676: 21674: 21671: 21667: 21664: 21663: 21662: 21659: 21658: 21656: 21652: 21646: 21643: 21639: 21636: 21635: 21633: 21632:Sapelo Island 21630: 21628: 21625: 21623: 21620: 21618: 21615: 21613: 21610: 21608: 21605: 21604: 21602: 21598: 21592: 21589: 21587: 21584: 21582: 21579: 21577: 21574: 21573: 21571: 21567: 21564: 21560: 21555: 21549: 21535: 21532: 21530: 21527: 21526: 21524: 21520: 21514: 21511: 21509: 21506: 21504: 21501: 21499: 21496: 21494: 21491: 21489: 21486: 21485: 21483: 21479: 21473: 21470: 21468: 21465: 21463: 21462:Rabbit's foot 21460: 21458: 21455: 21453: 21450: 21448: 21445: 21443: 21440: 21438: 21435: 21433: 21430: 21428: 21425: 21423: 21420: 21418: 21415: 21413: 21410: 21408: 21405: 21404: 21402: 21398: 21392: 21389: 21388: 21386: 21382: 21376: 21375: 21371: 21369: 21368: 21364: 21363: 21361: 21357: 21350: 21349: 21345: 21342: 21341: 21337: 21334: 21333: 21329: 21326: 21325: 21321: 21318: 21317: 21313: 21310: 21309: 21305: 21304: 21302: 21298: 21295: 21291: 21286: 21285:Gullah people 21279: 21274: 21272: 21267: 21265: 21260: 21259: 21256: 21246: 21245: 21240: 21232: 21226: 21223: 21221: 21218: 21216: 21215:Timothy Tyson 21213: 21211: 21208: 21206: 21203: 21201: 21198: 21196: 21193: 21191: 21188: 21186: 21183: 21181: 21178: 21176: 21173: 21171: 21168: 21166: 21163: 21161: 21158: 21156: 21153: 21151: 21148: 21146: 21145:Taylor Branch 21143: 21142: 21140: 21134: 21128: 21125: 21123: 21120: 21118: 21115: 21113: 21110: 21106: 21103: 21102: 21101: 21098: 21096: 21093: 21091: 21088: 21086: 21083: 21081: 21078: 21076: 21073: 21071: 21068: 21066: 21063: 21061: 21058: 21056: 21053: 21051: 21048: 21046: 21043: 21042: 21040: 21036: 21030: 21029: 21025: 21023: 21020: 21018: 21015: 21013: 21010: 21005: 21001: 21000: 20999: 20996: 20994: 20993:Freedom songs 20991: 20989: 20986: 20984: 20981: 20979: 20976: 20974: 20971: 20969: 20966: 20964: 20961: 20959: 20956: 20954: 20951: 20949: 20946: 20944: 20941: 20939: 20936: 20934: 20931: 20929: 20926: 20924: 20921: 20919: 20916: 20914: 20913: 20909: 20907: 20906: 20902: 20900: 20899: 20895: 20893: 20892: 20888: 20886: 20885: 20881: 20877: 20874: 20873: 20872: 20871: 20867: 20865: 20862: 20860: 20859:Jim Crow laws 20857: 20856: 20854: 20850: 20844: 20841: 20839: 20836: 20834: 20831: 20829: 20828: 20824: 20820: 20817: 20815: 20812: 20811: 20810: 20807: 20805: 20802: 20798: 20795: 20794: 20793: 20790: 20789: 20787: 20783: 20777: 20774: 20772: 20769: 20767: 20764: 20762: 20759: 20757: 20756:"Oh, Freedom" 20754: 20752: 20749: 20747: 20744: 20742: 20739: 20737: 20734: 20733: 20731: 20725: 20719: 20716: 20714: 20711: 20710: 20708: 20704: 20698: 20695: 20693: 20690: 20688: 20685: 20683: 20682:Whitney Young 20680: 20678: 20675: 20673: 20670: 20668: 20665: 20663: 20662:Kale Williams 20660: 20658: 20655: 20653: 20650: 20648: 20645: 20643: 20640: 20638: 20635: 20633: 20630: 20628: 20625: 20623: 20622:Albert Turner 20620: 20618: 20615: 20613: 20612:A. P. Tureaud 20610: 20608: 20605: 20603: 20600: 20598: 20595: 20593: 20590: 20588: 20585: 20583: 20580: 20578: 20575: 20573: 20570: 20568: 20565: 20563: 20560: 20558: 20555: 20553: 20550: 20548: 20545: 20543: 20540: 20538: 20535: 20533: 20530: 20528: 20525: 20523: 20520: 20518: 20517:Bayard Rustin 20515: 20513: 20510: 20508: 20505: 20503: 20500: 20498: 20495: 20493: 20490: 20488: 20485: 20483: 20480: 20478: 20475: 20473: 20470: 20468: 20465: 20463: 20460: 20458: 20455: 20453: 20450: 20448: 20445: 20443: 20440: 20438: 20435: 20433: 20430: 20428: 20425: 20423: 20420: 20418: 20415: 20413: 20410: 20408: 20405: 20403: 20400: 20398: 20395: 20393: 20390: 20388: 20385: 20383: 20380: 20378: 20375: 20373: 20370: 20368: 20367:William Moyer 20365: 20363: 20360: 20358: 20355: 20353: 20350: 20348: 20345: 20343: 20340: 20338: 20335: 20333: 20330: 20328: 20325: 20323: 20320: 20318: 20315: 20313: 20310: 20308: 20305: 20303: 20302:Joseph McNeil 20300: 20298: 20295: 20293: 20290: 20288: 20287:Charles McDew 20285: 20283: 20280: 20278: 20277:Benjamin Mays 20275: 20273: 20270: 20268: 20265: 20263: 20262:Vivian Malone 20260: 20258: 20255: 20253: 20250: 20248: 20245: 20243: 20240: 20238: 20237:Joseph Lowery 20235: 20233: 20230: 20228: 20225: 20223: 20220: 20218: 20215: 20213: 20210: 20208: 20205: 20203: 20200: 20198: 20195: 20193: 20190: 20188: 20185: 20183: 20180: 20178: 20175: 20173: 20170: 20168: 20165: 20163: 20162:Clyde Kennard 20160: 20158: 20155: 20153: 20152:Vernon Jordan 20150: 20148: 20147:Matthew Jones 20145: 20143: 20140: 20138: 20135: 20133: 20130: 20128: 20125: 20123: 20120: 20118: 20115: 20113: 20112:T. J. Jemison 20110: 20108: 20105: 20103: 20100: 20098: 20097:Jesse Jackson 20095: 20093: 20090: 20088: 20085: 20083: 20080: 20078: 20075: 20073: 20070: 20068: 20065: 20063: 20060: 20058: 20055: 20053: 20050: 20048: 20045: 20043: 20040: 20038: 20035: 20033: 20030: 20028: 20025: 20023: 20020: 20018: 20015: 20013: 20010: 20008: 20005: 20003: 20000: 19998: 19995: 19993: 19990: 19988: 19987:Robert Graetz 19985: 19983: 19980: 19978: 19977:Golden Frinks 19975: 19973: 19970: 19968: 19965: 19963: 19960: 19958: 19955: 19953: 19950: 19948: 19945: 19943: 19940: 19938: 19937:Charles Evers 19935: 19933: 19930: 19928: 19925: 19923: 19920: 19918: 19915: 19913: 19910: 19908: 19905: 19903: 19900: 19898: 19895: 19893: 19890: 19888: 19887:Vernon Dahmer 19885: 19883: 19880: 19878: 19875: 19873: 19870: 19868: 19865: 19863: 19860: 19858: 19855: 19853: 19850: 19848: 19845: 19843: 19842:Septima Clark 19840: 19838: 19835: 19833: 19830: 19828: 19825: 19823: 19820: 19818: 19815: 19813: 19810: 19808: 19805: 19803: 19800: 19798: 19795: 19793: 19790: 19788: 19785: 19783: 19780: 19778: 19775: 19773: 19770: 19768: 19765: 19763: 19762:Bruce Boynton 19760: 19758: 19755: 19753: 19750: 19748: 19745: 19743: 19740: 19738: 19735: 19733: 19730: 19728: 19725: 19723: 19720: 19718: 19715: 19713: 19710: 19708: 19705: 19703: 19700: 19698: 19695: 19693: 19690: 19688: 19687:James Baldwin 19685: 19683: 19680: 19678: 19675: 19673: 19670: 19668: 19665: 19663: 19660: 19658: 19657:Mathew Ahmann 19655: 19653: 19650: 19648: 19645: 19643: 19640: 19639: 19637: 19633: 19627: 19624: 19622: 19619: 19617: 19614: 19612: 19609: 19607: 19604: 19602: 19599: 19597: 19594: 19592: 19589: 19587: 19584: 19582: 19579: 19577: 19574: 19572: 19569: 19567: 19564: 19562: 19559: 19555: 19554:Youth Council 19552: 19551: 19550: 19547: 19545: 19542: 19540: 19537: 19535: 19532: 19530: 19527: 19525: 19522: 19520: 19517: 19515: 19512: 19510: 19507: 19505: 19502: 19500: 19497: 19493: 19492: 19488: 19487: 19486: 19483: 19481: 19478: 19476: 19473: 19471: 19468: 19466: 19463: 19461: 19458: 19456: 19453: 19451: 19448: 19447: 19445: 19439: 19429: 19428: 19424: 19422: 19421: 19417: 19415: 19412: 19410: 19407: 19403: 19400: 19398: 19395: 19394: 19393: 19390: 19388: 19385: 19383: 19382: 19378: 19376: 19373: 19371: 19368: 19366: 19363: 19361: 19360: 19356: 19354: 19351: 19346: 19342: 19341: 19340: 19337: 19335: 19332: 19330: 19329: 19325: 19323: 19322: 19318: 19316: 19313: 19309: 19306: 19305: 19304: 19301: 19299: 19296: 19294: 19291: 19289: 19286: 19284: 19281: 19280: 19278: 19274: 19268: 19265: 19261: 19258: 19256: 19253: 19252: 19251: 19248: 19246: 19243: 19241: 19238: 19234: 19231: 19229: 19226: 19224: 19221: 19219: 19216: 19215: 19214: 19211: 19207: 19204: 19203: 19202: 19199: 19197: 19194: 19192: 19189: 19186: 19182: 19180: 19177: 19175: 19172: 19170: 19167: 19165: 19164: 19160: 19156: 19153: 19151: 19148: 19147: 19146: 19145:Freedom Rides 19143: 19141: 19138: 