Antibiotic - Knowledge

2656: 557:. Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local 1382:) have advocated restricting the amount of antibiotic use in food animal production. However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the 595: 933: 2390: 2105: 65: 1302: 1533: 1171: 921: 1759:. He observed that the presence of the mould killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria. Fleming postulated that the mould must secrete an antibacterial substance, which he named penicillin in 1928. Fleming believed that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterised some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists. 2448: 2125: 820:, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. The bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, 2096: 1510: 1240:. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by 1320:, "The first rule of antibiotics is to try not to use them, and the second rule is try not to use too many of them." Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, potential harm from antibiotics extends beyond selection of antimicrobial resistance and their overuse is associated with adverse effects for patients themselves, seen most clearly in 1648: 2711:, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins. 12084: 2116: 17520: 1704:" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes), the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of moulds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and moulds engage in a perpetual battle for survival. Duchesne observed that 2412:. Bacteriophages, also known as phages, infect and kill bacteria primarily during lytic cycles. Phages insert their DNA into the bacterium, where it is transcribed and used to make new phages, after which the cell will lyse, releasing new phage that are able to infect and destroy further bacteria of the same strain. The high specificity of phage protects 2179:, for example, are screened on the basis that they are used by traditional healers to prevent or cure infection and may therefore contain antibacterial compounds. Also, soil bacteria are screened on the basis that, historically, they have been a very rich source of antibiotics (with 70 to 80% of antibiotics in current use derived from the 1822:. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the 1790:. (see below) The development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Chain and Florey shared the 1945 1333:

of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics.

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will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior

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A few antibiotics have received marketing authorization in the last seven years. The cephalosporin ceftaroline and the lipoglycopeptides oritavancin and telavancin have been approved for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection and community-acquired bacterial pneumonia. The

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Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were, for a while, well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose

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Resistance may take the form of biodegradation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces. The survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance, but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs

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Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption

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can be started. This will usually involve the use of a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The choice of antibiotic given will also be based on its cost. Identification is critically important as it can reduce the cost and toxicity of the antibiotic therapy and also reduce the possibility of the emergence of

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clinical trials. However, these drugs did not address the entire spectrum of resistance of Gram-negative bacilli. According to the WHO fifty one new therapeutic entities - antibiotics (including combinations), are in phase 1-3 clinical trials as of May 2017. Antibiotics targeting multidrug-resistant

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that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial

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in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would colour human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After

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of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse

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for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection

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Some disadvantages to the use of bacteriophages also exist, however. Bacteriophages may harbour virulence factors or toxic genes in their genomes and, prior to use, it may be prudent to identify genes with similarity to known virulence factors or toxins by genomic sequencing. In addition, the oral

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director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."

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report that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. The Infectious Disease Society of America report noted that the number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year had been declining and identified seven antibiotics against the

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During the mid-20th century, the number of new antibiotic substances introduced for medical use increased significantly. From 1935 to 1968, 12 new classes were launched. However, after this, the number of new classes dropped markedly, with only two new classes introduced between 1969 and 2003.

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Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to

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The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the European Union has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (including the World Health Organization, the

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found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics. The lack of rapid point of care diagnostic tests, particularly in

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antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and

750:. More studies on the possible interactions between antibiotics and birth control pills (oral contraceptives) are required as well as careful assessment of patient-specific risk factors for potential oral contractive pill failure prior to dismissing the need for backup contraception. 304:

as a widespread "serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country". Global deaths attributable to antimicrobial resistance numbered 1.27 million in 2019.

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conglomerate in Germany, for which Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Sulfanilamide, the active drug of Prontosil, was not patentable as it had already been in use in the dye industry for some years. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against

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Flowers CR, Seidenfeld J, Bow EJ, Karten C, Gleason C, Hawley DK, et al. (February 2013). "Antimicrobial prophylaxis and outpatient management of fever and neutropenia in adults treated for malignancy: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline".

8581:"Classics in infectious diseases: on the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae by Alexander Fleming, Reprinted from the British Journal of Experimental Pathology 10:226-236, 1929" 577:

report on surveillance of antibiotic consumption published in 2018 analysed 2015 data from 65 countries. As measured in defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day. Mongolia had the highest consumption with a rate of 64.4. Burundi had the lowest at 4.4.

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of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.

2671:. Strategies to accomplish this include well-established infection control measures such as infrastructure improvement (e.g. less crowded housing), better sanitation (e.g. safe drinking water and food) and vaccine development, other approaches such as 745:

in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibiotics that are suspected to interact with oral

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ranging from mild to very severe depending on the type of antibiotic used, the microbes targeted, and the individual patient. Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity or

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Observations about the growth of some microorganisms inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms have been reported since the late 19th century. These observations of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials.

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hurdles that must be cleared for such therapies. Despite numerous challenges, the use of bacteriophages as a replacement for antimicrobial agents against MDR pathogens that no longer respond to conventional antibiotics, remains an attractive option.

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in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic

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Ong S, Nakase J, Moran GJ, Karras DJ, Kuehnert MJ, Talan DA (September 2007). "Antibiotic use for emergency department patients with upper respiratory infections: prescribing practices, patient expectations, and patient satisfaction".

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with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin. In 1939, coinciding with the start of

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This poster from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention "Get Smart" campaign, intended for use in doctors' offices and other healthcare facilities, warns that antibiotics do not work for viral illnesses such as the common

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Metlay JP, Camargo CA, MacKenzie T, McCulloch C, Maselli J, Levin SK, et al. (September 2007). "Cluster-randomized trial to improve antibiotic use for adults with acute respiratory infections treated in emergency departments".

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administration of phages for the eradication of bacterial infections poses a much higher safety risk than topical application. Also, there is the additional concern of uncertain immune responses to these large antigenic cocktails.

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The use of antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease is not supported by current scientific evidence, and may actually increase cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality and the occurrence of stroke.

844:(i.e., the concurrent application of two or more antibiotics) has been used to delay or prevent the emergence of resistance. In acute bacterial infections, antibiotics as part of combination therapy are prescribed for their 1231:

Paleontological data show that both antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are ancient compounds and mechanisms. Useful antibiotic targets are those for which mutations negatively impact bacterial reproduction or viability.

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Antibacterial agents in clinical development: an analysis of the antibacterial clinical development pipeline, including tuberculosis. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017 (WHO/EMP/IAU/2017.12). Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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to prevent infection. Antibiotic cycling, where antibiotics are alternated by clinicians to treat microbial diseases, is proposed, but recent studies revealed such strategies are ineffective against antibiotic resistance.

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Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial

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Antibiotics are screened for any negative effects before their approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a wide extent of adverse

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Because antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains continue to emerge and spread, there is a constant need to develop new antibacterial treatments. Current strategies include traditional chemistry-based approaches such as

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Dalhoff A, Ambrose PG, Mouton JW (August 2009). "A long journey from minimum inhibitory concentration testing to clinically predictive breakpoints: deterministic and probabilistic approaches in deriving breakpoints".

1212:. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains. 2202:

pumps, thereby increasing the concentration of antibiotic able to reach its cellular target and decreasing bacterial resistance to the antibiotic. Natural products known to inhibit bacterial efflux pumps include the

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affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics were introduced to clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic

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Mendelson M, Røttingen JA, Gopinathan U, Hamer DH, Wertheim H, Basnyat B, et al. (January 2016). "Maximising access to achieve appropriate human antimicrobial use in low-income and middle-income countries".

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Despite pledges by food companies and restaurants to reduce or eliminate meat that comes from animals treated with antibiotics, the purchase of antibiotics for use on farm animals has been increasing every year.

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Calderon CB, Sabundayo BP (2007). Antimicrobial Classifications: Drugs for Bugs. In Schwalbe R, Steele-Moore L, Goodwin AC. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Protocols. CRC Press. Taylor & Frances group.

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Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. In the US, the

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In addition to silencing essential bacterial genes, antisense RNA can be used to silence bacterial genes responsible for antibiotic resistance. For example, antisense RNA has been developed that silences the

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lipoglycopeptide dalbavancin and the oxazolidinone tedizolid has also been approved for use for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection. The first in a new class of narrow-spectrum

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Rollins KE, Varadhan KK, Neal KR, Lobo DN (October 2016). "Antibiotics Versus Appendicectomy for the Treatment of Uncomplicated Acute Appendicitis: An Updated Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials".

1451:. Whilst antibiotics can clearly be lifesaving in patients with bacterial infections, their overuse, especially in patients where infections are hard to diagnose, can lead to harm via multiple mechanisms. 711:, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). Situations that may increase the risk of oral contraceptive failure include 1881:

colitis. New cephalosporin-lactamase inhibitor combinations also approved include ceftazidime-avibactam and ceftolozane-avibactam for complicated urinary tract infection and intra-abdominal infection.

1566:, achieved success with the 606th compound in their series of experiments. In 1910, Ehrlich and Hata announced their discovery, which they called drug "606", at the Congress for Internal Medicine at 6762:

Di Bella S, Antonello RM, Sanson G, Maraolo AE, Giacobbe DR, Sepulcri C, et al. (June 2022). "Anaerobic bloodstream infections in Italy (ITANAEROBY): A 5-year retrospective nationwide survey".

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In the early 2000s, a system was discovered that enables bacteria to defend themselves against invading viruses. The system, known as CRISPR-Cas9, consists of (a) an enzyme that destroys DNA (the

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of antibiotics to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The

7499: 366:. In current usage, the term "antibiotic" is applied to any medication that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth, regardless of whether that medication is produced by a microorganism or not. 730:

during antibiotic treatment and for one week after its completion. If patient-specific risk factors for reduced oral contraceptive efficacy are suspected, backup contraception is recommended.

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developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was first proposed by Abraham in 1942 and then later confirmed by

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Xia J, Feng B, Wen G, Xue W, Ma G, Zhang H, et al. (July 2020). "Bacterial Lipoprotein Biosynthetic Pathway as a Potential Target for Structure-based Design of Antibacterial Agents".

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genes instead of viral genes. The modified CRISPR-Cas9 system can then be administered to bacterial pathogens using plasmids or bacteriophages. This approach has successfully been used to

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Although the function of CRISPR-Cas9 in nature is to protect bacteria, the DNA sequences in the CRISPR component of the system can be modified so that the Cas9 nuclease targets bacterial

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succinate may be reduced by alcohol consumption. Other effects of alcohol on antibiotic activity include altered activity of the liver enzymes that break down the antibiotic compound.

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Antibiotics have been used since ancient times. Many civilizations used topical application of moldy bread, with many references to its beneficial effects arising from ancient Egypt,

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occurring. It is recommended to administer antibiotics as soon as possible, especially in life-threatening infections. Many emergency departments stock antibiotics for this purpose.

12368: 1370:. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children. 863:

and rifampicin. Antibiotics used in combination may also be antagonistic and the combined effects of the two antibiotics may be less than if one of the antibiotics was given as a

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the first scientific observations of the antagonistic actions of various micro-organisms were made ... by William Roberts of Manchester (1874) and John Tyndall of London (1876).

1287:. In recent years, even anaerobic bacteria, historically considered less concerning in terms of resistance, have demonstrated high rates of antibiotic resistance, particularly 6740: 252:(1567–1650). Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with 3784: 3848: 14873: 1341:

administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the

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Wiegand I, Hilpert K, Hancock RE (January 2008). "Agar and broth dilution methods to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of antimicrobial substances".

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have been shown to have anti-microbial properties. Along with this, the plants from which these oils have been derived from can be used as niche anti-microbial agents.

13220: 11627:"Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) in Poultry Nutrition and Their Effects on Nutrient Utilization, Growth and Laying Performance, and Gut Health: A Systematic Review" 3749: 3270: 879:. However, this can vary depending on the species of bacteria. In general, combinations of a bacteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal antibiotic are antagonistic. 828:

and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its

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to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but that are not produced by microorganisms (such as

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Gentry EM, Kester S, Fischer K, Davidson LE, Passaretti CL (March 2020). "Bugs and Drugs: Collaboration Between Infection Prevention and Antibiotic Stewardship".

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There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to

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Smullen J, Koutsou GA, Foster HA, Zumbé A, Storey DM (2007). "The antibacterial activity of plant extracts containing polyphenols against Streptococcus mutans".

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Pangilinan R, Tice A, Tillotson G (October 2009). "Topical antibiotic treatment for uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections: review of the literature".

737:, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the 11171:

D'Odorico I, Di Bella S, Monticelli J, Giacobbe DR, Boldock E, Luzzati R (June 2018). "Role of fecal microbiota transplantation in inflammatory bowel disease".

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has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections." On 26 May 2016, an

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Bills GF, Gloer JB, An Z (October 2013). "Coprophilous fungi: antibiotic discovery and functions in an underexplored arena of microbial defensive mutualism".

9431: 8112: 8082: 1470:. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2,000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the 16697: 14234: 12361: 9012: 7429: 5907: 4522: 3384: 2791: 2923: 2699:

modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of

2023: 1726:, the animals did not contract typhoid. Duchesne's army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research. Duchesne died of 7491: 6104:"Accelerated Biodegradation of Veterinary Antibiotics in Agricultural Soil following Long-Term Exposure, and Isolation of a Sulfamethazine-degrading sp" 1914:(ceftazidime/NXL104): antipseudomonal cephalosporin/β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor). FDA approved on 25 February 2015. 10668:

Molnár J, Engi H, Hohmann J, Molnár P, Deli J, Wesolowska O, et al. (2010). "Reversal of multidrug resistance by natural substances from plants".

9528:"Bioprospecting for Antibacterial Drugs: a Multidisciplinary Perspective on Natural Product Source Material, Bioassay Selection and Avoidable Pitfalls" 8168: 5027: 4473:

Slama TG, Amin A, Brunton SA, File TM, Milkovich G, Rodvold KA, et al. (Council for Appropriate Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT)) (July 2005).

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Fierens J, Depuydt PO, De Waele JJ (August 2019). "A Practical Approach to Clinical Antibiotic Stewardship in the ICU Patient with Severe Infection".

4475:"A clinician's guide to the appropriate and accurate use of antibiotics: the Council for Appropriate and Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) criteria" 4434:"A clinician's guide to the appropriate and accurate use of antibiotics: the Council for Appropriate and Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) criteria" 14515: 6653: 4893:

Weaver K, Glasier A (February 1999). "Interaction between broad-spectrum antibiotics and the combined oral contraceptive pill. A literature review".

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von Nussbaum F, Brands M, Hinzen B, Weigand S, Häbich D (August 2006). "Antibacterial natural products in medicinal chemistry--exodus or revival?".

715:(missing taking the pill), vomiting, or diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disorders or interpatient variability in oral contraceptive absorption affecting 12354: 10100: 8142: 5592: 5539:"Fosfomycin as Partner Drug for Systemic Infection Management. A Systematic Review of Its Synergistic Properties from In Vitro and In Vivo Studies" 2400:

is under investigation as a method of treating antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Phage therapy involves infecting bacterial pathogens with

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too. Virulence factors are molecules, cellular structures and regulatory systems that enable bacteria to evade the body's immune defenses (e.g.

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observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics".

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This heralded the era of antibacterial treatment that was begun with the discovery of a series of arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics by both

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In addition to combining one antibiotic with another, antibiotics are sometimes co-administered with resistance-modifying agents. For example,

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as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when

9047:"10 x '20 Progress--development of new drugs active against gram-negative bacilli: an update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America" 8964:"10 x '20 Progress--development of new drugs active against gram-negative bacilli: an update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America" 932: 7558: 759:

may cause serious side effects. Therefore, potential risks of side effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered.

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screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the first synthetic antibacterial

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In cases where antibiotics have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibiotic

11678:"Dietary fiber in poultry nutrition and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, gut health, and on the environment: a review" 2583: 1741:, a molecule produced by certain moulds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of 1405:(FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the 1182: 1144:

has led to intense research into producing antibacterials at large scales. Following screening of antibacterials against a wide range of

1008:). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as 853: 10937: 4928:

Weisberg E (May 1999). "Interactions between oral contraceptives and antifungals/antibacterials. Is contraceptive failure the result?".

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encoding these essential proteins, and (c) delivering the single stranded RNA to the infection site using cell-penetrating peptides or

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Ghosh C, Sarkar P, Issa R, Haldar J (April 2019). "Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics in the Era of Antimicrobial Resistance".

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and their host ranges are extremely specific for certain bacteria, thus, unlike antibiotics, they do not disturb the host organism's

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In addition to screening natural products for direct antibacterial activity, they are sometimes screened for the ability to suppress

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Lwanga J, Mears, Bingham JS, Bradbeer CS (2008). "Do antibiotics and alcohol mix? The beliefs of genitourinary clinic attendees".

3776: 15799: 12346: 7177: 3840: 3242: 13321: 13310: 17470: 17457: 16071: 15827: 12314: 7342: 7060:"Interventions to facilitate shared decision making to address antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in primary care" 2856: 426:). When an infection is suspected of being responsible for an illness but the responsible pathogen has not been identified, an 641:

during the course of antibiotic treatment can help prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Antibacterials can also affect the

16742: 15411: 14508: 14459: 13164: 11861: 10931: 8421: 7309: 6824: 6218: 5827: 5713: 4613:"Genital Candida species detected in samples from women in Melbourne, Australia, before and after treatment with antibiotics" 3978: 3675: 3480: 3378: 3349: 3040: 2899: 1852: 1579: 209:. However, both classes have the same effect of killing or preventing the growth of microorganisms, and both are included in 16084: 7153: 1701:

Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes

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Abreu AC, McBain AJ, Simões M (September 2012). "Plants as sources of new antimicrobials and resistance-modifying agents".

6631: 952:, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall ( 11266: 6269:

D'Costa VM, King CE, Kalan L, Morar M, Sung WW, Schwarz C, et al. (August 2011). "Antibiotic resistance is ancient".

5311:"Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal activity in the treatment of gram-positive bacterial infections" 1427:

most notably kidney and liver damage, and super-infections with resistant organisms. Antibiotics are also known to affect

16396: 12152: 10297:"Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Phytochemicals against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and Their Biofilms" 4662:"Fluoroquinolones and tendinopathy: a guide for athletes and sports clinicians and a systematic review of the literature" 1409:

and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.

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Health advocacy messages such as this one encourage patients to talk with their doctor about safety in using antibiotics.

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Baker-Austin C, Wright MS, Stepanauskas R, McArthur JV (April 2006). "Co-selection of antibiotic and metal resistance".

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Saxena S (2015). "Chapter 8: Microbes in Production of Fine Chemicals (Antibiotics, Drugs, Vitamins, and Amino Acids)".

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effects to improve treatment outcome as the combined effect of both antibiotics is better than their individual effect.

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The use of antibiotics in modern medicine began with the discovery of synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes. Various

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The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include

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Capocci M (1 January 2014). "Cold drugs. Circulation, production and intelligence of antibiotics in post-WWII years".

8378: 4799:"Antibiotic use and abuse: a threat to mitochondria and chloroplasts with impact on research, health, and environment" 16892: 16887: 14567: 10165:

Kenny CR, Furey A, Lucey B (2015). "A post-antibiotic era looms: can plant natural product research fill the void?".

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Mok N, Chan SY, Liu SY, Chua SL (July 2020). "Vanillin inhibits PqsR-mediated virulence in Pseudomonas aeruginosa".

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Lindblad WJ (June 2008). "Considerations for determining if a natural product is an effective wound-healing agent".

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Andersson DI (October 2006). "The biological cost of mutational antibiotic resistance: any practical conclusions?".

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Sethi NJ, Safi S, Korang SK, Hróbjartsson A, Skoog M, Gluud C, et al. (Cochrane Heart Group) (February 2021).

1865: 1254: 1244:. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via 825: 708: 633: 13198: 11998:"Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults" 5113: 3148:"The contributions of Paul Ehrlich to pharmacology: a tribute on the occasion of the centenary of his Nobel Prize" 1861: 1209: 852:

has the highest number of synergistic combinations among antibiotics and is almost always used as a partner drug.

434:

based on the signs and symptoms presented and is initiated pending laboratory results that can take several days.

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about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse.

6158:

Witte W (September 2004). "International dissemination of antibiotic resistant strains of bacterial pathogens".

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Donald RG, Anderson AS (2011). "Current strategies for antibacterial vaccine development". In Miller PF (ed.).

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Sabuncu E, David J, Bernède-Bauduin C, Pépin S, Leroy M, Boëlle PY, et al. (June 2009). Klugman KP (ed.).

4514: 3365: 811: 76: 31: 15300: 11063:"Reprogramming Bacteriophage Host Range through Structure-Guided Design of Chimeric Receptor Binding Proteins" 7364: 3943: 2915: 2159:

extracts are being screened in the search for new antibiotics. Organisms may be selected for testing based on

798:, which may result in vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath. In addition, the efficacy of doxycycline and 17274: 15972: 15453: 15117: 15003: 14858: 8164: 5656: 3817: 2621:). These viral DNA sequences enable the nuclease to target foreign (viral) rather than self (bacterial) DNA. 1827: 1550:

and Ehrlich in 1907. Ehrlich and Bertheim had experimented with various chemicals derived from dyes to treat

1363: 1193: 482: 15069: 14946: 14632: 6473: 4999: 17301: 16454: 16217: 15932: 15347: 14739: 13430: 7205:"Significant reduction of antibiotic use in the community after a nationwide campaign in France, 2002-2007" 2475: 2375:). Antibody treatments act by binding to and neutralizing bacterial exotoxins and other virulence factors. 2354: 1578:. The drug was used to treat syphilis in the first half of the 20th century. In 1908, Ehrlich received the 1402: 1383: 1375: 1359: 1174: 526: 16126: 15189: 11313:"The Relationship between Infectious Diseases and Housing Maintenance in Indigenous Australian Households" 2133:

Bacteria, fungi, plants, animals and other organisms are being screened in the search for new antibiotics.

288:

conglomerate in Germany. However, the effectiveness and easy access to antibiotics have also led to their

17343: 17214: 17150: 17118: 17066: 16363: 16345: 14289: 14209: 13336: 13270: 12381: 12304: 11362: 9459: 4711:"Mitochondrial ribosomal RNA mutation associated with both antibiotic–induced and non–syndromic deafness" 2442: 2339: 2333: 2065: 1975: 1671: 1398: 1346: 985: 583: 230: 17: 14493: 12869: 12773: 12424: 12099: 10108: 8134: 5588: 5247:"Bactericidal action of daptomycin against stationary-phase and nondividing Staphylococcus aureus cells" 2504:

Antisense RNA-based treatment (also known as gene silencing therapy) involves (a) identifying bacterial

346:

and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is

17510: 16899: 16312: 16052: 11981:"WHO's first global report on antibiotic resistance reveals serious, worldwide threat to public health" 11216:"History of CRISPR-Cas from Encounter with a Mysterious Repeated Sequence to Genome Editing Technology" 3409:

Murray CJ, Ikuta KS, Sharara F, Swetschinski L, Robles Aguilar G, Gray A, et al. (February 2022).

2887: 2575: 2543: 2346:

since the 1910s, and this approach continues to be a useful way of controlling bacterial diseases. The

1998:

derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor targeting bacterial ribosomes). FDA approved on 2 October 2018.

1988:

derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor targeting bacterial ribosomes). FDA approved on 27 August 2018.

1517:

Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with

1196:

is a common phenomenon mainly caused by the overuse/misuse. It represents a threat to health globally.

1017: 795: 678:, a bacteria-derived organelle found in eukaryotic, including human, cells. Mitochondrial damage cause 210: 12129: 7580:

Kalghatgi S, Spina CS, Costello JC, Liesa M, Morones-Ramirez JR, Slomovic S, et al. (July 2013).

5444:

Ocampo PS, Lázár V, Papp B, Arnoldini M, Abel zur Wiesch P, Busa-Fekete R, et al. (August 2014).

1208:

for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the

229:, whereas antibiotics are an important class of antibacterials used more specifically in medicine and 17403: 17393: 17088: 17024: 16747: 16712: 16515: 16492: 16278: 16091: 14214: 13341: 13113: 12288: 12257: 9526:

Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Echeverría J, Fowsantear W, Thammawat S, Dodgson JL, et al. (June 2020).

6012: 5663:

Finberg RW, Moellering RC, Tally FP, Craig WA, Pankey GA, Dellinger EP, et al. (November 2004).

5498:"Antimicrobial interactions: mechanisms and implications for drug discovery and resistance evolution" 2490:. Fecal microbiota transplantation has also been used more recently for inflammatory bowel diseases. 2358: 1471: 1062: 431: 297: 249: 11988: 11574:

Giordano M, Baldassarre ME, Palmieri V, Torres DD, Carbone V, Santangelo L, et al. (May 2019).

9339:

Pahil KS, Gilman M, Baidin V, Clairfeuille T, Mattei P, Bieniossek C, et al. (3 January 2024).

6955: 4548: 2821: 1954:/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor). FDA approved on 29 August 2017. 17221: 17083: 16958: 16812: 15927: 15917: 14863: 13237: 12632: 12224: 12219: 7582:"Bactericidal antibiotics induce mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage in Mammalian cells" 6076: 5084: 4315:"Topical antibiotics for preventing surgical site infection in wounds healing by primary intention" 3968: 3195:

Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AK, Wertheim HF, Sumpradit N, et al. (December 2013).

2668: 2625: 2393:

Phage injecting its genome into a bacterium. Viral replication and bacterial cell lysis will ensue.

2300: 2236:

rather than secondary metabolites, have been shown to eradicate antibiotic tolerance. For example,

2187: 1782: 1587: 1574:

company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan, now known as

1276: 1266: 1241: 1217: 887: 594: 510: 301: 248:, Greece, and Rome. The first person to directly document the use of molds to treat infections was 14143: 12376: 10608:"Alkaloids: an overview of their antibacterial, antibiotic-enhancing and antivirulence activities" 7460: 2368:, and other monoclonal antibodies are in development (e.g. AR-301 for the adjunctive treatment of 1944:/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor). FDA approved on 16 July 2019. 1777:, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, 1629:. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide 17408: 17326: 17192: 16722: 16520: 16227: 16165: 15999: 15967: 15493: 15416: 14924: 14464: 14279: 14239: 13346: 13254: 13169: 11122:"Non-antibiotic treatments for bacterial diseases in an era of progressive antibiotic resistance" 10210:"Bactericidal effect of grape seed extract on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)" 9398: 7848:"Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians" 7522: 2746: 2731: 2317: 1791: 1523: 1460: 1149: 1076: 704: 38: 16079: 9851:

Czaplewski L, Bax R, Clokie M, Dawson M, Fairhead H, Fischetti VA, et al. (February 2016).

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Topp E, Chapman R, Devers-Lamrani M, Hartmann A, Marti R, Martin-Laurent F, et al. (2013).

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Pelczar MJ, Chan EC, Krieg NR (2010). "Host-Parasite Interaction; Nonspecific Host Resistance".

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Zampaloni C, Mattei P, Bleicher K, Winther L, Thäte C, Bucher C, et al. (3 January 2024).

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Hassan T (March 1987). "Pharmacologic considerations for patients taking oral contraceptives".

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antimicrobial resistance. To avoid surgery, antibiotics may be given for non-complicated acute

363: 265: 264:

in 1928, the widespread use of which proved significantly beneficial during wartime. The first

127: 14032: 13864: 13683: 11525:"The Role of Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics in Combating Multidrug-Resistant Organisms" 10921: 9916:

Moayyedi P, Yuan Y, Baharith H, Ford AC (August 2017). "Faecal microbiota transplantation for

5537:

Antonello RM, Principe L, Maraolo AE, Viaggi V, Pol R, Fabbiani M, et al. (August 2020).

3667: 2891: 2881: 612:

reactions. Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including

17550: 17316: 16948: 16817: 16325: 16232: 16151: 14695: 14691: 14575: 14284: 14269: 14249: 9965:"Antibiotic Resistance Profiles, Molecular Mechanisms and Innovative Treatment Strategies of 9587:"Structures of Bacterial MraY and Human GPT Provide Insights into Rational Antibiotic Design" 9045:

Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Benjamin DK, Bradley J, Guidos RJ, Jones RN, et al. (June 2013).

8962:

Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Benjamin DK, Bradley J, Guidos RJ, Jones RN, et al. (June 2013).

6546: 2751: 2676: 2547: 2460: 2409: 2256: 2195: 1947: 1857: 1642: 1424: 1413: 1165: 712: 450: 293: 71: 16096: 6661: 5939:"Decoding antimicrobial resistance: unraveling molecular mechanisms and targeted strategies" 2590:

mRNA has been shown to restore the susceptibility of methicillin-resistant staphylococci to

2550:

into the essential protein. Antisense RNA-based treatment has been shown to be effective in

1691:, Italian physician, published a paper on the antibacterial power of some extracts of mold. 17540: 17398: 17291: 17237: 17165: 17155: 16847: 16702: 16575: 16182: 15791: 14994: 14918: 14368: 14274: 14219: 12822: 12319: 10527: 9352: 9293: 8791: 8486: 7396: 6436: 6278: 6167: 5855:

Fedorenko V, Genilloud O, Horbal L, Marcone GL, Marinelli F, Paitan Y, et al. (2015).

4761: 2953: 2389: 2191: 1444: 1106: 973: 664: 313:

The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist

135: 7492:"Rutgers study finds antibiotic overuse is caused by misconceptions, financial incentives" 5729:

Srivastava A, Talaue M, Liu S, Degen D, Ebright RY, Sineva E, et al. (October 2011).

4407: 2038: 525:

or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given

8: 17485: 17475: 17441: 17046: 16484: 16320: 16131: 15044: 14259: 14229: 14078: 14040: 12451: 12283: 4432:

Slama TG, Amin A, Brunton SA, File TM, Milkovich G, Rodvold KA, et al. (July 2005).

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inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor). FDA approved on 19 December 2014.

1220:. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use. 37:

This article is about treatment of bacterial infection. For anti-tumor antibiotics, see

17209: 17204: 17113: 17093: 16727: 16570: 16535: 16389: 16355: 15905: 15445: 15295: 14767: 12022: 11997: 11943: 11918: 11815: 11753: 11728: 11704: 11653: 11602: 11551: 11505: 11462: 11414: 11389: 11339: 11240: 11215: 11196: 11148: 11102: 11038: 11013: 10846: 10788: 10635: 10548: 10515: 10323: 10274: 10190: 9995: 9945: 9883: 9825: 9800: 9781: 9659: 9611: 9586: 9555: 9487: 9257: 9232: 9120: 9095: 9071: 9046: 8988: 8963: 8924: 8846: 8821: 8768: 8743: 8666: 8649: 8605: 8580: 8556: 8531: 8507: 8470: 8351: 8334: 8315: 8267: 8216: 8191: 7994: 7943: 7918: 7796: 7771: 7752: 7709: 7655: 7630: 7606: 7581: 7550: 7231: 7133: 7084: 7059: 6869: 6844: 6797: 6709: 6684: 6555: 6530: 6457: 6424: 6405: 6348: 6302: 6207: 6103: 6037: 5883: 5755: 5730: 5640: 5615: 5565: 5470: 5445: 5419: 5375: 5271: 5246: 5161: 5136: 5066: 4953: 4823: 4798: 4686: 4661: 4637: 4612: 4588: 4571: 4339: 4314: 4251: 4203: 4178: 4088: 4039: 4014: 3717: 3692: 3660: 3632: 3562: 3522: 3505: 3486: 3435: 3410: 3234: 3172: 3147: 3116: 3063: 2664: 2233: 1751: 1626: 1224: 1114: 949: 562: 437:

When the responsible pathogenic microorganism is already known or has been identified,

359: 327: 222: 16141: 11794: 11777: 11744: 11405: 10723: 10623: 9871: 9647: 8241:"A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future" 7968:"Antimicrobial Activity of Some Essential Oils-Present Status and Future Perspectives" 7832: 7397:"The Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (S. 742/H.R. 2562)" 7181: 7121: 7036: 7000: 6683:

McGann P, Snesrud E, Maybank R, Corey B, Ong AC, Clifford R, et al. (July 2016).

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Anderson KC, Schwartz MD, Lieu SO (January 2013). "Antibiotics and OC effectiveness".

3426: 3212: 3196: 3090:"A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future" 2663:

In addition to developing new antibacterial treatments, it is important to reduce the

832:

profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.

824:

characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the

703:

There are few well-controlled studies on whether antibiotic use increases the risk of

549:. Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including 17495: 17436: 17296: 17249: 17051: 16553: 16222: 16212: 16202: 16187: 16004: 15987: 15851: 14551: 13794: 13500: 13275: 13093: 13089: 12658: 12262: 12062: 12027: 11948: 11905: 11857: 11819: 11807: 11799: 11758: 11709: 11658: 11607: 11556: 11509: 11497: 11466: 11454: 11419: 11344: 11245: 11188: 11153: 11106: 11094: 11043: 10987: 10982: 10957: 10927: 10891: 10850: 10838: 10793: 10727: 10685: 10639: 10627: 10588: 10553: 10493: 10458: 10418: 10413: 10388: 10369: 10328: 10266: 10231: 10182: 10147: 10082: 10041: 10000: 9937: 9875: 9830: 9773: 9721: 9651: 9616: 9559: 9547: 9479: 9380: 9321: 9262: 9171: 9125: 9076: 8993: 8929: 8878: 8851: 8773: 8712: 8671: 8630: 8610: 8561: 8512: 8417: 8356: 8307: 8272: 8221: 8048: 8043: 8018: 7999: 7948: 7896: 7801: 7744: 7701: 7660: 7611: 7554: 7542: 7236: 7125: 7089: 7040: 7004: 6968: 6920: 6874: 6843:

Arulkumaran N, Routledge M, Schlebusch S, Lipman J, Conway Morris A (February 2020).

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Prezant TR, Agapian JV, Bohlman MC, Bu X, Öztas S, Qiu WQ, et al. (July 1993).

3490: 3411:"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis" 3238: 2010:(PMX-30063): peptide defense protein mimetic (cell membrane disruption). In phase 2. 438: 17490: 17426: 17413: 17242: 17231: 17123: 17103: 16938: 16852: 16827: 16558: 16505: 16444: 16335: 15982: 15910: 15497: 15040: 14747: 14719: 14382: 13533: 13331: 13228: 13141: 13085: 12713: 12241: 12052: 12017: 12013: 12009: 11938: 11930: 11895: 11789: 11748: 11740: 11699: 11689: 11648: 11638: 11597: 11587: 11546: 11536: 11489: 11446: 11409: 11401: 11334: 11324: 11235: 11227: 11180: 11143: 11133: 11084: 11074: 11033: 11025: 11014:"Antibiotic adjuvants: diverse strategies for controlling drug-resistant pathogens" 10977: 10969: 10913: 10881: 10828: 10820: 10783: 10773: 10719: 10677: 10619: 10580: 10571:

Marquez B (December 2005). "Bacterial efflux systems and efflux pumps inhibitors".

10543: 10535: 10485: 10450: 10408: 10400: 10359: 10318: 10308: 10258: 10221: 10178: 10174: 10139: 10072: 10031: 9990: 9980: 9929: 9867: 9820: 9812: 9765: 9711: 9643: 9606: 9598: 9539: 9491: 9471: 9370: 9360: 9311: 9301: 9252: 9244: 9161: 9115: 9107: 9066: 9058: 8983: 8975: 8919: 8909: 8841: 8833: 8763: 8755: 8702: 8661: 8600: 8592: 8551: 8543: 8502: 8494: 8414:

Duchesne's Antagonism between molds and bacteria, an English Colloquial Translation

8346: 8299: 8262: 8252: 8211: 8203: 8038: 8030: 7989: 7979: 7938: 7930: 7888: 7828: 7791: 7783: 7756: 7736: 7691: 7650: 7642: 7601: 7593: 7534: 7226: 7216: 7117: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7032: 6996: 6960: 6910: 6864: 6856: 6779: 6775: 6771: 6704: 6696: 6592: 6550: 6542: 6501: 6493: 6452: 6444: 6423:

Pawlowski AC, Wang W, Koteva K, Barton HA, McArthur AG, Wright GD (December 2016).

6387: 6343: 6333: 6306: 6286: 6243: 6175: 6115: 6032: 6024: 5985: 5950: 5878: 5868: 5790: 5750: 5742: 5676: 5635: 5627: 5560: 5550: 5509: 5465: 5457: 5403: 5379: 5359: 5322: 5266: 5258: 5217: 5156: 5148: 5058: 5011: 4937: 4902: 4862: 4818: 4810: 4769: 4722: 4681: 4673: 4632: 4624: 4583: 4486: 4445: 4375: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4285: 4235: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4151: 4116: 4092: 4072: 4034: 4026: 3712: 3704: 3624: 3593: 3589: 3554: 3517: 3468: 3430: 3422: 3310: 3216: 3208: 3167: 3159: 3111: 3101: 3059: 2988: 2478:, its use is permitted under some conditions in patients with antibiotic-resistant 2268: 2250: 2176: 2027: 1706: 1688: 1436: 1329: 1270: 1122: 829: 716: 679: 656: 628: 558: 518: 454: 12401: 10973: 10077: 10061:"Complete genome sequence of Streptomyces formicae KY5, the formicamycin producer" 10060: 9985: 9964: 8443:

International Encyclopedia of Public Health: Antibiotic Development and Resistance

7335:"Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (2005 - H.R. 2562)" 7301: 2299:). Examples of natural products with antivirulence activity include the flavonoid 1562:, a Japanese bacteriologist working with Ehrlich in the quest for a drug to treat 1532: 1366:, as well as other US agencies. A non-governmental organization campaign group is 1203:

processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may

1170: 64: 17524: 17358: 17353: 17197: 17145: 16953: 16930: 16775: 16752: 16136: 16101: 15977: 15922: 15484: 14936: 14762: 14170: 13614: 13441: 13132: 13127: 12839: 12708: 12703: 12236: 12124: 11270: 11079: 11062: 11061:

Dunne M, Rupf B, Tala M, Qabrati X, Ernst P, Shen Y, et al. (October 2019).

10909: 10584: 10059:

Holmes NA, Devine R, Qin Z, Seipke RF, Wilkinson B, Hutchings MI (January 2018).

7597: 7221: 7204: 7157: 7151: 6179: 4491: 4474: 4450: 4433: 4362:

Hung KK, Lam RP, Lo RS, Tenney JW, Yang ML, Tai MC, et al. (December 2018).

3950: 3930: 3895: 3860: 3796: 3761: 3339: 2304: 2276: 2140: 2045: 1924:

cephalosporin/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).