19136: 19133: 19131: 19128: 19126: 19125: 19121: 19119: 19118: 19114: 19112: 19109: 19107: 19104: 19102: 19099: 19097: 19094: 19092: 19089: 19087: 19084: 19082: 19079: 19077: 19074: 19072: 19069: 19067: 19064: 19063: 19061: 19057: 19051: 19048: 19046: 19043: 19041: 19038: 19036: 19033: 19031: 19028: 19024: 19023: 19019: 19018: 19017: 19014: 19012: 19009: 19004: 19000: 18999: 18998: 18995: 18993: 18990: 18988: 18985: 18981: 18980: 18976: 18975: 18974: 18971: 18969: 18966: 18964: 18963: 18959: 18955: 18954: 18950: 18948: 18947: 18943: 18941: 18940: 18936: 18934: 18933: 18929: 18928: 18927: 18926: 18922: 18921: 18919: 18915: 18909: 18906: 18903: 18902: 18898: 18895: 18894: 18890: 18888: 18885: 18883: 18880: 18878: 18875: 18874: 18872: 18870:Prior to 1954 18868: 18865: 18862: 18855: 18850: 18843: 18838: 18836: 18831: 18829: 18824: 18823: 18820: 18808: 18798: 18796: 18793: 18792: 18789: 18783: 18780: 18778: 18777:Neighborhoods 18775: 18773: 18770: 18768: 18765: 18763: 18760: 18758: 18755: 18753: 18750: 18746: 18743: 18741: 18740:Sports firsts 18738: 18736: 18733: 18732: 18731: 18728: 18724: 18721: 18719: 18716: 18714: 18711: 18709: 18706: 18704: 18701: 18699: 18696: 18694: 18691: 18689: 18686: 18684: 18681: 18679: 18676: 18674: 18671: 18669: 18666: 18664: 18661: 18659: 18656: 18654: 18651: 18649: 18646: 18645: 18644: 18641: 18640: 18638: 18634: 18626: 18623: 18622: 18620: 18618: 18615: 18611: 18608: 18606: 18603: 18601: 18598: 18596: 18593: 18591: 18588: 18587: 18585: 18581: 18578: 18576: 18573: 18571: 18568: 18566: 18563: 18562: 18561: 18558: 18557: 18555: 18553: 18549: 18543: 18542:West Virginia 18540: 18538: 18535: 18533: 18530: 18526: 18523: 18521: 18518: 18516: 18513: 18511: 18508: 18507: 18506: 18503: 18501: 18498: 18496: 18493: 18491: 18488: 18484: 18481: 18480: 18479:Pennsylvania 18478: 18476: 18473: 18471: 18468: 18466: 18463: 18459: 18458:New York City 18456: 18455: 18454: 18451: 18449: 18446: 18442: 18439: 18438: 18437: 18434: 18432: 18429: 18425: 18422: 18421: 18419: 18415: 18412: 18411: 18409: 18405: 18402: 18401: 18400: 18397: 18395: 18392: 18388: 18385: 18384: 18383: 18380: 18378: 18375: 18371: 18368: 18367: 18366: 18363: 18361: 18358: 18354: 18351: 18350: 18349: 18346: 18344: 18341: 18337: 18334: 18333: 18332: 18329: 18325: 18322: 18320: 18317: 18316: 18315: 18312: 18310: 18307: 18303: 18302:San Francisco 18300: 18298: 18295: 18294: 18293: 18290: 18288: 18285: 18283: 18280: 18279: 18277: 18275:By state/city 18273: 18267: 18264: 18262: 18259: 18253: 18250: 18248: 18245: 18244: 18243: 18240: 18238: 18235: 18234: 18233: 18230: 18226: 18223: 18222: 18221: 18220:American Sign 18218: 18216: 18213: 18212: 18210: 18206: 18198: 18195: 18193: 18190: 18189: 18188: 18185: 18183: 18180: 18176: 18173: 18171: 18168: 18167: 18166: 18163: 18159: 18156: 18155: 18154: 18153:Neighborhoods 18151: 18150: 18148: 18144: 18138: 18135: 18131: 18128: 18127: 18126: 18123: 18121: 18118: 18116: 18113: 18111: 18108: 18104: 18101: 18099: 18096: 18094: 18091: 18089: 18086: 18085: 18084: 18083:Black Indians 18081: 18079: 18076: 18072: 18069: 18067: 18064: 18062: 18059: 18057: 18054: 18053: 18051: 18050: 18048: 18044: 18034: 18031: 18029: 18026: 18024: 18021: 18019: 18016: 18015: 18013: 18005: 17999: 17996: 17994: 17991: 17989: 17986: 17984: 17981: 17979: 17976: 17974: 17971: 17969: 17966: 17964: 17961: 17959: 17956: 17954: 17951: 17949: 17946: 17944: 17941: 17940: 17937: 17934: 17930: 17924: 17921: 17919: 17916: 17914: 17911: 17909: 17906: 17904: 17901: 17899: 17896: 17894: 17891: 17889: 17886: 17884: 17881: 17879: 17876: 17874: 17871: 17869: 17866: 17864: 17861: 17859: 17856: 17855: 17853: 17845: 17839: 17836: 17832: 17829: 17828: 17827: 17824: 17822: 17819: 17817: 17814: 17812: 17809: 17807: 17804: 17802: 17799: 17797: 17794: 17790: 17787: 17786: 17785: 17782: 17780: 17777: 17775: 17772: 17771: 17769: 17765: 17759: 17756: 17754: 17751: 17749: 17746: 17742: 17739: 17738: 17737: 17734: 17730: 17727: 17725: 17722: 17721: 17720: 17717: 17715: 17712: 17711: 17709: 17707: 17703: 17695: 17692: 17690: 17687: 17685: 17682: 17681: 17679: 17677: 17674: 17672: 17669: 17667: 17664: 17662: 17661:Black schools 17659: 17657: 17656:Black studies 17654: 17653: 17651: 17645: 17639: 17638:Whitney Young 17636: 17634: 17631: 17629: 17628:Oprah Winfrey 17626: 17624: 17621: 17619: 17616: 17614: 17611: 17609: 17606: 17604: 17601: 17599: 17598:Denmark Vesey 17596: 17594: 17591: 17589: 17586: 17584: 17581: 17579: 17576: 17574: 17571: 17569: 17566: 17564: 17561: 17559: 17556: 17554: 17551: 17549: 17546: 17544: 17543:Joseph Rainey 17541: 17539: 17536: 17534: 17531: 17529: 17526: 17524: 17521: 17519: 17516: 17514: 17511: 17509: 17506: 17504: 17501: 17499: 17498:Toni Morrison 17496: 17494: 17491: 17489: 17486: 17484: 17483:Joseph Lowery 17481: 17479: 17476: 17474: 17471: 17469: 17466: 17464: 17461: 17459: 17456: 17454: 17451: 17449: 17446: 17444: 17441: 17439: 17436: 17434: 17431: 17429: 17428:Jesse Jackson 17426: 17424: 17421: 17419: 17418:Kamala Harris 17416: 17414: 17411: 17409: 17406: 17404: 17403:Marcus Garvey 17401: 17399: 17396: 17394: 17391: 17389: 17386: 17384: 17381: 17379: 17376: 17374: 17371: 17369: 17366: 17364: 17361: 17359: 17356: 17354: 17353:Blanche Bruce 17351: 17349: 17348:Edward Brooke 17346: 17344: 17341: 17339: 17338:James Bradley 17336: 17334: 17331: 17329: 17326: 17324: 17321: 17319: 17318:James Baldwin 17316: 17314: 17311: 17309: 17306: 17304: 17301: 17300: 17298: 17294: 17288: 17285: 17283: 17280: 17278: 17275: 17273: 17270: 17268: 17265: 17263: 17262:Neighborhoods 17260: 17258: 17255: 17253: 17250: 17248: 17245: 17243: 17240: 17238: 17235: 17233: 17230: 17228: 17225: 17223: 17220: 17218: 17215: 17211: 17208: 17207: 17206: 17203: 17201: 17198: 17196: 17193: 17191: 17188: 17186: 17183: 17181: 17178: 17176: 17173: 17171: 17168: 17166: 17163: 17161: 17158: 17157: 17155: 17153: 17149: 17143: 17140: 17138: 17135: 17133: 17130: 17126: 17123: 17122: 17121: 17118: 17116: 17115:Silent Parade 17113: 17111: 17108: 17106: 17103: 17101: 17098: 17096: 17093: 17090: 17089: 17085: 17083: 17080: 17078: 17077: 17073: 17071: 17070: 17066: 17064: 17061: 17059: 17056: 17054: 17051: 17049: 17046: 17044: 17043:Jim Crow laws 17041: 17039: 17035: 17032: 17030: 17027: 17023: 17020: 17018: 17015: 17014: 17013: 17010: 17008: 17005: 17003: 17000: 16998: 16995: 16992: 16991: 16987: 16985: 16982: 16980: 16977: 16973: 16970: 16968: 16965: 16963: 16960: 16958: 16955: 16953: 16950: 16948: 16945: 16943: 16940: 16937: 16936: 16932: 16930: 16927: 16926: 16925: 16922: 16920: 16917: 16915: 16912: 16908: 16905: 16903: 16900: 16898: 16895: 16894: 16892: 16890: 16887: 16884: 16883: 16879: 16877: 16874: 16872: 16869: 16867: 16866:Black cowboys 16864: 16862: 16859: 16857: 16854: 16852: 16849: 16847: 16844: 16842: 16839: 16837: 16834: 16832: 16829: 16828: 16826: 16824: 16820: 16816: 16809: 16804: 16802: 16797: 16795: 16790: 16789: 16786: 16774: 16770: 16766: 16764: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16749: 16748:List of years 16746: 16745: 16742: 16728: 16720: 16718: 16717:Urban history 16715: 16714: 16712: 16708: 16702: 16699: 16697: 16696:Palmyra Atoll 16694: 16692: 16689: 16687: 16684: 16682: 16679: 16677: 16674: 16672: 16671:Jarvis Island 16669: 16667: 16664: 16662: 16659: 16658: 16656: 16652: 16646: 16643: 16641: 16638: 16636: 16633: 16631: 16628: 16626: 16623: 16622: 16620: 16618:Insular areas 16616: 16612: 16608: 16604: 16598: 16595: 16593: 16590: 16588: 16587:West Virginia 16585: 