1894: 1695: 1551: 1547: 1466:

Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on

1447:

of the gut, lungs and skin, which may be associated with adverse effects such as

1350:

resource-limited settings is considered one of the drivers of antibiotic misuse.

891: 868: 683: 651: 613: 427: 206: 163: 16106: 15480: 14536: 14532: 13245: 13241: 12397: 12393: 12389: 12385: 11285: 8735: 7919:"The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet" 6028: 5000:"Factors affecting the enterohepatic circulation of oral contraceptive steroids" 1261:

is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of

347: 17388: 17321: 17264: 17036: 16925: 16917: 16842: 16795: 16790: 16737: 16461: 16242: 16237: 16197: 16146: 16111: 15949: 15885: 15688: 15422: 15309: 15179: 14979: 14974: 14964: 14828: 14823: 14787: 14645: 14470: 13400: 13175: 12992: 12922: 12907: 12668: 12553: 12541: 12419: 12337: 12193: 11694: 11677: 11263: 11089: 10681: 10476:

Mahajan GB, Balachandran L (June 2017). "Sources of antibiotics: Hot springs".

9716: 9699: 9543: 9475: 9365: 9340: 9306: 9281: 8498: 7787: 7696: 7679: 7302:"Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (2005 - S. 742)" 6860: 6392: 6375: 5954: 5665:"The importance of bactericidal drugs: future directions in infectious disease" 5555: 5538: 4774: 4749: 2741: 2633: 2558: 2292: 2261: 2085: 2049: 1971: 1778: 1770: 1606: 1559: 1540: 1321: 1118: 1098: 1030: 1005: 1001: 899: 668: 546: 538: 401:), "staff, cane", because the first bacteria to be discovered were rod-shaped. 386: 351: 343: 332: 277: 218: 174: 155: 11450: 11138: 11121: 10489: 10143: 10036: 10019: 9769: 9602: 9248: 9166: 9149: 9111: 8596: 8475:

isolate (IMI 15378) reveals sequence divergence of penicillin synthesis genes"

8303: 6941:

Hawkey PM (September 2008). "The growing burden of antimicrobial resistance".

6623: 6596: 6482:"Glycopeptide antibiotic resistance genes in glycopeptide-producing organisms" 6247: 5746: 5514: 5497: 5407: 4677: 4155: 4076: 3472: 1901: 1806:, Dubos had reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, 1558:

infection in rabbits. While their early compounds were too toxic, Ehrlich and

17534: 17269: 17226: 17185: 17078: 17061: 17019: 16732: 16283: 16252: 15873: 15764: 15744: 15693: 15621: 15601: 15277: 15227: 15217: 15175: 15165: 15155: 15087: 15011: 14969: 14889: 14813: 14782: 14701: 14687: 14675: 14665: 14659: 14655: 14650: 14640: 14595: 14364: 14223: 13838: 13666: 13578: 13572: 13518: 13514: 13484: 13479: 13474: 13469: 13459: 13395: 13366: 13356: 13137: 13081: 13073: 13035: 13025: 12997: 12977: 12967: 12962: 12927: 12912: 12849: 12844: 12768: 12733: 12521: 12198: 12183: 12169: 12057: 12040: 11803: 10708:"Recent advances in understanding the antibacterial properties of flavonoids" 10313: 10296: 9920:-associated diarrhoea: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". 8716: 8290:

Kingston W (June 2008). "Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics".

8257: 8240: 7984: 7967: 7934: 7740: 7631:"The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis-induced multi-organ failure" 7258: 5962: 5938: 5446:"Antagonism between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics is prevalent" 4734: 4710: 4313:

Heal CF, Banks JL, Lepper PD, Kontopantelis E, van Driel ML (November 2016).

4120: 3265: 3106: 3089: 3002: 2843: 2736: 2535: 2499: 2447: 2405: 2397: 2384: 2312: 2180: 2069: 2061: 1931: 1897: 1766: 1714:

when they were both grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he

1664: 1619: 1498: 1487: 1479: 1467: 1428: 1293:, for which resistance rates to penicillin have been reported to exceed 90%. 1133: 1126: 1110: 1090: 1072: 1038: 1013: 1009: 957: 872: 817: 763: 747: 727: 719: 675: 642: 550: 419: 414:

Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent bacterial infections, and sometimes

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2321: 1798: 1598: 1590:

in 1911 and for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 and 1913.

1253:

many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of

1075:

modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the

707:

failure. The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do not interfere with

269: 17480: 17418: 17180: 17160: 17108: 17056: 17007: 16807: 16757: 16368: 15939: 15673: 15668: 15582: 15232: 15222: 15207: 15197: 15170: 15150: 15145: 15140: 15135: 15130: 15125: 15107: 15102: 15097: 15092: 15082: 15077: 15036: 15031: 14833: 14724: 14605: 14133: 14050: 13893: 13751: 13736: 13542: 13371: 13121: 13117: 13045: 12982: 12952: 12917: 12887: 12723: 12698: 12683: 12673: 12663: 12637: 12578: 12526: 12473: 12446: 12436: 12066: 12039:

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or antivirals rather than antibiotics. They are also not effective against

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Arsphenamine, also known as salvarsan, discovered in 1907 by Paul Ehrlich.

1153: 17373: 17175: 17098: 17073: 16822: 16802: 16707: 16667: 16591: 15962: 15957: 15878: 15861: 15754: 15729: 15678: 15639: 15563: 15530: 15520: 15515: 15476: 15393: 15385: 15365: 15318: 15252: 15212: 15160: 15049: 14899: 14838: 14792: 14752: 14729: 14600: 14580: 14524: 14523: 14445: 14423: 14392: 14386: 14312: 14192: 14182: 14068: 14060: 14045: 13959: 13929: 13924: 13919: 13914: 13909: 13888: 13877: 13849: 13843: 13799: 13761: 13741: 13726: 13674: 13552: 13509: 13450: 13416: 13391: 13361: 13351: 13229: 13107: 13053: 13030: 12957: 12942: 12937: 12854: 12741: 12718: 12693: 12688: 12678: 12653: 12497: 12468: 11900: 11883: 10886: 10865: 10404: 9062: 8979: 8192:"The evolving role of chemical synthesis in antibacterial drug discovery" 8034: 6964: 6784: 6700: 6119: 5631: 5461: 5262: 5094: 4628: 3315: 3298: 2993: 2976: 2700: 2421: 2199: 2053: 1927: 1917: 1907: 1886: 1823: 1807: 1762: 1715: 1681: 1555: 1490:

mummies studied in the 1990s were found to contain significant levels of

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Insert into bacterial cell wall causing perforation and depolarization:

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Antibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost, thereby reducing

631:, resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as 453:

and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a

17311: 17286: 17254: 17031: 17012: 17002: 16837: 16449: 16421: 16247: 16207: 15759: 15724: 15719: 15709: 15659: 15649: 15611: 15606: 15540: 15535: 15525: 15510: 15355: 15281: 15268: 15257: 15202: 15059: 15054: 15026: 14959: 14929: 14777: 14590: 14545: 14433: 14428: 14396: 14372: 14343: 14321: 14187: 14160: 14110: 14091: 14022: 14012: 13974: 13964: 13954: 13939: 13934: 13882: 13853: 13819: 13809: 13789: 13746: 13716: 13711: 13701: 13670: 13596: 13568: 13547: 13523: 13464: 13455: 13296: 13103: 13063: 13058: 13007: 12987: 12972: 12947: 12902: 12897: 12831: 12802: 12782: 12602: 12597: 12588: 12583: 12568: 12563: 12511: 12463: 12188: 11264:"Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6) 11170: 11029: 10917: 10833: 10824: 10454: 10226: 10209: 9282:"A novel antibiotic class targeting the lipopolysaccharide transporter" 9188: 7646: 5109: 4726: 3636: 2726: 2680: 2659:

Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities in 2015.

2288: 2267:

Natural products may be screened for the ability to suppress bacterial

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Replenishing the antibiotic pipeline and developing other new therapies

2007: 1967: 1951: 1941: 1890: 1874: 1815: 1811: 1756: 1738: 1651: 1583: 1571: 1178: 1094: 1080: 1026: 953: 876: 849: 791: 767: 734: 638: 554: 486: 261: 202: 190: 119: 55: 11850:

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In important infectious diseases, including tuberculosis,

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"Antibacterials" include 10: 17567: 17260:Respiratory source control 11961:"Antibiotics: MedlinePlus" 11695:10.1186/s40104-021-00576-0 10682:10.2174/156802610792928103 9717:10.1016/j.chom.2019.06.004 9544:10.1007/s11095-020-02849-1 9476:10.1016/j.tips.2016.05.001 9458:Moloney MG (August 2016). 9366:10.1038/s41586-023-06799-7 9307:10.1038/s41586-023-06873-0 9237:The Journal of Antibiotics 8499:10.1038/s41598-020-72584-5 7846:Armelagos, George (2000). 7788:10.1177/014107688207500310 7697:10.1007/s00134-018-05516-7 7178:"Keep Antibiotics Working" 6861:10.1007/s00134-020-05929-3 6393:10.1016/j.cell.2007.03.004 5955:10.1007/s00203-024-03998-2 5906:Sample I (26 March 2018). 5556:10.3390/antibiotics9080500 4775:10.1038/d41586-018-03267-5 3146:Bosch F, Rosich L (2008). 2576:penicillin-binding protein 2497: 2440: 2382: 2331: 2315:zerumbone (which inhibits 2083: 1694:In 1897, doctoral student 1640: 1478:, used specially selected 1458: 1454: 1309: 1163: 1060: 1018:broad-spectrum antibiotics 909: 905: 809: 796:acetaldehyde dehydrogenase 753: 393:), "against" + βακτήριον ( 342:was first used in 1942 by 211:antimicrobial chemotherapy 36: 29: 17450: 17404:Global Health Initiatives 17394:Evolutionary epidemiology 17342: 17134: 17089:Post-exposure prophylaxis 17025:Antimicrobial stewardship 16983: 16970: 16875: 16766: 16748:Multiplicity of infection 16713:Basic reproduction number 16688: 16660: 16646: 16632: 16616: 16584: 16546: 16489:Percutaneous inoculation 16475: 16437: 16430: 16412: 16344: 16311: 16304: 16268: 16261: 16164: 16051: 15973:Host–pathogen interaction 15948: 15842: 15835: 15702: 15658: 15620: 15591: 15572: 15549: 15492: 15406: 15384: 15341: 15331: 15294: 15266: 15245: 15188: 15116: 15068: 15002: 14993: 14945: 14917: 14882: 14874:Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine 14851: 14801: 14738: 14710: 14631: 14616: 14566: 14544: 14454: 14406: 14356: 14335: 14311: 14302: 14215:Ampicillin/flucloxacillin 14202: 14142: 14109: 14077: 14059: 14031: 13998: 13863: 13770: 13682: 13661: 13595: 13561: 13532: 13499: 13440: 13429: 13380: 13342:Procaine benzylpenicillin 13320: 13309: 13295: 13253: 13159: 13114:Quinupristin/dalfopristin 13072: 13044: 13016: 12878: 12867: 12821: 12767: 12758: 12732: 12646: 12631: 12611: 12550: 12433: 12418: 12409: 12382:inhibit protein synthesis 12344: 12297: 12289:Production of antibiotics 12271: 12258:Antimicrobial stewardship 12250: 12207: 12176: 12125:Resources in your library 11451:10.1016/j.idc.2019.10.001 11139:10.1186/s13054-016-1549-1 11120:Opal SM (December 2016). 10490:10.1016/j.bcp.2016.11.021 10387:Cowan MM (October 1999). 10144:10.1016/j.mib.2013.08.001 10037:10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008 9770:10.1016/j.tim.2018.12.010 9603:10.1016/j.jmb.2020.03.017 9249:10.1038/s41429-020-0291-8 9167:10.1016/j.bcp.2016.09.025 9112:10.1016/j.tet.2016.01.044 8536:Singapore Medical Journal 8304:10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x 8245:Frontiers in Microbiology 8017:Cowan MM (October 1999). 7770:Forrest RD (March 1982). 7629:Singer M (January 2014). 7459:Gever J (23 March 2012). 7365:"Kee Antibiotics Working" 6597:10.1016/j.tim.2006.02.006 6248:10.1016/j.mib.2006.07.002 6209:A Field Guide To Bacteria 6029:10.1093/genetics/28.6.491 5822:. Springer. p. 800. 5747:10.1016/j.mib.2011.07.030 5515:10.1016/j.mib.2015.05.008 5408:10.1007/s15010-009-7108-9 5085:"antibiotics-and-alcohol" 4930:Clinical Pharmacokinetics 4748:Marchant J (March 2018). 4678:10.4085/1062-6050-49.2.09 4156:10.1016/j.ccc.2013.03.002 4077:10.1007/s00268-016-3561-7 3473:10.1007/978-81-322-2259-0 3094:Frontiers in Microbiology 2542:. The antisense RNA then 1582:for his contributions to 1296: 1210:Luria–Delbrück experiment 1063:Production of antibiotics 722:in the blood. Women with 509:There are many different 432:broad-spectrum antibiotic 298:World Health Organization 110:substance active against 93: 88: 62: 53: 48: 17222:Protective sequestration 17084:Pre-exposure prophylaxis 16375:Generational difference 15928:Horizontal gene transfer 15918:Antimicrobial resistance 12633:Tetracycline antibiotics 12220:Antimicrobial resistance 12058:10.3390/medicina47030019 11274:SDG-Tracker.org, website 10478:Biochemical Pharmacology 10314:10.3390/pathogens3020473 10065:Journal of Biotechnology 9154:Biochemical Pharmacology 8258:10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134 7985:10.3390/medicines4030058 7935:10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036 7741:10.1177/1534734608316028 7167:Retrieved 12 March 2009. 7156:27 December 2017 at the 6732:Moyer MW (27 May 2016). 6658:Health Protection Report 5943:Archives of Microbiology 4121:10.1200/JCO.2012.45.8661 4065:World Journal of Surgery 3953:, on Oxford Dictionaries 3271:Medscape Multispeciality 3107:10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134 2301:epigallocatechin gallate 1783:Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin 1588:Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1412:Studies have shown that 1368:Keep Antibiotics Working 1267:Health Protection Agency 1218:horizontal gene transfer 1113:—are produced solely by 960:) or the cell membrane ( 724:menstrual irregularities 511:routes of administration 505:Routes of administration 404: 302:antimicrobial resistance 17409:Microbial phylogenetics 17327:Wastewater surveillance 16848:Geographic distribution 16723:Critical community size 16521:Surgical site infection 16369:Iatrogenic/Medical care 16288:Microbial translocation 16284:Endogenous reactivation 16279:Normal flora overgrowth 16228:Opportunistic infection 16000:Opportunistic infection 14280:Piperacillin/tazobactam 14240:Cefepime/enmetazobactam 11269:1 November 2020 at the 11220:Journal of Bacteriology 11185:10.1111/1751-2980.12603 10958:"Bacteriophage therapy" 10868:Acinetobacter baumannii 10443:Natural Product Reports 9967:Acinetobacter baumannii 9704:Cell Host & Microbe 9532:Pharmaceutical Research 8748:British Medical Journal 8623:Terapevticheskii Arkhiv 8597:10.1093/clinids/2.1.129 7881:Molecular Interventions 7684:Intensive Care Medicine 6849:Intensive Care Medicine 6339:10.1186/1471-2105-14-36 4019:Mayo Clinic Proceedings 3915:A Greek-English Lexicon 3880:A Greek-English Lexicon 3845:A Greek-English Lexicon 3781:A Greek-English Lexicon 3746:A Greek-English Lexicon 3662:The Antimicrobial Drugs 2814:"Factsheet for experts" 2747:Magic bullet (medicine) 2732:Antimalarial medication 2428:There are considerable 2318:Acinetobacter baumannii 2072:-based treatments, and 1792:Nobel Prize in Medicine 1670:In 1874, physician Sir 1609:in 1932 or 1933 at the 1461:Timeline of antibiotics 1077:beta-lactam antibiotics 818:host defense mechanisms 467:immunosuppressive drugs 280:in 1932 or 1933 at the 122:are widely used in the 17481:Microbial bioterrorism 17104:efficacy/effectiveness 16512:Surgical intervention 16404:Breakthrough infection 16026:Genetic predisposition 16010:Susceptible individual 15857:Germ theory of disease 14773:Sulfamethoxypyridazine 14371:synthesis inhibition ( 14255:Ceftolozane/tazobactam 14245:Cefoperazone/sulbactam 14144:β-lactamase inhibitors 12232:Antibiotic prophylaxis 12215:Antibiotic sensitivity 11882:Gould K (March 2016). 11854:Caister Academic Press 11593:10.3390/ijerph16091649 11494:10.1055/s-0039-1693995 11330:10.3390/ijerph15122827 9817:10.4161/bact.1.2.15845 9758:Trends in Microbiology 8760:10.1136/bmj.2.4427.635 8708:10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002 8548:10.11622/smedj.2015105 8208:10.1002/anie.201310843 7539:10.1002/bies.202000163 6949:(Supplement 1): i1-9. 6585:Trends in Microbiology 6203:"Chapter 9, Pathogens" 5978:Trends in Microbiology 5795:10.1002/anie.200600350 5364:10.1038/nprot.2007.521 4815:10.1002/bies.201500071 3970:Antibiotics Simplified 3949:27 August 2021 at the 3297:Gould K (March 2016). 3072:. New York: Macmillan. 2975:Gould K (March 2016). 2673:antibiotic stewardship 2660: 2515:Pseudomonas aeruginosa 2508:that encode essential 2456: 2394: 2328:Immunoglobulin therapy 2058:immunoglobulin therapy 1722:bacilli together with 1700: 1659: 1543: 1524:organoarsenic compound 1514: 1443:. They also alter the 1307: 1189: 1183:methicillin-resistant 1152:, usually in strongly 888:β-lactamase inhibitors 854:Methicillin-resistant 599: 491:infective endocarditis 455:weakened immune system 75:to antibiotics by the 17546:Anti-infective agents 17317:Universal precautions 16275:Endogenous overgrowth 16127:Poultry and livestock 15246:Newer non-fluorinated 14883:Other DHPS inhibitors 14869:Pyrimethamine/dapsone 14696:Succinylsulfathiazole 14692:Phthalylsulfathiazole 14576:2,4-Diaminopyrimidine 14285:Sulbactam/durlobactam 14270:Meropenem/vaborbactam 14250:Ceftazidime/avibactam 13382:β-lactamase resistant 13322:β-lactamase sensitive 11935:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10 11529:Clinical Therapeutics 10365:10.1248/cpb.c16-00245 9918:Clostridium difficile 8621:Krylov AK (929). "". 6498:10.1128/AAC.42.9.2215 6429:Nature Communications 5706:Antibiotic Essentials 4144:Critical Care Clinics 4031:10.4065/mcp.2010.0639 3709:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10 2920:www.health.qld.gov.au 2752:Prebiotic (nutrition) 2669:antibiotic resistance 2658: 2584:methicillin-resistant 2498:Further information: 2461:intestinal microbiota 2450: 2410:intestinal microbiota 2392: 2364:Clostridium difficile 2257:Staphylococcus aureus 2196:secondary metabolites 2188:antibiotic resistance 1948:Meropenem/vaborbactam 1858:Gram-negative bacilli 1851:Both the WHO and the 1650: 1643:History of penicillin 1535: 1512: 1414:common misconceptions 1401:was raised by the US 1304: 1185:Staphylococcus aureus 1173: 1166:Antibiotic resistance 856:Staphylococcus aureus 649:species of the genus 634:Clostridium difficile 597: 181:, "against" and βίος 72:Staphylococcus aureus 17419:Genomic reassortment 17399:Genetic epidemiology 17238:Health communication 17166:Flattening the curve 17156:Disease surveillance 16939:Systemic/Generalized 16703:Animal disease model 16183:Asymptomatic carrier 15703:Other antibacterials 14670:Acetyl sulfisoxazole 14529:inhibit nucleic acid 14275:Panipenem/betamipron 14220:Ampicillin/sulbactam 13332:Benzylpenicillin (G) 13266:cell wall by binding 12823:Peptidyl transferase 12320:Pesticide resistance 11323:(12): Article 2827. 11286:"Household crowding" 10887:10.1099/mic.0.000930 10405:10.1128/CMR.12.4.564 8485:(1): Article 15705. 8393:on 20 September 2018 8167:. Nobel Foundation. 8135:"Nomination Archive" 8035:10.1128/CMR.12.4.564 7275:. Consumer Reports. 6701:10.1128/AAC.01103-16 6120:10.2134/jeq2012.0162 6079:. Voice of America. 5632:10.1128/CMR.00037-09 5462:10.1128/AAC.02463-14 5263:10.1128/AAC.00824-07 5184:Stockley IH (2002). 4629:10.1128/JCM.00218-06 3465:Applied Microbiology 2790:. NHS. 5 June 2014. 2703:, the production of 2647:model of infection. 2194:. For example, some 2192:antibiotic tolerance 1984:(TP-434): synthetic 1810:, a compound of 20% 1613:Laboratories of the 1433:bioenergetic failure 1326:Intensive care units 1079:, which include the 884:β-lactam antibiotics 762:Antibiotics such as 728:backup contraception 665:quinolone antibiotic 416:protozoan infections 358:). It also excluded 284:Laboratories of the 169:Sometimes, the term 116:bacterial infections 17486:Pandemic prevention 17442:Viral phylodynamics 17423:Re-emerging disease 17312:Travel restrictions 16516:Postoperative wound 16485:Blood-borne disease 16467:Respiratory droplet 16379:Vertical/Congenital 16364:Nosocomial/Hospital 16321:Spillover infection 15045:Alalevonadifloxacin 14712:Intermediate-acting 14260:Imipenem/cilastatin 14230:Aztreonam/avibactam 14041:Ceftaroline fosamil 12452:Dihydrostreptomycin 12284:List of antibiotics 11733:The Lancet. Microbe 11644:10.3390/ani10101863 11586:(9): Article 1649. 11232:10.1128/JB.00580-17 11090:20.500.11850/374453 11073:(5): 1336–1350.e4. 10813:Food & Function 10779:10.2147/IDR.S193649 10540:10.1038/nature10069 10532:2011Natur.473..216A 10105:ww3.hutchingslab.uk 9934:10.5694/mja17.00295 9357:2024Natur.625..572P 9298:2024Natur.625..566Z 9023:on 25 December 2015 8915:10.1155/2005/892058 8871:Medicina Nei Secoli 8838:10.1084/jem.2032fta 8491:2020NatSR..1015705P 8389:(4). Archived from 6737:Scientific American 6449:10.1038/ncomms13803 6441:2016NatCo...713803P 6291:10.1038/nature10388 6283:2011Natur.477..457D 6172:2004InfGE...4..187W 5874:10.1155/2015/591349 5010:(6 Pt 2): 2146–52. 4766:2018Natur.555..431M 4410:on 22 December 2018 4381:10.12809/hkmj177149 3820:on 16 February 2008 2956:on 14 December 2014 2824:on 21 December 2014 2762:List of antibiotics 2628:genes or bacterial 2467:) to patients with 2348:monoclonal antibody 2234:primary metabolites 2076:-based treatments. 1847:Antibiotic pipeline 1724:Penicillium glaucum 1712:Penicillium glaucum 1677:Penicillium glaucum 1069:medicinal chemistry 946:mechanism of action 912:List of antibiotics 875:are antagonists to 842:combination therapy 836:Combination therapy 709:birth control pills 699:Birth control pills 519:systemic infections 315:Jean Paul Vuillemin 256:in the late 1880s. 223:antibacterial soaps 17432:Selection pressure 16728:Force of infection 16356:Contagious disease 16291:Endogenous seeding 16188:Chain of infection 16112:Injection drug use 16023:Vaccination status 15906:Case fatality rate 15824:infectious disease 15433:Never to phase III 14934:thereby inhibiting 14922:(inhibit bacterial 14768:Sulfametoxydiazine 14556:thereby inhibiting 14549:(inhibit bacterial 14481:Never to phase III 14413:Hydrolyze NAM-NAG 13501:Carboxypenicillins 13264:layer of bacterial 13260:(inhibit synthesis 13186:Never to phase III 11901:10.1093/jac/dkv484 11782:The Lancet Microbe 11030:10.1111/cbdd.12478 10825:10.1039/D0FO00046A 10455:10.1039/c2np20035j 10227:10.2131/jts.35.357 9979:(6): Article 935. 9063:10.1093/cid/cit152 8980:10.1093/cid/cit152 8579:Fleming A (1980). 8479:Scientific Reports 7647:10.4161/viru.26907 7261:on 9 January 2009. 7184:on 24 October 2010 6965:10.1093/jac/dkn241 6326:BMC Bioinformatics 4727:10.1038/ng0793-289 3421:(10325): 629–655. 3316:10.1093/jac/dkv484 3088:Aminov RI (2010). 2994:10.1093/jac/dkv484 2665:selection pressure 2661: 2638:enterohemorrhagic 2457: 2395: 1752:Penicillium rubens 1710:was eliminated by 1660: 1625:, but not against 1544: 1515: 1468:medicinal folklore 1308: 1190: 1125:of less than 1000 1115:chemical synthesis 950:chemical structure 705:oral contraceptive 600: 569:Global consumption 563:contact dermatitis 451:preventive measure 439:definitive therapy 424:parasitic diseases 328:Bacillus anthracis 136:inhibit the growth 17506: 17505: 17496:Tropical medicine 17437:Synthetic biology 17338: 17337: 17297:Social distancing 17250:Outbreak response 16871: 16870: 16698:Agent-based model 16684: 16683: 16680: 16679: 16676: 16675: 16223:Natural reservoir 16213:Infectious period 16203:Incubation period 16160: 16159: 16116:Natural disaster 16085:Tropical diseases 16068:Biodiversity loss 16005:Risk of infection 15995:Microbiome health 15988:Immunosuppression 15789: 15788: 15783: 15782: 15498:Lipoglycopeptides 15443: 15442: 15402: 15401: 15327: 15326: 15290: 15289: 15241: 15240: 14913: 14912: 14847: 14846: 14552:purine metabolism 14491: 14490: 14352: 14351: 14298: 14297: 14105: 14104: 13887:Antipseudomonal ( 13795:Cefuroxime axetil 13591: 13590: 13587: 13586: 13534:Ureidopenicillins 13425: 13424: 13289: 13282: 13278: 13268:to and inhibiting 13196: 13195: 13155: 13154: 13151: 13150: 12863: 12862: 12754: 12753: 12750: 12749: 12659:Chlortetracycline 12627: 12626: 12328: 12327: 12263:Antibiotic misuse 12111:Library resources 11991:on 30 April 2014. 11863:978-1-904455-89-9 11739:(10): e545–e554. 10933:978-1-4557-0090-5 10263:10.1159/000104791 9597:(18): 4946–4963. 9351:(7995): 572–577. 9292:(7995): 566–571. 9106:(25): 3579–3592. 8423:978-1-5498-1696-3 8196:Angewandte Chemie 7116:(10014): 188–98. 6897:Larson E (2007). 6826:978-0-7817-4802-5 6220:978-0-8014-8854-2 5829:978-1-4614-1400-1 5783:Angewandte Chemie 5715:978-0-7637-7219-2 5704:Cunha BA (2009). 5063:10.1136/bmj.a2885 4760:(7697): 431–433. 4240:10.1586/eri.09.74 3980:978-1-4496-1459-1 3814:"Antibiotics FAQ" 3677:978-0-19-512529-0 3482:978-81-322-2258-3 3380:978-92-4-156474-8 3351:978-3-527-33305-9 3164:10.1159/000149583 3041:978-0-8247-4100-6 2901:978-1-4496-1459-1 2269:virulence factors 1994:: semi-synthetic 1838:Late 20th century 1749:of a green mold, 1735:Alexander Fleming 1656:Alexander Fleming 1472:ancient Egyptians 1312:Antibiotic misuse 1192:The emergence of 1067:With advances in 461:cases to prevent 457:(particularly in 356:hydrogen peroxide 258:Alexander Fleming 118:, and antibiotic 100: 99: 16:(Redirected from 17558: 17523: 17522: 17521: 17514: 17491:Tropical disease 17427:Reverse zoonosis 17414:One Health Model 17243:Health education 17232:Community health 17151:Cordon sanitaire 17124:Ring vaccination 17094:Repurposed drugs 16981: 16980: 16900:Gastrointestinal 16743:Machine learning 16547:Gastrointestinal 16498:Intravenous line 16435: 16434: 16349:/Cross-infection 16336:Reverse zoonosis 16309: 16308: 16266: 16265: 16171: 16170: 16152:War and conflict 16020:Nutrition status 15983:Immunodeficiency 15840: 15839: 15816: 15809: 15802: 15793: 15792: 15470: 15463: 15456: 15447: 15446: 15339: 15338: 15306: 15305: 15041:Levonadifloxacin 15000: 14999: 14995:Fluoroquinolones 14943: 14942: 14748:Sulfadimethoxine 14720:Sulfamethoxazole 14641:Sulfaisodimidine 14629: 14628: 14564: 14563: 14518: 14511: 14504: 14495: 14494: 14309: 14308: 13680: 13679: 13536:(4th generation) 13503:(4th generation) 13444:(3rd generation) 13442:Aminopenicillins 13438: 13437: 13385:(2nd generation) 13325:(1st generation) 13318: 13317: 13307: 13306: 13293: 13292: 13288: 13280: 13276: 13262:of peptidoglycan 13258: 13223: 13216: 13209: 13200: 13199: 12876: 12875: 12828: 12827: 12765: 12764: 12714:Rolitetracycline 12644: 12643: 12431: 12430: 12416: 12415: 12371: 12364: 12357: 12348: 12347: 12332: 12331: 12242:Directed therapy 12162: 12155: 12148: 12139: 12138: 12086: 12085: 12070: 12060: 12035: 12025: 11992: 11987:. Archived from 11976: 11974: 11972: 11956: 11946: 11913: 11903: 11868: 11867: 11845: 11839: 11838: 11830: 11824: 11823: 11797: 11773: 11767: 11766: 11756: 11724: 11718: 11717: 11707: 11697: 11673: 11667: 11666: 11656: 11646: 11622: 11616: 11615: 11605: 11595: 11571: 11565: 11564: 11554: 11544: 11535:(9): 1637–1648. 11520: 11514: 11513: 11477: 11471: 11470: 11434: 11428: 11427: 11417: 11385: 11379: 11378: 11376: 11374: 11359: 11353: 11352: 11342: 11332: 11308: 11302: 11301: 11299: 11297: 11282: 11276: 11260: 11254: 11253: 11243: 11226:(7): e00580-17. 