16583: 16580: 16578: 16575: 16573: 16570: 16568: 16565: 16563: 16560: 16558: 16555: 16553: 16550: 16548: 16545: 16543: 16540: 16538: 16535: 16533: 16530: 16528: 16525: 16523: 16520: 16518: 16515: 16513: 16510: 16508: 16505: 16503: 16500: 16498: 16495: 16493: 16492:New Hampshire 16490: 16488: 16485: 16483: 16480: 16478: 16475: 16473: 16470: 16468: 16465: 16463: 16460: 16458: 16455: 16453: 16452:Massachusetts 16450: 16448: 16445: 16443: 16440: 16438: 16435: 16433: 16430: 16428: 16425: 16423: 16420: 16418: 16415: 16413: 16410: 16408: 16405: 16403: 16400: 16398: 16395: 16393: 16390: 16388: 16385: 16383: 16380: 16378: 16375: 16373: 16370: 16368: 16365: 16363: 16360: 16358: 16355: 16353: 16350: 16349: 16347: 16343: 16337: 16334: 16332: 16329: 16327: 16324: 16323: 16321: 16317: 16311: 16308: 16306: 16303: 16301: 16298: 16296: 16293: 16291: 16288: 16287: 16285: 16283: 16279: 16275: 16268: 16264: 16252: 16249: 16247: 16244: 16242: 16239: 16238: 16237: 16236: 16232: 16230: 16229: 16225: 16221: 16218: 16216: 16213: 16212: 16211: 16210: 16206: 16202: 16199: 16197: 16194: 16192: 16189: 16187: 16184: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16173: 16172: 16171: 16167: 16165: 16164: 16160: 16156: 16153: 16152: 16151: 16150: 16146: 16142: 16139: 16137: 16134: 16132: 16129: 16127: 16124: 16122: 16119: 16117: 16114: 16112: 16109: 16107: 16104: 16102: 16099: 16098: 16097: 16096: 16092: 16088: 16085: 16083: 16082:Thai American 16080: 16078: 16075: 16073: 16070: 16068: 16065: 16063: 16060: 16058: 16055: 16054: 16053: 16052: 16048: 16046: 16045: 16041: 16040: 16037: 16030: 16026: 16014: 16011: 16009: 16006: 16004: 16001: 15999: 15996: 15994: 15991: 15990: 15989: 15988: 15984: 15980: 15977: 15976: 15975: 15974: 15970: 15968: 15967: 15963: 15961: 15960: 15956: 15952: 15949: 15947: 15944: 15942: 15939: 15937: 15934: 15932: 15929: 15927: 15924: 15923: 15922: 15921: 15920:Party Systems 15917: 15913: 15910: 15908: 15905: 15903: 15900: 15898: 15895: 15893: 15890: 15888: 15885: 15884: 15883: 15882: 15878: 15876: 15875: 15871: 15869: 15868: 15864: 15860: 15859:Voting rights 15857: 15855: 15852: 15850: 15847: 15845: 15842: 15840: 15837: 15835: 15832: 15830: 15827: 15825: 15822: 15820: 15817: 15815: 15812: 15810: 15807: 15805: 15802: 15801: 15800: 15799: 15795: 15793: 15792: 15788: 15784: 15781: 15780: 15779: 15778: 15774: 15770: 15767: 15766: 15765: 15764: 15760: 15756: 15753: 15752: 15751: 15750: 15746: 15742: 15739: 15737: 15734: 15732: 15729: 15727: 15724: 15723: 15722: 15721: 15717: 15715: 15714: 15710: 15708: 15707: 15703: 15702: 15699: 15692: 15688: 15674: 15671: 15669: 15666: 15664: 15663: 15659: 15657: 15654: 15652: 15649: 15647: 15644: 15640: 15637: 15636: 15635: 15632: 15630: 15627: 15625: 15624: 15620: 15618: 15615: 15611: 15608: 15606: 15603: 15601: 15598: 15596: 15593: 15591: 15588: 15586: 15583: 15581: 15578: 15576: 15573: 15572: 15571: 15568: 15566: 15563: 15562: 15560: 15558: 15554: 15548: 15545: 15543: 15540: 15538: 15535: 15531: 15528: 15526: 15523: 15522: 15521: 15520:War on terror 15518: 15516: 15513: 15511: 15510: 15506: 15504: 15501: 15499: 15496: 15494: 15491: 15489: 15486: 15484: 15481: 15479: 15476: 15474: 15471: 15469: 15466: 15465: 15463: 15461: 15457: 15451: 15448: 15446: 15443: 15441: 15438: 15434: 15431: 15429: 15426: 15424: 15421: 15420: 15419: 15418:Late Cold War 15416: 15414: 15411: 15407: 15404: 15402: 15399: 15398: 15397: 15394: 15393: 15391: 15389: 15385: 15379: 15376: 15374: 15371: 15369: 15366: 15362: 15359: 15358: 15357: 15354: 15352: 15349: 15347: 15344: 15342: 15339: 15335: 15332: 15330: 15327: 15325: 15322: 15321: 15320: 15317: 15313: 15310: 15308: 15305: 15304: 15303: 15300: 15298: 15297:Great Society 15295: 15294: 15292: 15290: 15286: 15280: 15277: 15273: 15270: 15269: 15268: 15265: 15263: 15260: 15258: 15255: 15253: 15252:Post-war boom 15250: 15246: 15243: 15241: 15238: 15236: 15233: 15231: 15228: 15227: 15226: 15223: 15219: 15216: 15215: 15214: 15211: 15209: 15206: 15205: 15203: 15201: 15197: 15187: 15184: 15183: 15182: 15179: 15177: 15174: 15172: 15169: 15168: 15167: 15164: 15160: 15157: 15155: 15152: 15150: 15147: 15146: 15145: 15142: 15138: 15135: 15133: 15130: 15128: 15125: 15123: 15120: 15118: 15115: 15113: 15110: 15109: 15108: 15105: 15103: 15100: 15096: 15093: 15092: 15091: 15088: 15087: 15085: 15083: 15079: 15073: 15070: 15066: 15063: 15061: 15058: 15056: 15053: 15051: 15048: 15047: 15046: 15043: 15039: 15036: 15034: 15031: 15029: 15026: 15024: 15021: 15019: 15016: 15014: 15011: 15010: 15009: 15006: 15004: 15001: 14997: 14994: 14992: 14989: 14987: 14984: 14982: 14979: 14977: 14974: 14973: 14972: 14969: 14968: 14966: 14964: 14960: 14952: 14949: 14947: 14944: 14943: 14942: 14939: 14935: 14932: 14930: 14927: 14925: 14922: 14918: 14915: 14914: 14913: 14910: 14908: 14905: 14903: 14900: 14899: 14898: 14895: 14893: 14890: 14888: 14885: 14884: 14882: 14880: 14876: 14870: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14858: 14855: 14853: 14850: 14848: 14845: 14843: 14840: 14838: 14835: 14833: 14830: 14829: 14828: 14825: 14821: 14818: 14816: 14813: 14812: 14811: 14808: 14807: 14805: 14803: 14799: 14791: 14788: 14786: 14783: 14782: 14781: 14778: 14774: 14771: 14769: 14766: 14765: 14764: 14761: 14759: 14756: 14755: 14753: 14751: 14747: 14739: 14736: 14734: 14731: 14729: 14726: 14724: 14721: 14719: 14716: 14713: 14712: 14711: 14708: 14704: 14701: 14699: 14696: 14694: 14691: 14689: 14686: 14684: 14681: 14680: 14679: 14676: 14675: 14673: 14671: 14667: 14659: 14656: 14654: 14651: 14649: 14646: 14644: 14641: 14639: 14636: 14634: 14631: 14629: 14626: 14624: 14621: 14619: 14616: 14614: 14611: 14609: 14606: 14605: 14604: 14601: 14599: 14596: 14594: 14591: 14589: 14586: 14584: 14581: 14579: 14576: 14574: 14571: 14569: 14566: 14564: 14561: 14559: 14556: 14554: 14551: 14549: 14546: 14544: 14541: 14540: 14538: 14536: 14532: 14526: 14525: 14521: 14519: 14518: 14514: 14513: 14511: 14507: 14503: 14496: 14492: 14486: 14483: 14481: 14478: 14477: 14474: 14470: 14463: 14458: 14456: 14451: 14449: 14444: 14443: 14440: 14433: 14430: 14427: 14424: 14413: 14409: 14405: 14403: 14400: 14398: 14394: 14391: 14389: 14386: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14372: 14368: 14365: 14362: 14359: 14356: 14353: 14350: 14347: 14343: 14340: 14337: 14334: 14331: 14328: 14327: 14317: 14313: 14311: 14307: 14303: 14301: 14297: 14293: 14291: 14287: 14283: 14281: 14277: 14273: 14270: 14269: 14264: 14262: 14258: 14254: 14249: 14247:9780837118901 14243: 14239: 14238: 14232: 14229: 14225: 14222: 14218: 14216: 14212: 14208: 14206: 14202: 14198: 14195: 14191: 14188: 14184: 14181: 14177: 14173: 14170: 14166: 14165: 14148: 14147: 14142: 14137: 14135: 14131: 14127: 14125: 14121: 14118: 14114: 14111: 14107: 14104: 14100: 14097: 14095: 14091: 14089: 14085: 14082: 14078: 14075: 14071: 14069: 14065: 14061: 14058: 14054: 14052: 14048: 14044: 14040: 14036: 14032: 14030: 14026: 14022: 14018: 14016: 14012: 14008: 14005: 14001: 13997: 13993: 13989: 13985: 13980: 13976: 13972: 13968: 13964: 13960: 13956: 13951: 13948: 13944: 13940: 13936: 13932: 13928: 13924: 13909: 13904: 13899: 13895: 13891: 13887: 13883: 13879: 13875: 13868: 13863: 13861: 13856: 13853: 13849: 13847: 13843: 13839: 13836: 13832: 13829: 13826: 13822: 13820: 13816: 13813: 13809: 13807: 13803: 13799: 13795: 13791: 13787: 13783: 13779: 13775: 13771: 13767: 13763: 13761: 13757: 13753: 13752: 13751: 13747: 13743: 13741: 13737: 13734: 13730: 13729: 13720: 13716: 13713: 13709: 13706: 13703: 13699: 