11211: 11205: 11204: 11168: 11162: 11161: 11151: 11141: 11117: 11111: 11110: 11092: 11082: 11058: 11052: 11051: 11041: 11009: 10996: 10995: 10985: 10953: 10942: 10941: 10906: 10900: 10899: 10889: 10861: 10855: 10854: 10836: 10819:(7): 6496–6508. 10808: 10802: 10801: 10791: 10781: 10757: 10748: 10747: 10745: 10743: 10703: 10694: 10693: 10665: 10656: 10655: 10653: 10651: 10603: 10597: 10596: 10568: 10562: 10561: 10551: 10526:(7346): 216–20. 10511: 10502: 10501: 10473: 10467: 10466: 10438: 10427: 10426: 10416: 10384: 10378: 10377: 10367: 10343: 10337: 10336: 10326: 10316: 10292: 10283: 10282: 10246: 10240: 10239: 10229: 10205: 10199: 10198: 10162: 10156: 10155: 10127: 10121: 10120: 10118: 10116: 10107:. 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Archived from 9008: 9002: 9001: 8991: 8959: 8953: 8949: 8938: 8937: 8927: 8917: 8893: 8887: 8886: 8866: 8860: 8859: 8849: 8817: 8808: 8807: 8805: 8803: 8788: 8782: 8781: 8771: 8754:(4427): 635–42. 8739: 8733: 8732: 8730: 8728: 8710: 8686: 8680: 8679: 8669: 8648:Sykes R (2001). 8645: 8639: 8638: 8618: 8608: 8576: 8570: 8569: 8559: 8527: 8521: 8520: 8510: 8466: 8460: 8459: 8457: 8455: 8437: 8428: 8427: 8409: 8403: 8402: 8400: 8398: 8374: 8368: 8367: 8354: 8330: 8324: 8323: 8287: 8281: 8280: 8270: 8260: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8219: 8187: 8181: 8180: 8178: 8176: 8161: 8155: 8154: 8152: 8150: 8131: 8125: 8124: 8122: 8120: 8101: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8066: 8057: 8056: 8046: 8014: 8008: 8007: 7997: 7987: 7963: 7957: 7956: 7946: 7914: 7905: 7904: 7893:10.1124/mi.4.6.6 7876: 7867: 7866: 7864: 7862: 7852: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7816: 7810: 7809: 7799: 7767: 7761: 7760: 7724: 7718: 7717: 7699: 7675: 7669: 7668: 7658: 7626: 7620: 7619: 7609: 7592:(192): 192ra85. 7577: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7518: 7512: 7511: 7509: 7507: 7496:The Daily Targum 7487: 7481: 7480: 7478: 7476: 7456: 7450: 7449: 7447: 7445: 7425: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7414: 7408: 7401: 7393: 7387: 7386: 7384: 7382: 7377:on 25 March 2009 7376: 7370:. Archived from 7369: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7331: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7317: 7298: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7269: 7263: 7262: 7257:. Archived from 7251: 7245: 7244: 7234: 7224: 7200: 7194: 7193: 7191: 7189: 7174: 7168: 7148: 7142: 7141: 7104: 7098: 7097: 7087: 7070:(11): CD010907. 7055: 7049: 7048: 7019: 7013: 7012: 6983: 6977: 6976: 6958: 6938: 6929: 6928: 6918: 6894: 6883: 6882: 6872: 6840: 6831: 6830: 6812: 6806: 6805: 6787: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6729: 6723: 6722: 6712: 6680: 6674: 6673: 6671: 6669: 6650: 6644: 6643: 6627: 6621: 6615: 6609: 6608: 6580: 6569: 6568: 6558: 6526: 6520: 6519: 6509: 6477: 6471: 6470: 6460: 6420: 6414: 6413: 6395: 6371: 6362: 6361: 6351: 6341: 6317: 6311: 6310: 6277:(7365): 457–61. 6266: 6260: 6259: 6231: 6225: 6224: 6212: 6201:Dyer BD (2003). 6198: 6192: 6191: 6155: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6088: 6072: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6040: 6008: 6002: 6001: 5973: 5967: 5966: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5923: 5903: 5897: 5896: 5886: 5876: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5843: 5841: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5789:(31): 5072–129. 5778: 5769: 5768: 5758: 5726: 5720: 5719: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5684: 5660: 5654: 5653: 5643: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5585: 5579: 5578: 5568: 5558: 5534: 5528: 5527: 5517: 5493: 5484: 5483: 5473: 5441: 5428: 5427: 5390: 5384: 5383: 5352:Nature Protocols 5347: 5341: 5340: 5330: 5306: 5300: 5299: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5274: 5242: 5236: 5235: 5225: 5201: 5190: 5189: 5181: 5175: 5174: 5164: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5106: 5097: 5092: 5081: 5075: 5074: 5046: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5035: 4995: 4989: 4988: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4925: 4919: 4918: 4890: 4879: 4878: 4850: 4837: 4836: 4826: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4777: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4706: 4700: 4699: 4689: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4640: 4608: 4602: 4601: 4591: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4556: 4551:on 25 April 2015 4547:. Archived from 4541: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4530: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4494: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4453: 4429: 4420: 4419: 4417: 4415: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4383: 4359: 4353: 4352: 4342: 4325:(11): CD011426. 4310: 4304: 4303: 4293: 4269: 4260: 4259: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4206: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4042: 4010: 3997: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3965: 3954: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3928: 3926: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3893: 3891: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3858: 3856: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3810: 3801: 3800: 3794: 3792: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3759: 3757: 3737: 3731: 3730: 3720: 3688: 3682: 3681: 3665: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3525: 3516:(149): 889–894. 3501: 3495: 3494: 3460: 3449: 3448: 3438: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3389: 3372: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3318: 3294: 3288: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3224: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3175: 3143: 3130: 3129: 3119: 3109: 3085: 3074: 3073: 3056: 3043: 3032: 3015: 3014: 2996: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2952:. Archived from 2942: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2931: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2878: 2869: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2820:. Archived from 2810: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2784: 2303:(which inhibits 2251:Escherichia coli 2177:Medicinal plants 2141:natural products 2127: 2118: 2107: 2098: 2028:drug development 1797:Florey credited 1755:, in one of his 1703: 1689:Vincenzo Tiberio 1654:, discovered by 1330:Self-prescribing 1123:molecular weight 935: 923: 806:Pharmacodynamics 739:intestinal flora 717:ethinylestradiol 684:fluoroquinolones 680:oxidative stress 667:with a systemic 629:intestinal flora 559:hypersensitivity 465:), those taking 164:antifungal drugs 67: 46: 45: 21: 17566: 17565: 17561: 17560: 17559: 17557: 17556: 17555: 17531: 17530: 17529: 17519: 17517: 17509: 17507: 17502: 17446: 17359:Antigenic shift 17354:Antigenic drift 17345: 17334: 17198:Barrier nursing 17146:Contact tracing 17137: 17130: 16975: 16973: 16966: 16877: 16867: 16768: 16762: 16753:Serial interval 16672: 16656: 16647:Cervico-vaginal 16642: 16633:Trans-placental 16628: 16612: 16580: 16542: 16478:Vascular system 16477: 16471: 16426: 16414: 16408: 16348: 16340: 16300: 16257: 16175: 16156: 16047: 15978:Immune response 15944: 15923:Drug resistance 15867:Infectious dose 15831: 15820: 15790: 15785: 15784: 15779: 15698: 15654: 15616: 15587: 15568: 15545: 15496: 15488: 15474: 15444: 15439: 15438: 15423:Clinical trials 15398: 15380: 15346: 15323: 15299: 15286: 15262: 15237: 15184: 15112: 15064: 14989: 14937:DNA replication 14935: 14933: 14927: 14923: 14921: 14909: 14878: 14843: 14802:Other/ungrouped 14797: 14763:Sulfametomidine 14734: 14706: 14620: 14612: 14559: 14557: 14555: 14550: 14548: 14540: 14522: 14492: 14487: 14486: 14471:Clinical trials 14450: 14402: 14348: 14331: 14294: 14198: 14171:Clavulanic acid 14138: 14101: 14073: 14055: 14027: 13994: 13859: 13766: 13673: 13669: 13665: 13657: 13615:Antipseudomonal 13583: 13557: 13528: 13495: 13432: 13421: 13384: 13376: 13324: 13312: 13285:transpeptidases 13284: 13274: 13269: 13267: 13265: 13263: 13261: 13259: 13257: 13249: 13227: 13197: 13192: 13191: 13176:Clinical trials 13147: 13133:Streptogramin B 13128:Streptogramin A 13068: 13040: 13012: 12859: 12840:Chloramphenicol 12817: 12771: 12746: 12728: 12709:Penimepicycline 12704:Oxytetracycline 12635: 12623: 12607: 12546: 12422: 12420:Aminoglycosides 12405: 12375: 12340: 12329: 12324: 12293: 12267: 12246: 12237:Empiric therapy 12203: 12172: 12166: 12136: 12135: 12134: 12119: 12118: 12114: 12107: 12106: 12105: 12087: 12083: 12078: 12073: 12008:(8): CD007577. 11979: 11970: 11968: 11959: 11877: 11875:Further reading 11872: 11871: 11864: 11846: 11842: 11831: 11827: 11774: 11770: 11725: 11721: 11674: 11670: 11623: 11619: 11572: 11568: 11521: 11517: 11478: 11474: 11435: 11431: 11386: 11382: 11372: 11370: 11361: 11360: 11356: 11309: 11305: 11295: 11293: 11284: 11283: 11279: 11271:Wayback Machine 11261: 11257: 11212: 11208: 11169: 11165: 11118: 11114: 11059: 11055: 11010: 10999: 10954: 10945: 10934: 10907: 10903: 10862: 10858: 10809: 10805: 10758: 10751: 10741: 10739: 10704: 10697: 10676:(17): 1757–68. 10666: 10659: 10649: 10647: 10604: 10600: 10579:(12): 1137–47. 10569: 10565: 10512: 10505: 10474: 10470: 10439: 10430: 10385: 10381: 10344: 10340: 10293: 10286: 10251:Caries Research 10247: 10243: 10206: 10202: 10163: 10159: 10128: 10124: 10114: 10112: 10111:on 7 April 2023 10099: 10098: 10094: 10057: 10053: 10016: 10012: 9961: 9957: 9914: 9910: 9900: 9898: 9894: 9855: 9849: 9842: 9797: 9793: 9754: 9733: 9696: 9671: 9632: 9628: 9583: 9579: 9569: 9567: 9524: 9511: 9501: 9499: 9456: 9447: 9437: 9435: 9420: 9416: 9408: 9401: 9397: 9396: 9392: 9337: 9333: 9278: 9274: 9229: 9208: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9187: 9183: 9146: 9137: 9092: 9088: 9043: 9036: 9026: 9024: 9009: 9005: 8974:(12): 1685–94. 8960: 8956: 8950: 8941: 8894: 8890: 8867: 8863: 8818: 8811: 8801: 8799: 8790: 8789: 8785: 8740: 8736: 8726: 8724: 8687: 8683: 8646: 8642: 8577: 8573: 8528: 8524: 8467: 8463: 8453: 8451: 8438: 8431: 8424: 8410: 8406: 8396: 8394: 8375: 8371: 8345:(149): 889–94. 8331: 8327: 8288: 8284: 8237: 8233: 8202:(34): 8840–69. 8188: 8184: 8174: 8172: 8163: 8162: 8158: 8148: 8146: 8133: 8132: 8128: 8118: 8116: 8103: 8102: 8098: 8088: 8086: 8067: 8060: 8015: 8011: 7964: 7960: 7915: 7908: 7877: 7870: 7860: 7858: 7857:(5, May): 50–53 7855:Natural History 7850: 7844: 7840: 7817: 7813: 7768: 7764: 7725: 7721: 7676: 7672: 7627: 7623: 7578: 7574: 7564: 7562: 7533:(2): e2000163. 7519: 7515: 7505: 7503: 7488: 7484: 7474: 7472: 7457: 7453: 7443: 7441: 7426: 7422: 7412: 7410: 7406: 7399: 7395: 7394: 7390: 7380: 7378: 7374: 7367: 7363: 7362: 7358: 7348: 7346: 7333: 7332: 7325: 7315: 7313: 7300: 7299: 7292: 7282: 7280: 7271: 7270: 7266: 7253: 7252: 7248: 7215:(6): e1000084. 7201: 7197: 7187: 7185: 7176: 7175: 7171: 7158:Wayback Machine 7149: 7145: 7105: 7101: 7056: 7052: 7020: 7016: 6984: 6980: 6956:10.1.1.629.3960 6939: 6932: 6895: 6886: 6841: 6834: 6827: 6813: 6809: 6760: 6756: 6746: 6744: 6730: 6726: 6681: 6677: 6667: 6665: 6664:on 14 July 2014 6652: 6651: 6647: 6628: 6624: 6616: 6612: 6581: 6572: 6527: 6523: 6478: 6474: 6421: 6417: 6372: 6365: 6318: 6314: 6267: 6263: 6232: 6228: 6221: 6199: 6195: 6156: 6147: 6137: 6135: 6100: 6096: 6086: 6084: 6073: 6066: 6056: 6054: 6009: 6005: 5974: 5970: 5935: 5931: 5921: 5919: 5904: 5900: 5853: 5849: 5839: 5837: 5830: 5814: 5810: 5779: 5772: 5727: 5723: 5716: 5702: 5698: 5661: 5657: 5612: 5608: 5598: 5596: 5587: 5586: 5582: 5535: 5531: 5494: 5487: 5442: 5431: 5391: 5387: 5348: 5344: 5307: 5303: 5292: 5288: 5257:(12): 4255–60. 5243: 5239: 5202: 5193: 5182: 5178: 5133: 5129: 5119: 5117: 5108: 5107: 5100: 5083: 5082: 5078: 5047: 5043: 5033: 5031: 4996: 4992: 4969: 4965: 4926: 4922: 4891: 4882: 4851: 4840: 4809:(10): 1045–53. 4795: 4791: 4746: 4742: 4715:Nature Genetics 4707: 4703: 4658: 4654: 4609: 4605: 4568: 4564: 4554: 4552: 4543: 4542: 4538: 4528: 4526: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4471: 4467: 4430: 4423: 4413: 4411: 4402: 4401: 4397: 4360: 4356: 4311: 4307: 4270: 4263: 4224: 4220: 4189:(5): CD003610. 4175: 4171: 4140: 4136: 4104: 4100: 4071:(10): 2305–18. 4060: 4056: 4011: 4000: 3990: 3988: 3981: 3967: 3966: 3957: 3951:Wayback Machine 3942: 3938: 3931:Perseus Project 3924: 3922: 3907: 3903: 3896:Perseus Project 3889: 3887: 3872: 3868: 3861:Perseus Project 3854: 3852: 3837: 3833: 3823: 3821: 3812: 3811: 3804: 3797:Perseus Project 3790: 3788: 3773: 3769: 3762:Perseus Project 3755: 3753: 3738: 3734: 3689: 3685: 3678: 3656: 3652: 3629:10.2307/3755196 3613: 3609: 3578: 3574: 3543: 3539: 3502: 3498: 3483: 3461: 3452: 3407: 3403: 3393: 3391: 3387: 3381: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3336: 3332: 3295: 3291: 3281: 3279: 3262: 3258: 3248: 3246: 3207:(12): 1057–98. 3193: 3189: 3144: 3133: 3086: 3077: 3057: 3046: 3033: 3018: 2973: 2969: 2959: 2957: 2944: 2943: 2939: 2929: 2927: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2890:2012. pp. 2880: 2879: 2872: 2862: 2860: 2849:"Metronidazole" 2847: 2841: 2837: 2827: 2825: 2812: 2811: 2807: 2797: 2795: 2786: 2785: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2717: 2690: 2653: 2608: 2578:2a and renders 2502: 2496: 2445: 2439: 2387: 2381: 2336: 2330: 2305:listeriolysin O 2277:staphyloxanthin 2137: 2136: 2135: 2134: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2120: 2119: 2110: 2109: 2108: 2100: 2099: 2088: 2082: 2046:natural product 2041: 2019: 1895:Antipseudomonal 1849: 1840: 1820:Bacillus brevis 1743:disease-causing 1696:Ernest Duchesne 1672:William Roberts 1645: 1639: 1552:trypanosomiasis 1548:Alfred Bertheim 1507: 1464: 1457: 1362:(FDA), and the 1345:. One study on 1314: 1299: 1168: 1162: 1119:small molecules 1099:aminoglycosides 1065: 1059: 1006:aminoglycosides 942: 939: 936: 927: 924: 914: 908: 892:clavulanic acid 869:chloramphenicol 867:. For example, 838: 830:pharmacokinetic 814: 808: 756: 701: 696: 614:photodermatitis 592: 571: 529:in the form of 507: 489:and consequent 428:empiric therapy 412: 407: 311: 300:has classified 225:, and chemical 219:bacteriostatics 207:fully synthetic 156:antiviral drugs 84: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 17564: 17554: 17553: 17548: 17543: 17528: 17527: 17504: 17503: 17501: 17500: 17499: 17498: 17488: 17483: 17478: 17473: 17468: 17465: 17460: 17454: 17452: 17448: 17447: 17445: 17444: 17439: 17434: 17429: 17424: 17421: 17416: 17411: 17406: 17401: 17396: 17391: 17389:Emergent virus 17386: 17381: 17376: 17371: 17370: 17369: 17361: 17356: 17350: 17348: 17340: 17339: 17336: 17335: 17333: 17332: 17329: 17324: 17322:Vector control 17319: 17314: 17309: 17304: 17299: 17294: 17289: 17284: 17279: 17278: 17277: 17272: 17267: 17265:N95 respirator 17257: 17252: 17247: 17246: 17245: 17240: 17235: 17224: 17219: 17218: 17217: 17207: 17202: 17201: 17200: 17190: 17189: 17188: 17183: 17178: 17168: 17163: 17158: 17153: 17148: 17142: 17140: 17138:pharmaceutical 17132: 17131: 17129: 17128: 17127: 17126: 17121: 17116: 17111: 17106: 17096: 17091: 17086: 17081: 17076: 17071: 17070: 17069: 17059: 17054: 17049: 17044: 17039: 17034: 17029: 17028: 17027: 17017: 17016: 17015: 17005: 17000: 16999: 16998: 16987: 16985: 16984:Pharmaceutical 16978: 16968: 16967: 16965: 16964: 16961: 16956: 16951: 16946: 16941: 16936: 16935:Cardiovascular 16933: 16928: 16923: 16920: 16915: 16914:Nervous system 16912: 16909: 16908: 16907: 16897: 16896: 16895: 16890: 16881: 16879: 16873: 16872: 16869: 16868: 16866: 16865: 16860: 16855: 16850: 16845: 16840: 16835: 16830: 16825: 16820: 16815: 16810: 16805: 16800: 16799: 16798: 16793: 16783: 16778: 16772: 16770: 16764: 16763: 16761: 16760: 16755: 16750: 16745: 16740: 16738:Infection rate 16735: 16730: 16725: 16720: 16715: 16710: 16705: 16700: 16694: 16692: 16686: 16685: 16682: 16681: 16678: 16677: 16674: 16673: 16671: 16670: 16664: 16662: 16658: 16657: 16655: 16654: 16650: 16648: 16644: 16643: 16641: 16640: 16636: 16634: 16630: 16629: 16627: 16626: 16620: 16618: 16614: 16613: 16611: 16610: 16604: 16599: 16594: 16588: 16586: 16582: 16581: 16579: 16578: 16573: 16568: 16563: 16562: 16561: 16550: 16548: 16544: 16543: 16541: 16540: 16539: 16538: 16533: 16525: 16524: 16523: 16518: 16510: 16509: 16508: 16503: 16500: 16495: 16493:Injection site 16487: 16481: 16479: 16473: 16472: 16470: 16469: 16464: 16462:Dental aerosol 16459: 16458: 16457: 16447: 16441: 16439: 16432: 16428: 16427: 16425: 16424: 16418: 16416: 16410: 16409: 16407: 16406: 16401: 16400: 16399: 16394: 16393: 16392: 16387: 16384: 16373: 16372: 16371: 16366: 16358: 16352: 16350: 16346:Human-to-human 16342: 16341: 16339: 16338: 16333: 16328: 16323: 16317: 16315: 16306: 16302: 16301: 16299: 16298: 16292: 16289: 16286: 16281: 16276: 16272: 16270: 16263: 16259: 16258: 16256: 16255: 16250: 16245: 16243:Super-spreader 16240: 16238:Superinfection 16235: 16230: 16225: 16220: 16215: 16210: 16205: 16200: 16195: 16190: 16185: 16179: 16177: 16168: 16162: 16161: 16158: 16157: 16155: 16154: 16149: 16147:Vector control 16144: 16139: 16134: 16129: 16124: 16123: 16122: 16114: 16109: 16104: 16099: 16094: 16089: 16088: 16087: 16082: 16076:Climate zones 16074: 16072:Climate change 16069: 16066: 16063: 16057: 16055: 16049: 16048: 16046: 16045: 16044: 16043: 16040: 16037: 16036: 16035: 16027: 16024: 16021: 16018: 16015: 16007: 16002: 15997: 15992: 15991: 15990: 15985: 15975: 15970: 15965: 15960: 15954: 15952: 15946: 15945: 15943: 15942: 15937: 15936: 15935: 15930: 15925: 15915: 15914: 15913: 15908: 15903: 15898: 15888: 15886:Quorum sensing 15883: 15882: 15881: 15871: 15870: 15869: 15859: 15854: 15848: 15846: 15837: 15833: 15832: 15819: 15818: 15811: 15804: 15796: 15787: 15786: 15781: 15780: 15778: 15777: 15772: 15767: 15762: 15757: 15752: 15747: 15742: 15737: 15732: 15727: 15722: 15717: 15712: 15706: 15704: 15700: 15699: 15697: 15696: 15691: 15689:Nitrofurantoin 15686: 15681: 15676: 15671: 15665: 15663: 15656: 15655: 15653: 15652: 15647: 15642: 15637: 15632: 15626: 15624: 15622:Pleuromutilins 15618: 15617: 15615: 15614: 15609: 15604: 15598: 15596: 15589: 15588: 15586: 15585: 15579: 15577: 15576:antibacterials 15570: 15569: 15567: 15566: 15561: 15555: 15553: 15547: 15546: 15544: 15543: 15538: 15533: 15528: 15523: 15518: 15513: 15508: 15502: 15500: 15490: 15489: 15477:Antibacterials 15473: 15472: 15465: 15458: 15450: 15441: 15440: 15437: 15436: 15435: 15434: 15431: 15420: 15414: 15408: 15407: 15404: 15403: 15400: 15399: 15397: 15396: 15390: 15388: 15382: 15381: 15379: 15378: 15373: 15368: 15363: 15358: 15352: 15350: 15348:RNA polymerase 15336: 15329: 15328: 15325: 15324: 15322: 15321: 