13696: 13693: 13689: 13686: 13682: 13679: 13675: 13672: 13668: 13666: 13662: 13660: 13655: 13653: 13649: 13645: 13642: 13638: 13635: 13631: 13628: 13624: 13622: 13618: 13614: 13611: 13607: 13604: 13601: 13597: 13594: 13590: 13587: 13583: 13580: 13576: 13573: 13569: 13568:Hunt, Darnell 13566: 13563: 13559: 13556: 13552: 13549: 13545: 13542: 13538: 13535: 13531: 13528: 13524: 13521: 13517: 13513: 13509: 13506: 13503: 13499: 13496: 13494: 13490: 13486: 13482: 13479: 13475: 13474: 13472: 13458: 13454: 13450: 13448:9781469607207 13444: 13440: 13436: 13432: 13427: 13424: 13420: 13417: 13416:Labor History 13413: 13410: 13406: 13403: 13399: 13396: 13392: 13390: 13386: 13382: 13379: 13375: 13372: 13368: 13366:, World War I 13365: 13361: 13357: 13354: 13350: 13346: 13345: 13336: 13332: 13329: 13325: 13323: 13319: 13315: 13312: 13308: 13305: 13301: 13297: 13293: 13290: 13289: 13284: 13279: 13275: 13274: 13272: 13268: 13265: 13264: 13259: 13255: 13252: 13250: 13246: 13242: 13239: 13235: 13232: 13228: 13226: 13222: 13218: 13216: 13212: 13208: 13206: 13202: 13198: 13196: 13192: 13188: 13184: 13183: 13181: 13168: 13165: 13162: 13159: 13155: 13151: 13149:9780810880375 13145: 13141: 13140: 13134: 13131: 13127: 13125: 13121: 13117: 13114: 13110: 13108: 13104: 13100: 13096: 13094: 13090: 13086: 13083: 13079: 13077: 13073: 13069: 13067: 13063: 13059: 13058: 13049: 13034: 13028: 13017:September 10, 13013: 13006: 12998: 12991: 12984: 12980: 12976: 12970: 12963: 12957: 12951: 12947: 12943: 12939: 12933: 12925: 12921: 12917: 12911: 12892: 12888: 12881: 12875: 12867: 12863: 12859: 12855: 12851: 12847: 12840: 12825: 12821: 12814: 12807: 12801: 12793: 12787: 12779: 12775: 12769: 12762: 12758: 12754: 12751: 12745: 12730: 12726: 12720: 12705: 12701: 12695: 12687: 12681: 12677: 12676: 12668: 12653: 12649: 12643: 12637: 12633: 12632:Social Forces 12627: 12620: 12614: 12598: 12594: 12588: 12586: 12584: 12582: 12574: 12568: 12561: 12555: 12548: 12542: 12535: 12529: 12521: 12517: 12513: 12509: 12505: 12501: 12494: 12487: 12481: 12474: 12468: 12461: 12457: 12453: 12447: 12440: 12434: 12427: 12421: 12414: 12408: 12406: 12404: 12402: 12400: 12398: 12390: 12384: 12377: 12371: 12364: 12358: 12351: 12347: 12343: 12336: 12329: 12323: 12316: 12310: 12303: 12297: 12295: 12293: 12285: 12279: 12272: 12266: 12264: 12262: 12254: 12248: 12246: 12244: 12242: 12240: 12238: 12236: 12234: 12226: 12220: 12218: 12216: 12214: 12206: 12200: 12193: 12187: 12180: 12174: 12172: 12170: 12168: 12166: 12164: 12156: 12150: 12143: 12137: 12130: 12127:Ulysses Lee, 12124: 12117: 12111: 12104: 12098: 12096: 12094: 12092: 12090: 12088: 12086: 12084: 12077: 12073: 12067: 12060: 12054: 12047: 12041: 12039: 12031: 12025: 12023: 12021: 12013: 12007: 12000: 11994: 11992: 11984: 11978: 11971: 11965: 11958: 11952: 11945: 11939: 11932: 11926: 11924: 11922: 11914: 11908: 11901: 11895: 11887: 11886: 11881: 11875: 11868: 11862: 11855: 11849: 11847: 11838: 11836:9781586482824 11832: 11828: 11827: 11819: 11813: 11809: 11803: 11796: 11790: 11783: 11777: 11770: 11764: 11762: 11760: 11752: 11746: 11739: 11735: 11729: 11722: 11716: 11709: 11703: 11695: 11691: 11687: 11683: 11682:Labor History 11676: 11669: 11663: 11657: 11651: 11644: 11641:Roger Biles, 11638: 11631: 11625: 11618: 11612: 11610: 11602: 11596: 11589: 11583: 11574: 11567: 11561: 11554: 11548: 11539: 11532: 11526: 11519: 11515: 11509: 11502:. March 2024. 11501: 11495: 11488:. March 2024. 11487: 11481: 11472: 11465: 11459: 11453: 11448: 11441: 11435: 11428: 11421: 11406: 11402: 11396: 11394: 11385: 11379: 11375: 11374: 11366: 11351: 11347: 11341: 11326: 11322: 11316: 11310: 11306: 11300: 11294: 11290: 11284: 11278: 11274: 11273:online review 11270: 11264: 11257: 11253: 11247: 11240: 11234: 11227: 11221: 11215: 11211: 11208: 11204: 11198: 11191: 11187: 11181: 11174: 11168: 11161: 11155: 11148: 11142: 11135: 11129: 11122: 11116: 11110: 11106: 11100: 11085: 11081: 11074: 11067: 11063: 11057: 11049: 11048: 11040: 11033: 11027: 11020: 11019: 11012: 11005: 10999: 10992: 10988: 10983: 10981: 10973: 10971: 10964: 10957: 10952: 10945: 10941: 10935: 10928: 10922: 10915: 10909: 10893: 10889: 10883: 10868: 10861: 10853: 10849: 10845: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10826: 10811: 10807: 10801: 10793: 10787: 10783: 10776: 10774: 10765: 10759: 10755: 10748: 10740: 10734: 10718: 10712: 10705: 10699: 10692: 10686: 10679: 10673: 10667: 10662: 10655: 10649: 10634: 10633: 10628: 10622: 10607: 10603: 10597: 10578: 10574: 10567: 10565: 10557: 10538: 10534: 10527: 10525: 10517: 10509: 10503: 10499: 10495: 10494: 10489: 10488:Nash, Gary B. 10483: 10481: 10464: 10460: 10454: 10446: 10444:9780313336997 10440: 10436: 10429: 10413: 10406: 10399: 10391: 10385: 10381: 10380: 10372: 10357: 10351: 10347: 10346: 10338: 10322: 10318: 10312: 10304: 10300: 10296: 10292: 10285: 10278:(4): 205‒236. 10277: 10273: 10266: 10251: 10247: 10241: 10233: 10227: 10223: 10216: 10208: 10206:9780205832408 10202: 10198: 10194: 10188: 10186: 10184: 10182: 10180: 10171: 10167: 10163: 10159: 10155: 10151: 10147: 10143: 10139: 10133: 10124: 10117: 10113: 10107: 10100: 10094: 10087: 10081: 10075: 10071: 10065: 10057: 10053: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10037: 10030: 10023: 10017: 10001: 9995: 9979: 9975: 9969: 9961: 9957: 9953: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9934: 9927: 9921: 9914: 9910: 9906: 9900: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9879: 9872: 9871: 9864: 9857: 9851: 9844: 9838: 9830: 9824: 9820: 9819: 9811: 9804: 9798: 9791: 9785: 9778: 9772: 9757: 9753: 9747: 9745: 9728: 9724: 9720: 9714: 9706: 9704:9789987160389 9700: 9696: 9695: 9687: 9678: 9672: 9668: 9663: 9662: 9653: 9647: 9641: 9634: 9628: 9623: 9616: 9608: 9604: 9600: 9593: 9577: 9573: 9569: 9563: 9555: 9551: 9547: 9540: 9524: 9520: 9514: 9507: 9501: 9494: 9488: 9481: 9475: 9468: 9462: 9455: 9449: 9433: 9429: 9423: 9408: 9404: 9398: 9382: 9376: 9368: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9319: 9311: 9305: 9301: 9300: 9292: 9284: 9278: 9274: 9273: 9265: 9257: 9251: 9236: 9232: 9226: 9210: 9206: 9202: 9195: 9180: 9176: 9170: 9159:September 14, 9155: 9151: 9145: 9138: 9134: 9128: 9120: 9114: 9110: 9109: 9101: 9085: 9081: 9077: 9071: 9069: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9038: 9030: 9026: 9020: 9012: 9008: 9002: 8987: 8980: 8973: 8967: 8959: 8957:9780312648831 8953: 8949: 8942: 8940: 8938: 8936: 8934: 8932: 8930: 8928: 8926: 8918: 8912: 8905: 8899: 8883: 8879: 8873: 8857: 8853: 8846: 8840: 8836: 8832: 8826: 8824: 8822: 8820: 8818: 8816: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8772: 8764: 8758: 8743: 8739: 8732: 8724: 8718: 8711: 8705: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8680: 8672: 8666: 8662: 8655: 8647: 8641: 8636: 8635: 8626: 8618: 8612: 8608: 8607: 8599: 8591: 8585: 8581: 8580: 8572: 8565: 8559: 8551: 8549:9780742563995 8545: 8541: 8540: 8535: 8529: 8521: 8515: 8511: 8507: 8506: 8498: 8490: 8486: 8482: 8475: 8467: 8461: 8457: 8450: 8448: 8439: 8433: 8429: 8428: 8420: 8404: 8403:abhmuseum.org 8400: 8394: 8387: 8376: 8372: 8365: 8357: 8350: 8346: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8232: 8231: 8230: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8108: 8105: 8104: 8103: 8100: 8099: 8092: 8083: 8079: 8076:This list is 8074: 8067: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8005: 8002: 8001: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7919: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7748: 7746: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7698: 7697: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7657: 7653: 7647: 7642: 7639: 7628: 7625: 7624:Africa portal 7614: 7611: 7600: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7534:Rayford Logan 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7509:Peter Kolchin 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7411: 7404: 7395: 7393: 7389: 7388:College Board 7384: 7381: 7376: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7360: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7334: 7330: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7275: 7265: 7264:application. 7263: 7262:death penalty 7259: 7255: 7251: 7248:of any major 7247: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7234:poverty rates 7231: 7224:Social issues 7221: 7219: 7215: 7210: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7187: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7172: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7152:Oprah Winfrey 7148: 7146: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7094: 7092: 7091:Jesse Jackson 7085: 7081: 7078: 7073: 7063: 7060: 7052: 7049:November 2021 7041: 7038: 7034: 7031: 7027: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7010: – 7009: 7005: 7004:Find sources: 6998: 6994: 6988: 6987: 6982:This section 6980: 6976: 6971: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6942: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6894:In 1965, the 6892: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6869: 6864: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6841: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6790:Bayard Rustin 6787: 6783: 6779: 6778:National Mall 6775: 6771: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6748: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6727: 6724: 6723:Freedom Rides 6720: 6715: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6696: 6691: 6690:Supreme Court 6685: 6674: 6671: 6663: 6660:November 2021 6652: 6649: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6631: 6628: 6624: 6621: – 6620: 6616: 6615:Find sources: 6609: 6605: 6599: 6598: 6593:This section 6591: 6587: 6582: 6581: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6563: 6558: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6536: 6532: 6524: 6519: 6509: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6490: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6464: 6460: 6457: 6456: 6451: 6450:Gunnar Myrdal 6447: 6443: 6440:of President 6439: 6434: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6419: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6384: 6382: 6374: 6370: 6361: 6358: 6354: 6353:A Rising Wind 6350: 6346: 6341: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6325: 6322: 6317: 6313: 6308: 6306: 6305:93rd Division 6302: 6298: 6297:92nd Division 6293: 6291: 6290: 6285: 6281: 6280:Bamber Bridge 6277: 6271: 6267: 6261: 6257: 6252: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6208: 6198: 6195: 6192: 6188: 6183: 6180: 6176: 6175:sharecroppers 6166: 6164: 6160: 6154: 6152: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6134: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6118: 6115: 6111: 6106: 6102: 6098: 6093: 6091: 6087: 6082: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6067: 6061: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6013: 6011: 6007: 6003: 5998: 5995: 5994:Lorena Hickok 5986: 5982: 5977: 5964: 5963: 5958: 5957: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5942: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5931: 5921: 5919: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5898: 5893: 5889: 5887: 5886:German troops 5883: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5862: 5858: 5856: 5855: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5836:Meuse-Argonne 5833: 5829: 5820: 5816: 5810: 5805: 5801: 5799: 5795: 5790: 5788: 5783: 5780: 5777: 5774: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5739: 5734: 5730: 5728: 5724: 5718: 5716: 5712: 5697: 5691: 5686: 5678: 5673: 5667: 5657: 5655: 5651: 5646: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5624: 5614: 5612: 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5595:Marcus Garvey 5592: 5588: 5583: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5528: 5525: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5500: 5486: 5485: 5484: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5459: 5455: 5449: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5425: 5415: 5413: 5407: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5388: 5379: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5352: 5348: 5342: 5340: 5335: 5332: 5328: 5325:In 1865, the 5318: 5316: 5315:sharecroppers 5310: 5308: 5307: 5302: 5301: 5296: 5292: 5288: 5287:Supreme Court 5284: 5283: 5277: 5275: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5253: 5246: 5241: 5237: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5221: 5216: 5212: 5211:Jim Crow laws 5206: 5202: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5172: 5167: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5146: 5142: 5140: 5135: 5129: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5111: 5102: 5097: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5073: 5069: 5066: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5046: 5036: 5033: 5029: 5024: 5020: 5019:obiter dictum 5015: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4983: 4978: 4975: 4971: 4966: 4962: 4961: 4953: 4943: 4940: 4939:Absalom Jones 4934: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4907: 4905: 4901: 4900:denominations 4896: 4892: 4888: 4882: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4867: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4851: 4847: 4838: 4836: 4831: 4825: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4809: 4806: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4789: 4784: 4782: 4781:Abolitionists 4777: 4773: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4702: 4700: 4696: 4691: 4686: 4684: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4637: 4635: 4630: 4628: 4627:Richard Allen 4624: 4617: 4613: 4603: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4558: 4556: 4552: 4551:freedom suits 4548: 4547:Massachusetts 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4519: 4517: 4513: 4502: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4466: 4464: 4460: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4430: 4428: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4388: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4330: 4328: 4322: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4305: 4295: 4293: 4289: 4283: 4281: 4275: 4273: 4263: 4260: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4237: 4233: 4231: 4230:Massachusetts 4225: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4198:Point Comfort 4195: 4192:In 1619, the 4190: 4188: 4179: 4175: 4168: 4166: 4160: 4150: 4147: 4139: 4128: 4125: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4097: – 4096: 4092: 4091:Find sources: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4069:This article 4067: 4063: 4058: 4057: 4049: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4034: 4032: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4011: 4005: 3990: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3971: 