15315: 15313: 15310:Nitroimidazole 15303: 15292: 15291: 15288: 15287: 15285: 15284: 15278:Aminocoumarins 15274: 15272: 15264: 15263: 15261: 15260: 15255: 15249: 15247: 15243: 15242: 15239: 15238: 15236: 15235: 15230: 15225: 15220: 15215: 15210: 15205: 15200: 15194: 15192: 15186: 15185: 15183: 15182: 15180:Alatrofloxacin 15173: 15168: 15163: 15158: 15153: 15148: 15143: 15138: 15133: 15128: 15122: 15120: 15118:4th generation 15114: 15113: 15111: 15110: 15105: 15100: 15095: 15090: 15085: 15080: 15074: 15072: 15070:3rd generation 15066: 15065: 15063: 15062: 15057: 15052: 15047: 15034: 15029: 15024: 15019: 15014: 15008: 15006: 15004:2nd generation 14997: 14991: 14990: 14988: 14987: 14982: 14980:Piromidic acid 14977: 14975:Pipemidic acid 14972: 14967: 14965:Nalidixic acid 14962: 14957: 14951: 14949: 14947:1st generation 14940: 14915: 14914: 14911: 14910: 14908: 14907: 14902: 14897: 14892: 14886: 14884: 14880: 14879: 14877: 14876: 14871: 14866: 14861: 14855: 14853: 14849: 14848: 14845: 14844: 14842: 14841: 14836: 14831: 14829:Sulfaguanidine 14826: 14824:Sulfadicramide 14821: 14816: 14811: 14805: 14803: 14799: 14798: 14796: 14795: 14790: 14788:Sulfaphenazole 14785: 14780: 14775: 14770: 14765: 14760: 14755: 14750: 14744: 14742: 14736: 14735: 14733: 14732: 14727: 14722: 14716: 14714: 14708: 14707: 14705: 14704: 14699: 14685: 14684: 14683: 14673: 14663: 14653: 14648: 14646:Sulfamethizole 14643: 14637: 14635: 14626: 14623:DHPS inhibitor 14614: 14613: 14611: 14610: 14609: 14608: 14603: 14598: 14593: 14588: 14583: 14572: 14570: 14568:DHFR inhibitor 14561: 14542: 14541: 14525:Antibacterials 14521: 14520: 14513: 14506: 14498: 14489: 14488: 14485: 14484: 14483: 14482: 14479: 14468: 14462: 14456: 14455: 14452: 14451: 14449: 14448: 14443: 14438: 14437: 14436: 14431: 14421: 14420: 14419: 14410: 14408: 14404: 14403: 14401: 14400: 14390: 14376: 14360: 14358: 14354: 14353: 14350: 14349: 14347: 14346: 14339: 14337: 14333: 14332: 14330: 14329: 14324: 14317: 14315: 14306: 14300: 14299: 14296: 14295: 14293: 14292: 14287: 14282: 14277: 14272: 14267: 14262: 14257: 14252: 14247: 14242: 14237: 14232: 14227: 14217: 14212: 14206: 14204: 14200: 14199: 14197: 14196: 14190: 14185: 14180: 14176:non-β-lactam ( 14174: 14164: 14158: 14148: 14146: 14140: 14139: 14137: 14136: 14131: 14126: 14121: 14115: 14113: 14107: 14106: 14103: 14102: 14100: 14099: 14094: 14089: 14083: 14081: 14075: 14074: 14072: 14071: 14065: 14063: 14057: 14056: 14054: 14053: 14048: 14043: 14037: 14035: 14033:5th generation 14029: 14028: 14026: 14025: 14020: 14015: 14010: 14004: 14002: 14000:4th generation 13996: 13995: 13993: 13992: 13986: 13977: 13972: 13967: 13962: 13957: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13937: 13932: 13927: 13922: 13917: 13912: 13907: 13902: 13897: 13891: 13885: 13880: 13875: 13869: 13867: 13865:3rd generation 13861: 13860: 13858: 13857: 13847: 13841: 13836: 13831: 13826: 13817: 13812: 13807: 13802: 13797: 13792: 13787: 13782: 13776: 13774: 13772:2nd generation 13768: 13767: 13765: 13764: 13759: 13754: 13749: 13744: 13739: 13734: 13729: 13724: 13719: 13714: 13709: 13704: 13699: 13694: 13688: 13686: 13684:1st generation 13677: 13667:Cephalosporins 13659: 13658: 13656: 13655: 13649: 13643: 13637: 13632: 13626: 13621: 13612: 13605: 13603: 13593: 13592: 13589: 13588: 13585: 13584: 13582: 13581: 13576: 13565: 13563: 13559: 13558: 13556: 13555: 13550: 13545: 13539: 13537: 13530: 13529: 13527: 13526: 13521: 13512: 13506: 13504: 13497: 13496: 13494: 13493: 13488: 13482: 13477: 13472: 13467: 13462: 13453: 13447: 13445: 13435: 13427: 13426: 13423: 13422: 13420: 13419: 13414: 13409: 13404: 13401:Flucloxacillin 13398: 13388: 13386: 13378: 13377: 13375: 13374: 13369: 13364: 13359: 13354: 13349: 13344: 13339: 13334: 13328: 13326: 13315: 13304: 13290: 13251: 13250: 13232:active on the 13230:Antibacterials 13226: 13225: 13218: 13211: 13203: 13194: 13193: 13190: 13189: 13188: 13187: 13184: 13173: 13167: 13161: 13160: 13157: 13156: 13153: 13152: 13149: 13148: 13146: 13145: 13135: 13130: 13125: 13111: 13097: 13078: 13076: 13074:Streptogramins 13070: 13069: 13067: 13066: 13061: 13056: 13050: 13048: 13042: 13041: 13039: 13038: 13033: 13028: 13022: 13020: 13014: 13013: 13011: 13010: 13005: 13000: 12995: 12993:Troleandomycin 12990: 12985: 12980: 12975: 12970: 12965: 12960: 12955: 12950: 12945: 12940: 12935: 12930: 12925: 12923:Flurithromycin 12920: 12915: 12910: 12908:Clarithromycin 12905: 12900: 12895: 12890: 12884: 12882: 12873: 12865: 12864: 12861: 12860: 12858: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12842: 12836: 12834: 12825: 12819: 12818: 12816: 12815: 12810: 12805: 12800: 12795: 12790: 12785: 12779: 12777: 12762: 12756: 12755: 12752: 12751: 12748: 12747: 12745: 12744: 12738: 12736: 12734:Glycylcyclines 12730: 12729: 12727: 12726: 12721: 12716: 12711: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12669:Demeclocycline 12666: 12661: 12656: 12650: 12648: 12641: 12629: 12628: 12625: 12624: 12622: 12621: 12615: 12613: 12609: 12608: 12606: 12605: 12600: 12594: 12593: 12592: 12591: 12586: 12581: 12576: 12571: 12560: 12558: 12554:Micromonospora 12548: 12547: 12545: 12544: 12542:Nourseothricin 12539: 12534: 12529: 12524: 12519: 12508: 12507: 12506: 12505: 12500: 12495: 12490: 12479: 12478: 12477: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12455: 12454: 12449: 12443: 12441: 12428: 12413: 12407: 12406: 12378:Antibacterials 12374: 12373: 12366: 12359: 12351: 12345: 12342: 12341: 12338:antibacterials 12326: 12325: 12323: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12301: 12299: 12295: 12294: 12292: 12291: 12286: 12281: 12275: 12273: 12269: 12268: 12266: 12265: 12260: 12254: 12252: 12248: 12247: 12245: 12244: 12239: 12234: 12229: 12228: 12227: 12217: 12211: 12209: 12205: 12204: 12202: 12201: 12196: 12191: 12186: 12180: 12178: 12174: 12173: 12170:antimicrobials 12165: 12164: 12157: 12150: 12142: 12133: 12132: 12127: 12121: 12120: 12109: 12108: 12088: 12081: 12080: 12079: 12077: 12076:External links 12074: 12072: 12071: 12036: 11993: 11977: 11957: 11914: 11878: 11876: 11873: 11870: 11869: 11862: 11840: 11825: 11768: 11719: 11668: 11617: 11566: 11515: 11488:(4): 435–446. 11472: 11429: 11380: 11354: 11303: 11277: 11255: 11206: 11179:(6): 322–334. 11163: 11112: 11053: 10997: 10943: 10932: 10901: 10880:(8): 717–726. 10856: 10803: 10749: 10695: 10657: 10598: 10563: 10503: 10468: 10449:(9): 1007–21. 10428: 10379: 10338: 10284: 10241: 10200: 10173:(4): 191–200. 10157: 10122: 10092: 10051: 10010: 9973:Microorganisms 9955: 9928:(4): 166–172. 9908: 9840: 9791: 9764:(4): 323–338. 9731: 9669: 9626: 9577: 9509: 9470:(8): 689–701. 9445: 9414: 9390: 9331: 9272: 9243:(6): 329–364. 9206: 9181: 9135: 9086: 9034: 9003: 8954: 8939: 8888: 8861: 8809: 8783: 8734: 8681: 8640: 8571: 8522: 8461: 8429: 8422: 8404: 8369: 8325: 8282: 8231: 8182: 8156: 8141:. April 2020. 8139:NobelPrize.org 8126: 8109:NobelPrize.org 8096: 8058: 8029:(4): 564–582. 8009: 7958: 7929:(8): 343–348. 7906: 7868: 7838: 7811: 7782:(3): 198–205. 7762: 7719: 7690:(5): 733–737. 7670: 7621: 7572: 7513: 7482: 7451: 7420: 7388: 7356: 7323: 7290: 7264: 7246: 7195: 7169: 7143: 7099: 7050: 7014: 6978: 6930: 6884: 6855:(2): 225–235. 6832: 6825: 6807: 6754: 6724: 6675: 6645: 6622: 6610: 6570: 6521: 6492:(9): 2215–20. 6472: 6415: 6386:(6): 1037–50. 6363: 6312: 6261: 6226: 6219: 6193: 6145: 6094: 6064: 6023:(6): 491–511. 6003: 5968: 5929: 5898: 5847: 5828: 5808: 5770: 5721: 5714: 5696: 5682:10.1086/425009 5675:(9): 1314–20. 5655: 5626:(1): 160–201. 5606: 5580: 5529: 5485: 5456:(8): 4573–82. 5429: 5402:(4): 296–305. 5385: 5342: 5328:10.1086/422881 5301: 5286: 5237: 5223:10.1086/381972 5191: 5176: 5127: 5098: 5076: 5041: 4990: 4963: 4920: 4880: 4838: 4789: 4740: 4721:(3): 289–294. 4701: 4652: 4603: 4562: 4536: 4506: 4465: 4421: 4395: 4374:(6): 571–578. 4354: 4305: 4291:10.1086/644732 4284:(10): 1541–9. 4261: 4218: 4169: 4134: 4115:(6): 794–810. 4098: 4054: 3998: 3979: 3955: 3936: 3901: 3866: 3831: 3802: 3767: 3732: 3683: 3676: 3650: 3607: 3588:(5): 565–569. 3572: 3559:10.1086/349043 3537: 3496: 3481: 3450: 3401: 3379: 3357: 3350: 3330: 3289: 3256: 3187: 3131: 3075: 3044: 3016: 2987:(3): 572–575. 2967: 2937: 2922:. 6 May 2017. 2907: 2900: 2870: 2835: 2805: 2773: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2744: 2742:Antiviral drug 2739: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2689: 2686: 2652: 2649: 2607: 2604: 2495: 2492: 2441:Main article: 2438: 2435: 2406:Bacteriophages 2383:Main article: 2380: 2377: 2361:for recurrent 2332:Main article: 2329: 2326: 2293:quorum sensing 2262:aminoglycoside 2132: 2131: 2122: 2121: 2113: 2112: 2111: 2102: 2101: 2093: 2092: 2091: 2090: 2089: 2086:Bioprospecting 2081: 2078: 2050:drug discovery 2040: 2037: 2018: 2017: 2011: 2005: 1999: 1989: 1979: 1972:aminoglycoside 1965: 1955: 1945: 1935: 1925: 1915: 1905: 1883: 1848: 1845: 1839: 1836: 1794:with Fleming. 1779:Norman Heatley 1771:Edward Abraham 1757:culture plates 1638: 1635: 1627:enterobacteria 1607:Gerhard Domagk 1597:and the first 1560:Sahachiro Hata 1541:Sahachiro Hata 1506: 1503: 1499:Essential oils 1476:ancient Greeks 1456: 1453: 1322:critically ill 1310:Main article: 1298: 1295: 1164:Main article: 1161: 1158: 1111:oxazolidinones 1091:cephalosporins 1061:Main article: 1058: 1055: 1039:oxazolidinones 1031:glycylcyclines 1002:bacteriostatic 1000:) are usually 958:cephalosporins 941: 940: 937: 930: 928: 925: 918: 915: 910:Main article: 907: 904: 837: 834: 810:Main article: 807: 804: 755: 752: 748:contraceptives 713:non-compliance 700: 697: 695: 692: 669:corticosteroid 591: 588: 570: 567: 539:conjunctivitis 515:taken by mouth 506: 503: 411: 408: 406: 403: 352:gastric juices 344:Selman Waksman 333:Selman Waksman 310: 307: 278:Gerhard Domagk 268:and the first 250:John Parkinson 98: 97: 91: 90: 86: 85: 68: 60: 59: 51: 50: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 17563: 17552: 17549: 17547: 17544: 17542: 17539: 17538: 17536: 17526: 17516: 17515: 17512: 17497: 17494: 17493: 17492: 17489: 17487: 17484: 17482: 17479: 17477: 17474: 17472: 17469: 17466: 17464: 17461: 17459: 17456: 17455: 17453: 17449: 17443: 17440: 17438: 17435: 17433: 17430: 17428: 17425: 17422: 17420: 17417: 17415: 17412: 17410: 17407: 17405: 17402: 17400: 17397: 17395: 17392: 17390: 17387: 17385: 17382: 17380: 17377: 17375: 17372: 17368: 17365: 17364: 17362: 17360: 17357: 17355: 17352: 17351: 17349: 17347: 17341: 17330: 17328: 17325: 17323: 17320: 17318: 17315: 17313: 17310: 17308: 17305: 17303: 17302:Sterilization 17300: 17298: 17295: 17293: 17290: 17288: 17285: 17283: 17280: 17276: 17273: 17271: 17270:Surgical mask 17268: 17266: 17263: 17262: 17261: 17258: 17256: 17253: 17251: 17248: 17244: 17241: 17239: 17236: 17233: 17230: 17229: 17228: 17227:Public health 17225: 17223: 17220: 17216: 17213: 17212: 17211: 17208: 17206: 17203: 17199: 17196: 17195: 17194: 17191: 17187: 17184: 17182: 17179: 17177: 17174: 17173: 17172: 17169: 17167: 17164: 17162: 17159: 17157: 17154: 17152: 17149: 17147: 17144: 17143: 17141: 17139: 17133: 17125: 17122: 17120: 17117: 17115: 17112: 17110: 17107: 17105: 17102: 17101: 17100: 17097: 17095: 17092: 17090: 17087: 17085: 17082: 17080: 17079:Phage therapy 17077: 17075: 17072: 17068: 17065: 17064: 17063: 17062:Immunotherapy 17060: 17058: 17055: 17053: 17050: 17048: 17045: 17043: 17040: 17038: 17035: 17033: 17030: 17026: 17023: 17022: 17021: 17020:Antimicrobial 17018: 17014: 17011: 17010: 17009: 17006: 17004: 17001: 16997: 16994: 16993: 16992: 16989: 16988: 16986: 16982: 16979: 16977: 16969: 16962: 16960: 16957: 16955: 16952: 16950: 16947: 16945: 16942: 16940: 16937: 16934: 16932: 16929: 16927: 16924: 16921: 16919: 16916: 16913: 16911:Genitourinary 16910: 16906: 16903: 16902: 16901: 16898: 16894: 16891: 16889: 16886: 16885: 16883: 16882: 16880: 16874: 16864: 16861: 16859: 16856: 16854: 16851: 16849: 16846: 16844: 16841: 16839: 16836: 16834: 16831: 16829: 16826: 16824: 16821: 16819: 16816: 16814: 16811: 16809: 16806: 16804: 16801: 16797: 16794: 16792: 16789: 16788: 16787: 16784: 16782: 16779: 16777: 16774: 16773: 16771: 16769:in population 16765: 16759: 16756: 16754: 16751: 16749: 16746: 16744: 16741: 16739: 16736: 16734: 16733:Herd immunity 16731: 16729: 16726: 16724: 16721: 16719: 16716: 16714: 16711: 16709: 16706: 16704: 16701: 16699: 16696: 16695: 16693: 16691: 16687: 16669: 16666: 16665: 16663: 16659: 16652: 16651: 16649: 16645: 16638: 16637: 16635: 16631: 16625: 16622: 16621: 16619: 16617:Genitourinary 16615: 16609: 16605: 16603: 16600: 16598: 16595: 16593: 16590: 16589: 16587: 16583: 16577: 16574: 16572: 16569: 16567: 16564: 16560: 16559:Contamination 16557: 16556: 16555: 16552: 16551: 16549: 16545: 16537: 16534: 16532: 16529: 16528: 16527:Vector-borne 16526: 16522: 16519: 16517: 16514: 16513: 16511: 16507: 16504: 16501: 16499: 16496: 16494: 16491: 16490: 16488: 16486: 16483: 16482: 16480: 16474: 16468: 16465: 16463: 16460: 16456: 16453: 16452: 16451: 16448: 16446: 16443: 16442: 16440: 16436: 16433: 16429: 16423: 16420: 16419: 16417: 16411: 16405: 16402: 16398: 16395: 16391: 16388: 16385: 16382: 16381: 16380: 16377: 16376: 16374: 16370: 16367: 16365: 16362: 16361: 16359: 16357: 16354: 16353: 16351: 16347: 16343: 16337: 16334: 16332: 16329: 16327: 16324: 16322: 16319: 16318: 16316: 16314: 16313:Cross-species 16310: 16307: 16303: 16296: 16293: 16290: 16287: 16285: 16282: 16280: 16277: 16274: 16273: 16271: 16267: 16264: 16260: 16254: 16253:Window period 16251: 16249: 16246: 16244: 16241: 16239: 16236: 16234: 16231: 16229: 16226: 16224: 16221: 16219: 16218:Latent period 16216: 16214: 16211: 16209: 16206: 16204: 16201: 16199: 16196: 16194: 16191: 16189: 16186: 16184: 16181: 16180: 16178: 16172: 16169: 16167: 16163: 16153: 16150: 16148: 16145: 16143: 16140: 16138: 16135: 16133: 16130: 16128: 16125: 16121: 16118: 16117: 16115: 16113: 16110: 16108: 16105: 16103: 16100: 16098: 16097:Deforestation 16095: 16093: 16090: 16086: 16083: 16081: 16078: 16077: 16075: 16073: 16070: 16067: 16064: 16062: 16059: 16058: 16056: 16054: 16050: 16042:Stress levels 16041: 16038: 16034: 16031: 16030: 16028: 16025: 16022: 16019: 16016: 16013: 16012: 16011: 16008: 16006: 16003: 16001: 15998: 15996: 15993: 15989: 15986: 15984: 15981: 15980: 15979: 15976: 15974: 15971: 15969: 15966: 15964: 15961: 15959: 15956: 15955: 15953: 15951: 15947: 15941: 15938: 15934: 15931: 15929: 15926: 15924: 15921: 15920: 15919: 15916: 15912: 15909: 15907: 15904: 15902: 15899: 15897: 15894: 15893: 15892: 15889: 15887: 15884: 15880: 15877: 15876: 15875: 15874:Pathogenicity 15872: 15868: 15865: 15864: 15863: 15860: 15858: 15855: 15853: 15850: 15849: 15847: 15845: 15841: 15838: 15834: 15829: 15825: 15817: 15812: 15810: 15805: 15803: 15798: 15797: 15794: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15768: 15766: 15765:Spectinomycin 15763: 15761: 15758: 15756: 15753: 15751: 15748: 15746: 15745:Mandelic acid 15743: 15741: 15738: 15736: 15733: 15731: 15728: 15726: 15723: 15721: 15718: 15716: 15713: 15711: 15708: 15707: 15705: 15701: 15695: 15694:Nitrofurazone 15692: 15690: 15687: 15685: 15682: 15680: 15677: 15675: 15672: 15670: 15667: 15666: 15664: 15661: 15657: 15651: 15648: 15646: 15643: 15641: 15638: 15636: 15633: 15631: 15628: 15627: 15625: 15623: 15619: 15613: 15610: 15608: 15605: 15603: 15602:Metronidazole 15600: 15599: 15597: 15594: 15590: 15584: 15581: 15580: 15578: 15575: 15571: 15565: 15562: 15560: 15557: 15556: 15554: 15552: 15548: 15542: 15539: 15537: 15534: 15532: 15529: 15527: 15524: 15522: 15519: 15517: 15514: 15512: 15509: 15507: 15504: 15503: 15501: 15499: 15495: 15494:Glycopeptides 15491: 15486: 15482: 15478: 15471: 15466: 15464: 15459: 15457: 15452: 15451: 15448: 15432: 15430: 15427: 15426: 15424: 15421: 15418: 15415: 15413: 15410: 15409: 15405: 15395: 15392: 15391: 15389: 15387: 15383: 15377: 15374: 15372: 15369: 15367: 15364: 15362: 15359: 15357: 15354: 15353: 15351: 15349: 15344: 15340: 15337: 15334: 15330: 15320: 15317: 15316: 15314: 15311: 15307: 15304: 15302: 15297: 15293: 15283: 15279: 15276: 15275: 15273: 15270: 15265: 15259: 15256: 15254: 15251: 15250: 15248: 15244: 15234: 15231: 15229: 15228:Pradofloxacin 15226: 15224: 15221: 15219: 15218:Marbofloxacin 15216: 15214: 15211: 15209: 15206: 15204: 15201: 15199: 15196: 15195: 15193: 15191: 15187: 15181: 15177: 15176:Trovafloxacin 15174: 15172: 15169: 15167: 15166:Prulifloxacin 15164: 15162: 15159: 15157: 15156:Clinafloxacin 15154: 15152: 15149: 15147: 15144: 15142: 15139: 15137: 15134: 15132: 15129: 15127: 15124: 15123: 15121: 15119: 15115: 15109: 15106: 15104: 15101: 15099: 15096: 15094: 15091: 15089: 15088:Grepafloxacin 15086: 15084: 15081: 15079: 15076: 15075: 15073: 15071: 15067: 15061: 15058: 15056: 15053: 15051: 15048: 15046: 15042: 15038: 15035: 15033: 15030: 15028: 15025: 15023: 15020: 15018: 15015: 15013: 15012:Ciprofloxacin 15010: 15009: 15007: 15005: 15001: 14998: 14996: 14992: 14986: 14983: 14981: 14978: 14976: 14973: 14971: 14970:Oxolinic acid 14968: 14966: 14963: 14961: 14958: 14956: 14953: 14952: 14950: 14948: 14944: 14941: 14938: 14931: 14926: 14925:topoisomerase 14920: 14916: 14906: 14903: 14901: 14898: 14896: 14893: 14891: 14890:Acediasulfone 14888: 14887: 14885: 14881: 14875: 14872: 14870: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14860: 14857: 14856: 14854: 14850: 14840: 14837: 14835: 14832: 14830: 14827: 14825: 14822: 14820: 14817: 14815: 14814:Sulfacetamide 14812: 14810: 14807: 14806: 14804: 14800: 14794: 14791: 14789: 14786: 14784: 14783:Sulfamerazine 14781: 14779: 14776: 14774: 14771: 14769: 14766: 14764: 14761: 14759: 14756: 14754: 14751: 14749: 14746: 14745: 14743: 14741: 14737: 14731: 14728: 14726: 14723: 14721: 14718: 14717: 14715: 14713: 14709: 14703: 14702:Sulfathiourea 14700: 14697: 14693: 14689: 14688:Sulfathiazole 14686: 14682: 14679: 14678: 14677: 14676:Sulfanilamide 14674: 14671: 14667: 14666:Sulfafurazole 14664: 14661: 14660:Sulfasalazine 14657: 14656:Sulfapyridine 14654: 14652: 14651:Sulfadimidine 14649: 14647: 14644: 14642: 14639: 14638: 14636: 14634: 14630: 14627: 14624: 14619: 14615: 14607: 14604: 14602: 14599: 14597: 14596:Pyrimethamine 14594: 14592: 14589: 14587: 14584: 14582: 14579: 14578: 14577: 14574: 14573: 14571: 14569: 14565: 14562: 14553: 14547: 14543: 14538: 14534: 14530: 14526: 14519: 14514: 14512: 14507: 14505: 14500: 14499: 14496: 14480: 14478: 14475: 14474: 14472: 14469: 14466: 14463: 14461: 14458: 14457: 14453: 14447: 14444: 14442: 14439: 14435: 14432: 14430: 14427: 14426: 14425: 14422: 14418: 14415: 14414: 14412: 14411: 14409: 14405: 14398: 14394: 14391: 14388: 14384: 14380: 14377: 14374: 14370: 14366: 14362: 14361: 14359: 14357:Intracellular 14355: 14345: 14341: 14340: 14338: 14334: 14328: 14325: 14323: 