3970: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3950: 3948:Sierra Leone 3947: 3946: 3942: 3939: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3919: 3918:(1700–1820): 3917: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3810: 3809:Côte d'Ivoire 3806: 3802: 3798: 3794: 3793:Guinea-Bissau 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3766:Senegal River 3763: 3759: 3756:(present-day 3755: 3752: 3751: 3750: 3742: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3665: 3660: 3650: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3572:Jim Crow laws 3570:known as the 3569: 3565: 3564:disfranchised 3561: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3481:United States 3478: 3474: 3469: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3422:Francis Drake 3419: 3418:North America 3415: 3411: 3400: 3395: 3393: 3388: 3386: 3381: 3380: 3378: 3377: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3352: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3337: 3336:Minstrel show 3334: 3332: 3331:Magical Negro 3329: 3327: 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3313: 3311: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3300: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3270: 3268: 3265: 3264: 3262: 3261: 3257: 3256: 3248: 3247: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3197: 3196: 3194: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3186: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3170: 3167: 3165: 3162: 3160: 3157: 3156: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3148: 3142: 3141:West Virginia 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3093: 3091: 3090: 3087: 3084: 3083: 3077: 3076:San Francisco 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3056:New York City 3054: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2983: 2981: 2980: 2976: 2975: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2899: 2896: 2894: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2874: 2871: 2869: 2866: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2856: 2855: 2853: 2852: 2848: 2847: 2839: 2838: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2806: 2805: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2797: 2791: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2774: 2771: 2770: 2769: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2749: 2748: 2736: 2733: 2732: 2730: 2729: 2725: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2713: 2710: 2708: 2707:Nova Scotians 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2685: 2684: 2682: 2681: 2677: 2676: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2660: 2659: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2621: 2618: 2616: 2613: 2612: 2611: 2610:Black Indians 2608: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2592: 2590: 2589: 2585: 2584: 2576: 2575: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2548:HBCU (HBCUAC) 2546: 2544: 2541: 2540: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2533: 2528: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2522: 2514: 2513: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2461: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2452: 2449:Organizations 2448: 2447: 2439: 2438: 2426: 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2406: 2403: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2368: 2366: 2363: 2361: 2358: 2357: 2355: 2354: 2350: 2349: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2333: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2322: 2321: 2318:Organizations 2317: 2316: 2308: 2307: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2253: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2238: 2236: 2235: 2231: 2230: 2224: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2217: 2213: 2212: 2207: 2202: 2201: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2179: 2177: 2174: 2170: 2167: 2166: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2141: 2137: 2136: 2130: 2127: 2125: 2122: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2112: 2111: 2109: 2108: 2104: 2103: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2087: 2084: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2076: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2050: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2042: 2036: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2011: 2009: 2008: 2004: 2003: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1986:Neighborhoods 1984: 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1972: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1962: 1959: 1957: 1954: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1946: 1945: 1941: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1929: 1918: 1915: 1913: 1910: 1908: 1905: 1904: 1903: 1902: 1898: 1897: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1853: 1851: 1848: 1846: 1843: 1841: 1838: 1836: 1833: 1831: 1828: 1824: 1821: 1820: 1819: 1816: 1813: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1769: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1741: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1712: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1693: 1685: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1675:List of years 1673: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1654: 1646: 1644: 1643:Urban history 1641: 1640: 1639: 1638: 1634: 1633: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1599: 1598: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1437: 1434: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1417: 1414: 1412: 1409: 1407: 1404: 1402: 1399: 1397: 1394: 1392: 1389: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1338: 1337: 1336: 1332: 1331: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1313: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1259: 1258: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1164: 1162: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1090: 1089: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1074:Thai American 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1050: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1033: 1032: 1026: 1025: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 996: 993: 992: 991: 990: 986: 982: 979: 978: 977: 976: 972: 970: 969: 965: 963: 962: 958: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 925: 924: 923: 922:Party Systems 919: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 886: 885: 884: 880: 878: 877: 873: 871: 870: 866: 862: 861:Voting rights 859: 857: 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 803: 802: 801: 797: 795: 794: 790: 786: 783: 782: 781: 780: 776: 772: 769: 768: 767: 766: 762: 758: 755: 754: 753: 752: 748: 744: 741: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 725: 724: 723: 719: 715: 712: 711: 710: 709: 705: 703: 702: 698: 696: 695: 691: 690: 684: 683: 673: 670: 669: 666: 664: 663: 659: 658: 654: 652: 648: 647: 644: 642: 641: 637: 636: 632: 630: 626: 625: 622: 620: 619: 615: 614: 610: 608: 604: 603: 599: 597: 593: 592: 589: 587: 586: 582: 581: 577: 575: 571: 570: 566: 564: 560: 559: 556: 554: 553: 549: 548: 544: 542: 538: 537: 533: 531: 527: 526: 522: 520: 516: 515: 511: 509: 505: 504: 501: 499: 498: 494: 493: 489: 487: 483: 482: 478: 476: 472: 471: 467: 465: 461: 460: 457: 455: 454: 450: 449: 445: 443: 442:Civil War Era 439: 438: 435: 433: 432: 428: 427: 423: 421: 417: 416: 412: 410: 406: 405: 402: 400: 