14319: 14318: 14316: 14314: 14310: 14307: 14305: 14301: 14291: 14288: 14286: 14283: 14281: 14278: 14276: 14273: 14271: 14268: 14266: 14263: 14261: 14258: 14256: 14253: 14251: 14248: 14246: 14243: 14241: 14238: 14236: 14233: 14231: 14228: 14225: 14224:Sultamicillin 14221: 14218: 14216: 14213: 14211: 14208: 14207: 14205: 14201: 14194: 14191: 14189: 14186: 14184: 14181: 14179: 14175: 14172: 14168: 14165: 14162: 14159: 14157: 14153: 14150: 14149: 14147: 14145: 14141: 14135: 14132: 14130: 14127: 14125: 14122: 14120: 14117: 14116: 14114: 14112: 14108: 14098: 14095: 14093: 14090: 14088: 14085: 14084: 14082: 14080: 14076: 14070: 14067: 14066: 14064: 14062: 14058: 14052: 14049: 14047: 14044: 14042: 14039: 14038: 14036: 14034: 14030: 14024: 14021: 14019: 14016: 14014: 14011: 14009: 14006: 14005: 14003: 14001: 13997: 13990: 13987: 13985: 13981: 13978: 13976: 13973: 13971: 13968: 13966: 13963: 13961: 13958: 13956: 13953: 13951: 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13938: 13936: 13933: 13931: 13928: 13926: 13923: 13921: 13918: 13916: 13913: 13911: 13908: 13906: 13903: 13901: 13898: 13895: 13892: 13890: 13886: 13884: 13881: 13879: 13876: 13874: 13871: 13870: 13868: 13866: 13862: 13855: 13851: 13848: 13845: 13842: 13840: 13839:Cefbuperazone 13837: 13835: 13832: 13830: 13827: 13825: 13821: 13818: 13816: 13813: 13811: 13808: 13806: 13803: 13801: 13798: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13777: 13775: 13773: 13769: 13763: 13760: 13758: 13755: 13753: 13750: 13748: 13745: 13743: 13740: 13738: 13735: 13733: 13730: 13728: 13725: 13723: 13720: 13718: 13715: 13713: 13710: 13708: 13705: 13703: 13700: 13698: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13689: 13687: 13685: 13681: 13678: 13676: 13672: 13668: 13664: 13660: 13653: 13650: 13648: 13644: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13630: 13627: 13625: 13622: 13620: 13616: 13613: 13611: 13608:Carbapenems ( 13607: 13606: 13604: 13602: 13598: 13594: 13580: 13579:Sulbenicillin 13577: 13574: 13573:Pivmecillinam 13570: 13567: 13566: 13564: 13560: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13544: 13541: 13540: 13538: 13535: 13531: 13525: 13522: 13520: 13519:Carindacillin 13516: 13515:Carbenicillin 13513: 13511: 13508: 13507: 13505: 13502: 13498: 13492: 13489: 13486: 13485:Talampicillin 13483: 13481: 13480:Metampicillin 13478: 13476: 13475:Lenampicillin 13473: 13471: 13470:Bacampicillin 13468: 13466: 13463: 13461: 13460:Pivampicillin 13457: 13454: 13452: 13449: 13448: 13446: 13443: 13439: 13436: 13434: 13428: 13418: 13415: 13413: 13410: 13408: 13405: 13402: 13399: 13397: 13396:Dicloxacillin 13393: 13390: 13389: 13387: 13383: 13379: 13373: 13370: 13368: 13367:Clometocillin 13365: 13363: 13360: 13358: 13357:Pheneticillin 13355: 13353: 13350: 13348: 13345: 13343: 13340: 13338: 13335: 13333: 13330: 13329: 13327: 13323: 13319: 13316: 13314: 13308: 13305: 13302: 13298: 13294: 13291: 13286: 13272: 13256: 13252: 13247: 13243: 13239: 13235: 13231: 13224: 13219: 13217: 13212: 13210: 13205: 13204: 13201: 13185: 13183: 13180: 13179: 13177: 13174: 13171: 13168: 13166: 13163: 13162: 13158: 13143: 13139: 13138:Virginiamycin 13136: 13134: 13131: 13129: 13126: 13123: 13119: 13115: 13112: 13109: 13105: 13101: 13098: 13095: 13091: 13087: 13083: 13082:Pristinamycin 13080: 13079: 13077: 13075: 13071: 13065: 13062: 13060: 13057: 13055: 13052: 13051: 13049: 13047: 13043: 13037: 13036:Solithromycin 13034: 13032: 13029: 13027: 13026:Telithromycin 13024: 13023: 13021: 13019: 13015: 13009: 13006: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12998:Tulathromycin 12996: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12986: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12978:Telithromycin 12976: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12968:Solithromycin 12966: 12964: 12963:Roxithromycin 12961: 12959: 12956: 12954: 12951: 12949: 12946: 12944: 12941: 12939: 12936: 12934: 12931: 12929: 12928:Gamithromycin 12926: 12924: 12921: 12919: 12916: 12914: 12913:Dirithromycin 12911: 12909: 12906: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12896: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12886: 12885: 12883: 12881: 12877: 12874: 12871: 12866: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12850:Thiamphenicol 12848: 12846: 12845:Azidamfenicol 12843: 12841: 12838: 12837: 12835: 12833: 12829: 12826: 12824: 12820: 12814: 12811: 12809: 12806: 12804: 12801: 12799: 12796: 12794: 12791: 12789: 12786: 12784: 12781: 12780: 12778: 12775: 12770: 12769:Oxazolidinone 12766: 12763: 12761: 12757: 12743: 12740: 12739: 12737: 12735: 12731: 12725: 12722: 12720: 12717: 12715: 12712: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12651: 12649: 12647:Tetracyclines 12645: 12642: 12639: 12634: 12630: 12620: 12617: 12616: 12614: 12610: 12604: 12601: 12599: 12596: 12595: 12590: 12587: 12585: 12582: 12580: 12577: 12575: 12572: 12570: 12567: 12566: 12565: 12562: 12561: 12559: 12556: 12555: 12549: 12543: 12540: 12538: 12535: 12533: 12530: 12528: 12525: 12523: 12522:Spectinomycin 12520: 12517: 12513: 12510: 12509: 12504: 12501: 12499: 12496: 12494: 12491: 12489: 12486: 12485: 12484: 12481: 12480: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12461: 12460: 12457: 12456: 12453: 12450: 12448: 12445: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12438: 12432: 12429: 12426: 12421: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12408: 12403: 12399: 12395: 12391: 12387: 12383: 12379: 12372: 12367: 12365: 12360: 12358: 12353: 12352: 12349: 12343: 12339: 12333: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12303: 12302: 12300: 12296: 12290: 12287: 12285: 12282: 12280: 12277: 12276: 12274: 12270: 12264: 12261: 12259: 12256: 12255: 12253: 12251:Social issues 12249: 12243: 12240: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12226: 12223: 12222: 12221: 12218: 12216: 12213: 12212: 12210: 12206: 12200: 12199:Antiparasitic 12197: 12195: 12192: 12190: 12187: 12185: 12184:Antibacterial 12182: 12181: 12179: 12175: 12171: 12163: 12158: 12156: 12151: 12149: 12144: 12143: 12140: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12122: 12117: 12112: 12103: 12102: 12101: 12095: 12091: 12068: 12064: 12059: 12054: 12051:(3): 137–46. 12050: 12046: 12042: 12037: 12033: 12029: 12024: 12019: 12015: 12011: 12007: 12003: 11999: 11994: 11990: 11986: 11982: 11978: 11966: 11962: 11958: 11954: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11936: 11932: 11929:(3): 417–33. 11928: 11924: 11920: 11915: 11911: 11907: 11902: 11897: 11893: 11889: 11885: 11880: 11879: 11865: 11859: 11855: 11851: 11844: 11836: 11829: 11821: 11817: 11813: 11809: 11805: 11801: 11796: 11791: 11787: 11783: 11779: 11772: 11764: 11760: 11755: 11750: 11746: 11742: 11738: 11734: 11730: 11723: 11715: 11711: 11706: 11701: 11696: 11691: 11687: 11683: 11679: 11672: 11664: 11660: 11655: 11650: 11645: 11640: 11636: 11632: 11628: 11621: 11613: 11609: 11604: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11585: 11581: 11577: 11570: 11562: 11558: 11553: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11534: 11530: 11526: 11519: 11511: 11507: 11503: 11499: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11476: 11468: 11464: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11448: 11444: 11440: 11433: 11425: 11421: 11416: 11411: 11407: 11403: 11400:(4): 312–21. 11399: 11395: 11391: 11384: 11368: 11364: 11358: 11350: 11346: 11341: 11336: 11331: 11326: 11322: 11318: 11314: 11307: 11291: 11287: 11281: 11275: 11272: 11268: 11265: 11259: 11251: 11247: 11242: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11225: 11221: 11217: 11210: 11202: 11198: 11194: 11190: 11186: 11182: 11178: 11174: 11167: 11159: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11131: 11127: 11126:Critical Care 11123: 11116: 11108: 11104: 11100: 11096: 11091: 11086: 11081: 11076: 11072: 11068: 11064: 11057: 11049: 11045: 11040: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11023: 11019: 11015: 11008: 11006: 11004: 11002: 10993: 10989: 10984: 10979: 10975: 10971: 10968:(3): 649–59. 10967: 10963: 10959: 10952: 10950: 10948: 10939: 10935: 10929: 10925: 10924: 10919: 10915: 10911: 10905: 10897: 10893: 10888: 10883: 10879: 10875: 10871: 10869: 10860: 10852: 10848: 10844: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10826: 10822: 10818: 10814: 10807: 10799: 10795: 10790: 10785: 10780: 10775: 10772:: 2151–2160. 10771: 10767: 10763: 10756: 10754: 10737: 10733: 10729: 10725: 10721: 10718:(2): 99–107. 10717: 10713: 10709: 10702: 10700: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10679: 10675: 10671: 10664: 10662: 10645: 10641: 10637: 10633: 10629: 10625: 10621: 10618:(5): 377–86. 10617: 10613: 10609: 10602: 10594: 10590: 10586: 10582: 10578: 10574: 10567: 10559: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10541: 10537: 10533: 10529: 10525: 10521: 10517: 10510: 10508: 10499: 10495: 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10472: 10464: 10460: 10456: 10452: 10448: 10444: 10437: 10435: 10433: 10424: 10420: 10415: 10410: 10406: 10402: 10399:(4): 564–82. 10398: 10394: 10390: 10383: 10375: 10371: 10366: 10361: 10357: 10353: 10349: 10342: 10334: 10330: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10310: 10307:(2): 473–98. 10306: 10302: 10298: 10291: 10289: 10280: 10276: 10272: 10268: 10264: 10260: 10256: 10252: 10245: 10237: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10220:(3): 357–64. 10219: 10215: 10211: 10204: 10196: 10192: 10188: 10184: 10180: 10176: 10172: 10168: 10161: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10138:(5): 549–65. 10137: 10133: 10126: 10110: 10106: 10102: 10096: 10088: 10084: 10079: 10074: 10070: 10066: 10062: 10055: 10047: 10043: 10038: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10021: 10014: 10006: 10002: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9978: 9974: 9970: 9968: 9959: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9939: 9935: 9931: 9927: 9923: 9919: 9912: 9893: 9889: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9873: 9869: 9866:(2): 239–51. 9865: 9861: 9854: 9847: 9845: 9836: 9832: 9827: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9810: 9806: 9805:Bacteriophage 9802: 9795: 9787: 9783: 9779: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9763: 9759: 9752: 9750: 9748: 9746: 9744: 9742: 9740: 9738: 9736: 9727: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9694: 9692: 9690: 9688: 9686: 9684: 9682: 9680: 9678: 9676: 9674: 9665: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9649: 9645: 9641: 9637: 9630: 9622: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9604: 9600: 9596: 9592: 9588: 9581: 9565: 9561: 9557: 9553: 9549: 9545: 9541: 9537: 9533: 9529: 9522: 9520: 9518: 9516: 9514: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9465: 9461: 9454: 9452: 9450: 9433: 9429: 9425: 9418: 9407: 9400: 9394: 9386: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9362: 9358: 9354: 9350: 9346: 9342: 9335: 9327: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9299: 9295: 9291: 9287: 9283: 9276: 9268: 9264: 9259: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9242: 9238: 9234: 9227: 9225: 9223: 9221: 9219: 9217: 9215: 9213: 9211: 9192: 9185: 9177: 9173: 9168: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9144: 9142: 9140: 9131: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9113: 9109: 9105: 9101: 9097: 9090: 9082: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9041: 9039: 9022: 9018: 9014: 9007: 8999: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8981: 8977: 8973: 8969: 8965: 8958: 8948: 8946: 8944: 8935: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8908:(3): 159–60. 8907: 8903: 8899: 8892: 8884: 8880: 8877:(2): 401–21. 8876: 8872: 8865: 8857: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8839: 8835: 8831: 8827: 8823: 8816: 8814: 8797: 8793: 8787: 8779: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8761: 8757: 8753: 8749: 8745: 8738: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8692: 8685: 8677: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8651: 8644: 8636: 8632: 8629:(2): 139–41. 8628: 8624: 8619:; Reprint of 8616: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8598: 8594: 8591:(1): 129–39. 8590: 8586: 8582: 8575: 8567: 8563: 8558: 8553: 8549: 8545: 8541: 8537: 8533: 8526: 8518: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8474: 8465: 8449: 8445: 8444: 8436: 8434: 8425: 8419: 8415: 8408: 8392: 8388: 8384: 8380: 8373: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8329: 8321: 8317: 8313: 8309: 8305: 8301: 8297: 8293: 8286: 8278: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8250: 8246: 8242: 8235: 8227: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8193: 8186: 8170: 8166: 8160: 8144: 8140: 8136: 8130: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8100: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8065: 8063: 8054: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8013: 8005: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7962: 7954: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7913: 7911: 7902: 7898: 7894: 7890: 7887:(6): 326–36. 7886: 7882: 7875: 7873: 7856: 7849: 7842: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7815: 7807: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7789: 7785: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7766: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7742: 7738: 7734: 7730: 7723: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7674: 7666: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7632: 7625: 7617: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7576: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7524: 7517: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7486: 7470: 7466: 7465:MedPage Today 7462: 7455: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7424: 7405: 7398: 7392: 7373: 7366: 7360: 7344: 7340: 7336: 7330: 7328: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7297: 7295: 7278: 7274: 7268: 7260: 7256: 7250: 7242: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7214: 7210: 7209:PLOS Medicine 7206: 7199: 7183: 7179: 7173: 7166: 7164: 7159: 7155: 7152: 7147: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7103: 7095: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7069: 7065: 7061: 7054: 7046: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7031:(3): 221–30. 7030: 7026: 7018: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6995:(3): 213–20. 6994: 6990: 6982: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6937: 6935: 6926: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6909:(1): 435–47. 6908: 6904: 6900: 6893: 6891: 6889: 6880: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6839: 6837: 6828: 6822: 6818: 6811: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6786: 6785:11368/3020691 6781: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6758: 6742: 6738: 6735: 6728: 6720: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6695:(7): 4420–1. 6694: 6690: 6686: 6679: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6649: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6626: 6619: 6614: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6591:(4): 176–82. 6590: 6586: 6579: 6577: 6575: 6566: 6562: 6557: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6541:(1): 119–46. 6540: 6536: 6532: 6525: 6517: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6483: 6476: 6468: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6430: 6426: 6419: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6370: 6368: 6359: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6316: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6265: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6230: 6222: 6216: 6211: 6210: 6204: 6197: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6166:(3): 187–91. 6165: 6161: 6154: 6152: 6150: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6098: 6082: 6078: 6071: 6069: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6007: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5984:(10): 341–2. 5983: 5979: 5972: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5933: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5902: 5894: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5835: 5831: 5825: 5821: 5820: 5812: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5788: 5784: 5777: 5775: 5766: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5741:(5): 532–43. 5740: 5736: 5732: 5725: 5717: 5711: 5707: 5700: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5659: 5651: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5594: 5590: 5584: 5576: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5533: 5525: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5490: 5481: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5389: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5361: 5358:(2): 163–75. 5357: 5353: 5346: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5305: 5297: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5241: 5233: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5216:(6): 864–70. 5215: 5211: 5207: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5187: 5180: 5172: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5131: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5103: 5096: 5090: 5086: 5080: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5045: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4994: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4974: 4967: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4936:(5): 309–13. 4935: 4931: 4924: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4895:Contraception 4889: 4887: 4885: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4834: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4793: 4785: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4705: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4656: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4623:(9): 3213–7. 4622: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4582:(3): 148–50. 4581: 4577: 4573: 4566: 4550: 4546: 4540: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4510: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4485:(7A): 1S–6S. 4484: 4480: 4476: 4469: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4444:(7A): 1S–6S. 4443: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4426: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4391: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4309: 4301: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4268: 4266: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4234:(8): 957–65. 