399: 395: 394: 390: 388: 384: 383: 379: 377: 373: 372: 369: 367: 366: 362: 361: 357: 355: 351: 350: 346: 344: 340: 339: 336: 334: 333: 329: 328: 324: 322: 321: 317: 316: 312: 310: 309: 304: 303: 299: 298: 293: 286: 285: 281: 277: 276: 273: 272:United States 266: 265: 262: 259: 258: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 222:runaway slave 219: 209: 200: 189: 180: 169: 160: 149: 140: 131: 123: 120: 112: 101: 98: 94: 91: 87: 84: 80: 77: 73: 70: – 69: 65: 64:Find sources: 58: 54: 48: 47: 42:This article 40: 36: 31: 30: 27: 19: 21905: 21739:Bunce Island 21660: 21600:Demographics 21581:Igbo Landing 21412:Black church 21372: 21365: 21359:Publications 21346: 21338: 21330: 21322: 21314: 21306: 21235: 21175:David Garrow 21155:John Dittmer 21026: 20953:Brown Chapel 20910: 20903: 20896: 20889: 20882: 20868: 20825: 20677:Andrew Young 20632:A. T. Walden 20627:C. T. Vivian 20587:Maxine Smith 20422:Homer Plessy 20402:James Orange 20357:Irene Morgan 20312:William Ming 20292:Ralph McGill 20227:Viola Liuzzo 20212:Jim Letherer 20197:James Lawson 20127:Vernon Johns 20117:Esau Jenkins 20072:Myles Horton 20022:Fred Hampton 20012:Prathia Hall 20002:Dick Gregory 19972:Marie Foster 19967:James Forman 19957:James Farmer 19942:Medgar Evers 19902:Angela Davis 19837:Ramsey Clark 19817:James Chaney 19812:Johnnie Carr 19792:Ralph Bunche 19787:H. Rap Brown 19777:Ruby Bridges 19737:Joanne Bland 19712:Claude Black 19692:Marion Barry 19662:Muhammad Ali 19489: 19425: 19418: 19379: 19357: 19326: 19319: 19161: 19122: 19115: 19045:Kissing Case 19020: 18977: 18960: 18951: 18944: 18937: 18930: 18923: 18899: 18891: 18693:Sportspeople 18663:Billionaires 18580:Sierra Leone 18483:Philadelphia 18319:Jacksonville 18146:Demographics 17978:Jack Johnson 17968:Muhammad Ali 17801:Conservatism 17736:Black church 17633:Andrew Young 17618:Ida B. Wells 17608:David Walker 17603:C. T. Vivian 17558:Paul Robeson 17553:Hiram Revels 17533:Colin Powell 17513:Barack Obama 17468:James Lawson 17423:Jimi Hendrix 17393:James Farmer 17388:Medgar Evers 17358:Ralph Bunche 17308:Maya Angelou 17282:Middle class 17160:Afrofuturism 17086: 17074: 17067: 16988: 16933: 16880: 16846:Afrocentrism 16836:Abolitionism 16822: 16686:Midway Atoll 16681:Kingman Reef 16661:Baker Island 16640:Puerto Rico 16552:South Dakota 16542:Rhode Island 16537:Pennsylvania 16517:North Dakota 16233: 16226: 16207: 16168: 16161: 16147: 16093: 16049: 16043: 16042: 15985: 15971: 15964: 15957: 15918: 15892:Marine Corps 15879: 15872: 15865: 15829:Debt ceiling 15814:Civil Rights 15796: 15789: 15775: 15761: 15747: 15718: 15713:Antisemitism 15711: 15704: 15660: 15621: 15557:2008–present 15509:Bush v. Gore 15507: 15445:War on drugs 15319:Mid Cold War 15171:Pearl Harbor 15166:World War II 14986:Ku Klux Klan 14583:Dummer's War 14522: 14515: 14509:Pre-Colonial 14415:. 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Retrieved 8374: 8364: 8355: 8349: 8228: 8227: 8086: 8059: 8058: 7825:Black church 7694: 7685:Black school 7444:Lonnie Bunch 7401: 7385: 7377: 7361: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7344: 7340: 7311: 7299: 7279:black people 7271: 7250:ethnic group 7227: 7211: 7188: 7176:Barack Obama 7173: 7149: 7121:Colin Powell 7114: 7095: 7088: 7084:Barack Obama 7055: 7046: 7036: 7029: 7022: 7015: 7003: 6991:Please help 6986:verification 6983: 6957:Black flight 6920: 6893: 6877:James Chaney 6873: 6842: 6820:(CORE); and 6814:James Farmer 6767: 6746: 6728: 6716: 6693: 6687: 6666: 6657: 6647: 6640: 6633: 6626: 6614: 6602:Please help 6597:verification 6594: 6570: 6566: 6559: 6551:World War II 6540: 6494:Ethel Waters 6487: 6470: 6461: 6454: 6435: 6417: 6398: 6385: 6377: 6352: 6342: 6326: 6312:Port Chicago 6309: 6294: 6287: 6272: 6268: 6265: 6234: 6231: 6201:World War II 6196: 6190: 6184: 6172: 6155: 6135: 6119: 6094: 6083: 6070: 6062: 6037: 6021:Harold Ickes 6014: 5999: 5990: 5960: 5954: 5947: 5937: 5902: 5897:Barbara Bush 5867: 5853: 5825: 5813: 5792:Among these 5791: 5784: 5781: 5778: 5775: 5772: 5769: 5742: 5719: 5708: 5692:who won the 5642: 5626: 5584: 5560:Claude McKay 5556:Nella Larsen 5536:Aimé Césaire 5529: 5521: 5483:says it is: 5481:Rupert Vance 5476: 5462: 5450: 5427: 5408: 5400:Ida B. Wells 5384: 5364:White League 5356: 5343: 5327:Ku Klux Klan 5324: 5311: 5304: 5298: 5280: 5278: 5254: 5250: 5222: 5218: 5180: 5168: 5153:Hiram Revels 5151: 5130: 5113: 5107: 5070: 5058: 5012: 4981: 4959: 4955: 4935: 4908: 4887:Black church 4883: 4879:middle class 4875:James Forten 4868: 4864: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4834: 4826: 4810: 4804: 4798: 4792: 4785: 4779: 4766:Abolitionism 4749: 4730: 4722:sectionalism 4703: 4687: 4680: 4676:Pennsylvania 4665: 4631: 4623:Black church 4619: 4616:Black church 4585: 4572: 4559: 4543:Quock Walker 4527:constitution 4520: 4508: 4495:Sierra Leone 4467: 4446:Lord Dunmore 4438:emancipation 4431: 4427:Agrippa Hull 4424: 4389: 4379:—founder of 4350: 4323: 4312: 4308: 4301: 4284: 4276: 4269: 4261: 4253:expansionism 4250: 4245: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4191: 4183: 4177: 4162: 4142: 4133: 4123: 4116: 4109: 4102: 4090: 4078:Please help 4073:verification 4070: 4052:Colonial era 4046: 4041: 4035: 4028: 4007: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3801:Sierra Leone 3781:Sierra Leone 3748: 3738:creolization 3675: 3637:, including 3620: 3614:to pass the 3590:to overturn 3554:defeat, the 3549: 3509:slave system 3470: 3409: 3408: 3234:Sierra Leone 3066:Philadelphia 3036:Jacksonville 2632:Brass Ankles 2385:Conservatism 2360:Afrocentrism 2332:Joint Center 2223:Black church 2214:Institutions 2129:Billionaires 2119:Middle class 2072:Celebrations 2035:Fraternities 1761: 1230: 1223: 1204: 1165: 1158: 1144: 1085: 1041: 1034: 987: 973: 968:Social class 966: 959: 920: 894:Marine Corps 881: 874: 867: 831:Debt ceiling 816:Civil rights 798: 791: 777: 763: 749: 720: 708:Civil unrest 706: 701:Antisemitism 699: 692: 674:2008–present 662:2008–present 660: 638: 616: 583: 550: 541:World War II 495: 451: 429: 396: 363: 330: 320:Colonial Era 318: 306: 300: 260: 130: 115: 106: 96: 89: 82: 75: 63: 51:Please help 46:verification 43: 26: 21638:Hog Hammock 21508:Ranky Tanky 21442:Goofer dust 21351:(1994–2000) 21195:Doug McAdam 21165:Chuck Fager 20792:Nonviolence 20697:James Zwerg 20692:Bob Zellner 20652:Roy Wilkins 20602:Hank Thomas 20537:Pete Seeger 20532:Bobby Seale 20397:Jack O'Dell 20392:Edgar Nixon 20322:Amzie Moore 20317:Jack Minnis 20257:Mae Mallory 20242:Clara Luper 20202:Bernard Lee 20092:Cecil Ivory 20087:Ruby Hurley 20057:Oliver Hill 20052:Aaron Henry 19952:Chuck Fager 19912:Dave Dennis 19802:Guy Carawan 19742:Julian Bond 19707:James Bevel 19697:Daisy Bates 18968:Emmett Till 18851:(1954–1968) 18713:US senators 18683:Republicans 18668:Journalists 18525:San Antonio 18490:Puerto Rico 18431:Mississippi 18324:Tallahassee 18297:Los Angeles 17988:Jesse Owens 17973:Arthur Ashe 17831:Nationalism 17821:Raised fist 17784:Black power 17689:in medicine 17623:Roy Wilkins 17578:Emmett Till 17563:Al Sharpton 17328:Julian Bond 17323:James Bevel 17287:Upper class 17277:Stereotypes 17170:Black mecca 17082:Plantations 16861:Black Codes 16701:Wake Island 16467:Mississippi 16382:Connecticut 16326:New England 15993:Agriculture 15912:Coast Guard 15907:Space Force 15755:Immigration 15483:WTC bombing 15401:Reaganomics 15329:Vietnam War 15245:McCarthyism 15127:Second Klan 15112:Prohibition 15090:World War I 15065:Square Deal 15055:Imperialism 14790:War of 1812 14517:Prehistoric 14417:October 25, 13990:(1): 1–23. 13493:081012315-0 12916:"One in 31" 11551:Jam Voogd, 11084:Guncite.com 10872:December 6, 10815:December 6, 10702:Jim Downs, 10042:(1): 5–20. 9154:www.nps.gov 7519:Brent Leggs 7484:Steven Hahn 7380:Gerald Ford 7184:Mitt Romney 7168:Bob Johnson 7127:, 2001–05; 7110:U.S. Senate 6939:Black Power 6851:, and then 6794:Roy Wilkins 6409:Los Angeles 6284:Frank Capra 5809:World War I 5660:World War I 5404:due process 5329:, a secret 5303:(1903) and 5007:bullwhipped 4602:to Africa. 4512:Nova Scotia 4463:Boston King 4459:Colonel Tye 4416:Bunker Hill 4383:—submitted 4377:Prince Hall 4327:field hands 4292:West Africa 4202:Fort Monroe 4008:Before the 3964:Gold Coast 3956:Senegambia 3927:Percentage 3886:, parts of 3835:Benue River 3831:Volta River 3774:Niger River 3653:Enslavement 3552:Confederate 3543:issued the 3517:free states 3505:plantations 3426:Golden Hind 3302:Stereotypes 3229:Nova Scotia 3111:Mississippi 3071:San Antonio 3051:Los Angeles 2986:Black mecca 2913:Mississippi 2820:Negro Dutch 2642:Dominickers 2586:Multiethnic 2495:TransAfrica 2405:Nationalism 2375:Black power 2159:Black pride 2124:Upper class 1823:Politicians 1594:Territories 1315:New England 995:Agriculture 914:Coast Guard 909:Space Force 757:Immigration 607:Vietnam War 508:World War I 302:Prehistoric 218:field hands 21921:Categories 21886:Toucouleur 21717:Senegambia 21467:Ring shout 21447:Haint blue 21138:historians 20819:Satyagraha 20785:Influences 20477:James Reeb 20412:James Peck 20407:Rosa Parks 20377:Diane Nash 20247:Danny Lyon 20222:John Lewis 20167:A. D. King 20067:James Hood 19682:Ella Baker 19652:Zev Aelony 18658:Astronauts 18448:New Jersey 18292:California 17796:Capitalism 17593:Nat Turner 17523:Rosa Parks 17508:Diane Nash 17478:John Lewis 17267:Newspapers 17237:Literature 17222:Juneteenth 17175:Businesses 17029:Exodusters 16997:Free Negro 16582:Washington 16502:New Mexico 16497:New Jersey 16372:California 15867:Journalism 15819:Corruption 15798:Government 15749:Demography 15736:Newspapers 15585:Sandy Hook 15488:Waco siege 15396:Reagan era 15302:Space Race 15235:Korean War 15176:home front 15008:Gilded Age 14976:Amendments 14029:0631230661 13804:Fulltext: 13780:Fulltext: 13498:Boyd, Herb 13487:, (2005). 13342:Since 1914 13195:B08SCBR8WY 12948:Fulltext: 12900:August 28, 12829:August 12, 12657:August 28, 12350:0786412046 11410:August 28, 11256:Charm 2007 11089:August 28, 10611:August 28, 10586:August 28, 10546:August 28, 9946:(3): 393. 9756:Revolution 9723:Revolution 9582:August 28, 9523:Revolution 9438:August 28, 9428:"Clotilde" 9412:August 28, 8697:0195167791 8687:(5 vol.). 8670:0679733477 8645:0766012972 8638:. Enslow. 8589:0060524308 8078:incomplete 7449:Eric Foner 7424:Ira Berlin 7228:After the 7160:Forbes 400 7075:The first 7019:newspapers 6840:" speech. 6822:John Lewis 6698:(1954) of 6630:newspapers 6562:West Coast 6506:race films 6476:Lena Horne 6430:Appalachia 6422:zoot suits 6364:Home front 6205:See also: 6025:Alger Hiss 5950:Red Summer 5664:See also: 5633:Ivy League 5372:Red Shirts 5368:Deep South 5261:poll taxes 5234:Exodusters 5209:See also: 5114:Dred Scott 5094:See also: 5053:See also: 5014:Dred Scott 4997:Peter aka 4856:stevedores 4770:See also: 4714:indentured 4699:Deep South 4690:cotton gin 4644:See also: 4600:emigrating 4555:Paul Cuffe 4337:See also: 4214:Portuguese 4106:newspapers 4039:slave ship 3912:New France 3892:Madagascar 3884:Mozambique 3837:in modern 3816:Gold Coast 3762:The Gambia 3754:Senegambia 3639:literature 3604:Rosa Parks 3430:New Albion 2868:California 2842:Population 2415:Patriotism 2400:Liberalism 2380:Capitalism 2351:Ideologies 2232:Theologies 2091:Juneteenth 2063:Literature 1991:Newspapers 1899:Migrations 1830:Juneteenth 869:Journalism 821:Corruption 800:Government 751:Demography 738:Newspapers 629:Reagan Era 475:Gilded Age 313:until 1607 109:April 2023 79:newspapers 20797:Padayatra 20746:"Kumbaya" 20706:By region 20362:Bob Moses 20267:Bob Mants 20252:Malcolm X 20172:C.B. King 19992:Fred Gray 19635:Activists 19276:1964–1968 19059:1960–1963 18917:1954–1959 18772:Monuments 18648:Activists 18500:Tennessee 18420:Michigan 18404:Baltimore 18394:Louisiana 18387:Lexington 18370:Davenport 18309:Cleveland 18208:Languages 18137:Melungeon 18115:Blaxicans 17983:Joe Louis 17838:Socialism 17774:Anarchism 17503:Bob Moses 17488:Malcolm X 17408:Fred Gray 17272:Soul food 17210:New Negro 17195:Folktales 17105:Redlining 16592:Wisconsin 16557:Tennessee 16462:Minnesota 16437:Louisiana 16331:The South 15902:Air Force 15777:Education 15639:recession 15595:Las Vegas 15503:Columbine 15460:1991–2008 15388:1980–1991 15289:1964–1980 15200:1945–1964 15154:Dust Bowl 15082:1917–1945 14963:1865–1917 14941:Civil War 14934:Secession 14879:1849–1865 14802:1815–1849 14773:Quasi-War 14750:1789–1815 14670:1776–1789 14623:Sugar Act 14152:April 18, 14047:0048-7511 13975:144201941 13939:0002-8762 13903:149836969 13802:0021-8723 13778:1548-1867 13457:153118305 13273:. (1988) 12983:0197-4327 12946:0197-4327 12603:March 18, 11706:Kennedy, 10303:0022-4642 10170:132137921 10114:(London, 10101:(2000).32 10056:143734647 10006:April 12, 9960:145385967 9609:(3): 2–3. 9556:(3): 1–2. 9349:0144-039X 8798:0043-5597 7386:In 2021, 7281:. During 7133:Ron Brown 7096:In 1989, 6923:Malcolm X 6808:, of the 6800:, of the 6547:the South 6543:migration 6467:Hollywood 6316:explosion 5868:Corporal 5544:négritude 5517:1940–1970 5396:lynchings 5339:terrorism 4793:In 1852, 4718:kidnapped 4660:Louisiana 4580:Moravians 4483:Loyalists 4434:Loyalists 4385:petitions 4361:manifesto 4222:Caribbean 4165:Jamestown 4136:July 2022 4025:Transport 3916:New Spain 3785:Casamance 3576:lynchings 3446:cash crop 3326:Hollywood 3316:Blackface 3251:Prejudice 3169:US cities 3046:Lexington 3021:Davenport 3001:Baltimore 2977:US cities 2953:Tennessee 2903:Louisiana 2849:US states 2657:Melungeon 2627:Blaxicans 2425:Socialism 2390:Garveyism 2365:Anarchism 2169:Good hair 1996:Soul food 1966:Folktales 1320:The South 904:Air Force 779:Education 655:1991–2008 640:1991–2008 633:1981–1991 618:1980–1991 611:1964–1975 600:1954–1968 585:1964–1980 578:1954–1968 567:1945–1964 552:1945–1964 545:1941–1945 534:1929–1941 523:1918–1929 512:1917–1918 497:1917–1945 490:1896–1917 479:1877–1896 468:1865–1877 453:1865–1917 446:1849–1865 431:1849–1865 424:1825–1849 413:1817–1825 398:1815–1849 391:1801–1817 380:1788–1801 365:1789–1815 358:1783–1788 347:1765–1783 332:1776–1789 325:1607–1765 248:'s hair, 242:Malcolm X 224:rewards, 21907:Category 21864:Niominka 21819:Mandinka 21384:Language 20727:Movement 20157:Tom Kahn 19441:Activist 18861:timeline 18795:Category 18586:America 18552:Diaspora 18537:Virginia 18470:Oklahoma 18453:New York 18436:Nebraska 18399:Maryland 18382:Kentucky 18348:Illinois 18287:Arkansas 18192:Illinois 18130:of color 17816:Populism 17789:Movement 17706:Religion 17048:Lynching 16831:Timeline 16763:Category 16577:Virginia 16527:Oklahoma 16507:New York 16482:Nebraska 16472:Missouri 16457:Michigan 16447:Maryland 16432:Kentucky 16412:Illinois 16387:Delaware 16377:Colorado 16367:Arkansas 16246:Lesbians 16220:Comanche 16215:Cherokee 16008:Medicine 15966:Genocide 15959:Religion 15881:Military 15854:Taxation 15804:Abortion 15720:Cultural 15600:Parkland 15530:Iraq War 15468:Gulf War 15240:Ivy Mike 15159:New Deal 14535:Colonial 14480:Timeline 14288:(1992), 14259:(1992), 14088:in JSTOR 14066:(2000), 14051:in Jstor 14013:(1999), 13929:, 1987, 13846:in JSTOR 13518:(1998); 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