4233: 4229: 4222: 4214: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4173: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4150:(3): 411–41. 4149: 4145: 4138: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4102: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4058: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4025:(2): 156–67. 4024: 4020: 4016: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4003: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3952: 3948: 3945: 3940: 3932: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3897: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3862: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3819: 3815: 3809: 3807: 3798: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3763: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3703:(3): 417–33. 3702: 3698: 3694: 3687: 3679: 3673: 3669: 3664: 3663: 3654: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3457: 3455: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3369: 3368: 3361: 3353: 3347: 3343: 3342: 3334: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3293: 3277: 3273: 3272: 3267: 3260: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3174: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3140: 3138: 3136: 3127: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3071: 3070: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2971: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2941: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2911: 2903: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2884: 2877: 2875: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2844:metronidazole 2842:For example, 2839: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2809: 2793: 2789: 2788:"Antibiotics" 2783: 2781: 2779: 2774: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2737:Antiprotozoal 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2657: 2648: 2646: 2642: 2641: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2556:P. aeruginosa 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2516: 2511: 2507: 2501: 2500:Antisense RNA 2491: 2489: 2488:oral delivery 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2471: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2434: 2431: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2398:Phage therapy 2391: 2386: 2385:Phage therapy 2379:Phage therapy 2376: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2365: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2335: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2313:sesquiterpene 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2264:antibiotics. 2263: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2184: 2182: 2181:actinomycetes 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2126: 2117: 2106: 2097: 2087: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2070:antisense RNA 2067: 2063: 2062:phage therapy 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2036: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2015: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1949: 1946: 1943: 1940:/relebactam: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1932:cephalosporin 1929: 1926: 1923: 1919: 1916: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1903: 1899: 1898:cephalosporin 1896: 1892: 1888: 1885: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1870: 1867: 1863: 1860:currently in 1859: 1854: 1844: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1828:Allied powers 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767:Howard Florey 1764: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1753: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1733:In 1928, Sir 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1708: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1665:Louis Pasteur 1657: 1653: 1649: 1644: 1634: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1620:Gram-positive 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1520: 1511: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1462: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1429:mitochondrial 1426: 1425:drug toxicity 1422: 1417: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1313: 1303: 1294: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1273: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1221: 1219: 1213: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1134:Howard Florey 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1073:semisynthetic 1070: 1064: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1015: 1014:gram-positive 1011: 1010:gram-negative 1007: 1003: 999: 998:tetracyclines 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 934: 929: 922: 917: 916: 913: 903: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 880: 878: 874: 873:tetracyclines 870: 866: 862: 858: 857: 851: 847: 843: 833: 831: 827: 823: 819: 813: 803: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 769: 765: 764:metronidazole 760: 751: 749: 744: 740: 736: 731: 729: 725: 721: 718: 714: 710: 706: 691: 689: 685: 681: 677: 676:mitochondrion 672: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 653: 648: 644: 643:vaginal flora 640: 636: 635: 630: 626: 621: 619: 615: 611: 606: 596: 587: 585: 581: 576: 566: 564: 561:reactions or 560: 556: 552: 548: 547:swimmer's ear 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 523:intravenously 520: 516: 512: 502: 498: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 447: 445: 440: 435: 433: 429: 425: 421: 420:Metronidazole 417: 402: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 336: 334: 330: 329: 324: 320: 319:Louis Pasteur 316: 306: 303: 299: 296:to them. The 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 239: 234: 232: 228: 227:disinfectants 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 195:microorganism 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 167: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 140:antiprotozoal 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 108:antimicrobial 106:is a type of 105: 96: 92: 87: 82: 78: 74: 73: 66: 61: 58: 57: 52: 47: 44: 40: 33: 19: 17551:Bactericides 17210:Notification 17181:Hand washing 17176:Food hygiene 17161:Disinfection 17057:Immunization 17008:Anthelmintic 16996:prophylactic 16990: 16884:Respiratory 16808:Hyperendemic 16758:WAIFW matrix 16413:Environment- 16166:Transmission 16142:Urbanization 15940:Host tropism 15836:Determinants 15822:Concepts in 15674:Nifuroxazide 15669:Furazolidone 15583:Fusidic acid 15386:Lipiarmycins 15233:Sarafloxacin 15223:Orbifloxacin 15208:Enrofloxacin 15198:Danofloxacin 15171:Sitafloxacin 15151:Moxifloxacin 15146:Gemifloxacin 15141:Finafloxacin 15136:Gatifloxacin 15131:Delafloxacin 15126:Besifloxacin 15108:Tosufloxacin 15103:Temafloxacin 15098:Sparfloxacin 15093:Pazufloxacin 15083:Balofloxacin 15078:Levofloxacin 15037:Nadifloxacin 15032:Lomefloxacin 14852:Combinations 14834:Sulfametrole 14819:Sulfaclozine 14725:Sulfadiazine 14633:Short-acting 14618:Sulfonamides 14606:Trimethoprim 14395:inhibitors ( 14385:inhibitors ( 14313:Lipopeptides 14304:Polypeptides 14203:Combinations 14134:Nocardicin A 14051:Ceftobiprole 13894:Cefoperazone 13752:Cefaloridine 13737:Cefaloglycin 13675:Carbacephems 13543:Piperacillin 13372:Penamecillin 13273:, a group of 13122:Quinupristin 13118:Dalfopristin 13046:Lincosamides 12983:Tildipirosin 12953:Oleandomycin 12918:Erythromycin 12888:Azithromycin 12724:Tetracycline 12699:Omadacycline 12684:Meclocycline 12674:Eravacycline 12664:Clomocycline 12579:Micronomicin 12552: 12527:Hygromycin B 12516:+loteprednol 12474:Ribostamycin 12447:Streptomycin 12437:Streptomyces 12435: 12377: 12272:Pharmacology 12115: 12098: 12097: 12096:profile for 12093: 12048: 12044: 12005: 12001: 11989:the original 11984: 11969:. Retrieved 11926: 11922: 11894:(3): 572–5. 11891: 11887: 11849: 11843: 11834: 11828: 11785: 11781: 11771: 11736: 11732: 11722: 11685: 11681: 11671: 11637:(10): 1863. 11634: 11630: 11620: 11583: 11579: 11569: 11532: 11528: 11518: 11485: 11481: 11475: 11445:(1): 17–30. 11442: 11438: 11432: 11397: 11393: 11383: 11373:17 September 11371:. Retrieved 11357: 11320: 11316: 11306: 11296:17 September 11294:. Retrieved 11280: 11273: 11258: 11223: 11219: 11209: 11176: 11172: 11166: 11129: 11125: 11115: 11070: 11067:Cell Reports 11066: 11056: 11024:(1): 56–78. 11021: 11017: 10965: 10961: 10922: 10914:Orenstein WA 10904: 10877: 10874:Microbiology 10873: 10867: 10859: 10816: 10812: 10806: 10769: 10765: 10740:. Retrieved 10715: 10711: 10673: 10669: 10648:. Retrieved 10615: 10611: 10601: 10576: 10572: 10566: 10523: 10519: 10481: 10477: 10471: 10446: 10442: 10396: 10392: 10382: 10358:(7): 691–4. 10355: 10351: 10341: 10304: 10300: 10257:(5): 342–9. 10254: 10250: 10244: 10217: 10213: 10203: 10170: 10166: 10160: 10135: 10131: 10125: 10113:. Retrieved 10109:the original 10104: 10095: 10068: 10064: 10054: 10027: 10023: 10013: 9976: 9972: 9966: 9958: 9925: 9921: 9917: 9911: 9899:. Retrieved 9863: 9859: 9811:(2): 66–85. 9808: 9804: 9794: 9761: 9757: 9710:(1): 61–72. 9707: 9703: 9639: 9635: 9629: 9594: 9590: 9580: 9570:17 September 9568:. Retrieved 9535: 9531: 9500:. Retrieved 9467: 9463: 9438:19 September 9436:. Retrieved 9427: 9417: 9393: 9348: 9344: 9334: 9289: 9285: 9275: 9240: 9236: 9197:. Retrieved 9184: 9157: 9153: 9103: 9099: 9089: 9054: 9050: 9025:. Retrieved 9021:the original 9016: 9006: 8971: 8967: 8957: 8905: 8901: 8891: 8874: 8870: 8864: 8829: 8825: 8800:. Retrieved 8786: 8751: 8747: 8737: 8725:. Retrieved 8698: 8694: 8684: 8660:(8): 778–9. 8657: 8653: 8643: 8626: 8622: 8588: 8584: 8574: 8542:(7): 366–7. 8539: 8535: 8525: 8482: 8478: 8472: 8464: 8452:. Retrieved 8442: 8413: 8407: 8397:30 September 8395:. Retrieved 8391:the original 8386: 8382: 8372: 8364: 8342: 8338: 8328: 8298:(2): 87–92. 8295: 8291: 8285: 8248: 8244: 8234: 8199: 8195: 8185: 8173:. Retrieved 8159: 8147:. Retrieved 8138: 8129: 8117:. Retrieved 8108: 8099: 8087:. Retrieved 8078: 8074: 8026: 8022: 8012: 7975: 7971: 7961: 7926: 7922: 7884: 7880: 7859:. Retrieved 7854: 7841: 7827:(1): 21–23. 7824: 7820: 7814: 7779: 7775: 7765: 7735:(2): 75–81. 7732: 7728: 7722: 7687: 7683: 7673: 7641:(1): 66–72. 7638: 7634: 7624: 7589: 7585: 7575: 7563:. Retrieved 7530: 7526: 7516: 7504:. Retrieved 7495: 7485: 7473:. Retrieved 7464: 7454: 7442:. Retrieved 7433: 7423: 7411:. Retrieved 7391: 7379:. Retrieved 7372:the original 7359: 7347:. Retrieved 7338: 7314:. Retrieved 7305: 7281:. Retrieved 7267: 7259:the original 7249: 7212: 7208: 7198: 7186:. Retrieved 7182:the original 7172: 7161: 7146: 7113: 7109: 7102: 7067: 7063: 7053: 7028: 7024: 7017: 6992: 6988: 6981: 6946: 6942: 6906: 6902: 6852: 6848: 6817:The ICU book 6816: 6810: 6767: 6763: 6757: 6745:. Retrieved 6736: 6727: 6692: 6688: 6678: 6666:. Retrieved 6662:the original 6657: 6648: 6636:The Guardian 6635: 6625: 6613: 6588: 6584: 6538: 6534: 6524: 6489: 6485: 6475: 6432: 6428: 6418: 6383: 6379: 6329: 6325: 6315: 6274: 6270: 6264: 6242:(5): 461–5. 6239: 6235: 6229: 6208: 6196: 6163: 6159: 6136:. Retrieved 6114:(1): 173–8. 6111: 6107: 6097: 6085:. Retrieved 6055:. Retrieved 6020: 6016: 6006: 5981: 5977: 5971: 5946: 5942: 5932: 5920:. Retrieved 5912:The Guardian 5911: 5901: 5864: 5860: 5850: 5838:. Retrieved 5818: 5811: 5786: 5782: 5738: 5734: 5724: 5705: 5699: 5672: 5668: 5658: 5623: 5619: 5609: 5597:. Retrieved 5589:"antagonism" 5583: 5546: 5542: 5532: 5505: 5501: 5453: 5449: 5399: 5395: 5388: 5355: 5351: 5345: 5321:(5): 755–6. 5318: 5314: 5304: 5295: 5289: 5254: 5250: 5240: 5213: 5209: 5185: 5179: 5147:(1): 64–74. 5144: 5140: 5130: 5118:. Retrieved 5079: 5054: 5050: 5044: 5032:. Retrieved 5007: 5003: 4993: 4976: 4972: 4966: 4933: 4929: 4923: 4898: 4894: 4858: 4854: 4806: 4802: 4792: 4757: 4753: 4743: 4718: 4714: 4704: 4672:(3): 422–7. 4669: 4665: 4655: 4620: 4616: 4606: 4579: 4575: 4565: 4553:. Retrieved 4549:the original 4539: 4527:. Retrieved 4518: 4509: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4441: 4437: 4412:. Retrieved 4408:the original 4398: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4322: 4318: 4308: 4281: 4277: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4186: 4182: 4172: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4112: 4108: 4101: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4022: 4018: 3989:. Retrieved 3969: 3939: 3929:– via 3923:. Retrieved 3914: 3904: 3894:– via 3888:. Retrieved 3879: 3869: 3859:– via 3853:. Retrieved 3844: 3834: 3822:. Retrieved 3818:the original 3795:– via 3789:. 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Retrieved 2722:Anthelmintic 2709:inflammation 2691: 2662: 2644: 2639: 2623: 2609: 2599: 2595: 2587: 2579: 2569: 2566: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2503: 2480:C. difficile 2479: 2470:C. difficile 2469: 2458: 2453:C. difficile 2452: 2427: 2418: 2396: 2369: 2363: 2351:bezlotoxumab 2338:Antibodies ( 2337: 2316: 2281:type IV pili 2266: 2255: 2249: 2185: 2175:rationales. 2165:ethnomedical 2138: 2042: 2020: 2014:Zosurabalpin 1996:tetracycline 1992:Omadacycline 1986:tetracycline 1982:Eravacycline 1974:derivative ( 1958:Delafloxacin 1879:C. difficile 1878: 1871: 1850: 1841: 1819: 1804:World War II 1796: 1788:sulfonamides 1775:penicillin G 1761: 1750: 1732: 1728:tuberculosis 1723: 1711: 1705: 1693: 1686: 1675: 1669: 1661: 1599:systemically 1592: 1576:arsphenamine 1554:in mice and 1545: 1537:Paul Ehrlich 1519:Paul Ehrlich 1516: 1496: 1492:tetracycline 1465: 1437:immune cells 1418: 1411: 1396: 1392: 1372: 1367: 1352: 1338:prophylactic 1335: 1324:patients in 1318:The ICU Book 1317: 1315: 1288: 1271: 1251: 1234: 1230: 1222: 1214: 1201:evolutionary 1198: 1191: 1184: 1156:conditions. 1150:fermentation 1131: 1103:sulfonamides 1084: 1066: 1047:lipiarmycins 1023:lipopeptides 994:lincosamides 982:bactericidal 978:sulfonamides 970:lipiarmycins 943: 881: 861:fusidic acid 855: 839: 821: 815: 800:erythromycin 788:furazolidone 780:cefoperazone 772:cephamandole 761: 757: 732: 720:serum levels 702: 694:Interactions 688:chloroplasts 673: 650: 632: 622: 605:side effects 601: 590:Side effects 572: 508: 499: 448: 444:appendicitis 436: 413: 410:Medical uses 398: 394: 390: 382: 378: 374: 373:+ βιωτικός ( 370: 368: 364:sulfonamides 348:antagonistic 339: 337: 326: 312: 270:systemically 254:Paul Ehrlich 235: 215:bactericides 199:sulfonamides 182: 178: 170: 168: 103: 101: 89:Legal status 80: 70: 54: 43: 17541:Antibiotics 17463:Eradication 17374:Biosecurity 17099:Vaccination 17074:Inoculation 17052:Drug safety 17047:Combination 16974:and Control 16922:Soft tissue 16876:Anatomical 16843:Seasonality 16823:Mesoendemic 16803:Holoendemic 16796:Farr's laws 16708:Attack rate 16506:Animal bite 16502:Insect bite 16438:Respiratory 16065:Air quality 16053:Environment 15963:Comorbidity 15879:Attack rate 15862:Infectivity 15755:Nitroxoline 15750:Methenamine 15730:Furaltadone 15679:Nifurtoinol 15662:derivatives 15640:Retapamulin 15595:derivatives 15564:Polymyxin B 15531:Teicoplanin 15521:Oritavancin 15516:Dalbavancin 15419:from market 15394:Fidaxomicin 15366:Rifapentine 15319:Secnidazole 15312:derivatives 15253:Nemonoxacin 15213:Ibafloxacin 15161:Garenoxacin 15050:Norfloxacin 14900:Solasulfone 14839:Sulfanitran 14793:Sulfamazone 14753:Sulfadoxine 14740:Long-acting 14730:Sulfamoxole 14601:Tetroxoprim 14581:Brodimoprim 14558:DNA and RNA 14546:Antifolates 14467:from market 14446:Teixobactin 14424:Tyrothricin 14393:bactoprenol 14387:Cycloserine 14193:Vaborbactam 14183:Durlobactam 14111:Monobactams 14069:Cefiderocol 14061:Siderophore 14046:Ceftolozane 13960:Cefpimizole 13930:Cefpodoxime 13925:Cefpiramide 13920:Cefmenoxime 13915:Ceftizoxime 13910:Cefdaloxime 13889:Ceftazidime 13878:Ceftriaxone 13850:Carbacephem 13844:Cefmetazole 13800:Cefamandole 13762:Cefatrizine 13742:Cefacetrile 13727:Cefroxadine 13671:Cephamycins 13597:Carbapenems 13553:Mezlocillin 13510:Ticarcillin 13451:Amoxicillin 13417:Methicillin 13392:Cloxacillin 13362:Azidocillin 13352:Propicillin 13297:Penicillins 13172:from market 13108:Linopristin 13054:Clindamycin 13031:Cethromycin 12958:Rokitamycin 12943:Midecamycin 12938:Kitasamycin 12855:Florfenicol 12832:Amphenicols 12776:inhibitors) 12742:Tigecycline 12719:Sarecycline 12694:Minocycline 12689:Metacycline 12679:Lymecycline 12654:Doxycycline 12498:Bekanamycin 12469:Paromomycin 12427:inhibitors) 12298:Agriculture 11963:. nih.gov. 10834:10397/88306 10071:: 116–118. 9901:22 November 9430:. Reuters. 9160:: 152–163. 9100:Tetrahedron 8473:Penicillium 7565:16 February 7506:16 February 7381:12 November 7339:GovTrack.us 7306:GovTrack.us 6138:22 November 6087:29 December 5543:Antibiotics 5120:17 February 5095:Mayo Clinic 4901:(2): 71–8. 4555:28 December 4519:NHS Choices 4414:22 December 3925:20 February 3890:20 February 3855:20 February 3824:17 February 3791:20 February 3756:20 February 3282:21 November 2960:21 December 2828:21 December 2701:macrophages 2548:translation 2289:internalins 2212:carotenoids 2200:drug efflux 2074:CRISPR-Cas9 2054:drug design 1928:Cefiderocol 1918:Ceftaroline 1908:Ceftazidime 1902:β-lactamase 1887:Ceftolozane 1875:macrocyclic 1808:tyrothricin 1763:Ernst Chain 1682:blue cheese 1595:sulfonamide 1556:spirochaeta 1421:anaphylaxis 1343:common cold 1290:Bacteroides 1263:beta-lactam 1177:of a human 1095:carbapenems 1086:Penicillium 1081:penicillins 1051:fidaxomicin 1035:tigecycline 954:penicillins 900:β-lactamase 877:penicillins 865:monotherapy 846:synergistic 784:cefmenoxime 657:interaction 618:anaphylaxis 580:Amoxicillin 535:conjunctiva 495:neutropenia 323:Robert Koch 266:sulfonamide 203:antiseptics 177:roots ἀντι 148:common cold 120:medications 95:In Wikidata 18:Antibiotics 17535:Categories 17346:infections 17287:Sanitation 17255:Quarantine 17114:resistance 17032:Antiseptic 17013:Ascaricide 17003:Antifungal 16991:Antibiotic 16972:Prevention 16905:Intestinal 16838:Prevalence 16818:Inequality 16767:Occurrence 16566:Breastmilk 16450:Bioaerosol 16422:Sapronosis 16397:Horizontal 16269:Endogenous 16248:Viral load 16208:Index case 15760:Novobiocin 15725:Fosfomycin 15720:Daptomycin 15710:Bacitracin 15660:Nitrofuran 15650:Valnemulin 15612:Tinidazole 15607:Ornidazole 15551:Polymyxins 15541:Vancomycin 15536:Telavancin 15526:Ristocetin 15511:Corbomycin 15479:: others ( 15356:Rifampicin 15343:Rifamycins 15301:inhibitors 15282:Novobiocin 15258:Ozenoxacin 15203:Difloxacin 15190:Veterinary 15060:Rufloxacin 15055:Pefloxacin 15027:Fleroxacin 14960:Flumequine 14930:DNA gyrase 14919:Quinolones 14778:Sulfaperin 14591:Ormetoprim 14560:synthesis) 14434:Tyrocidine 14429:Gramicidin 14397:Bacitracin 14373:Fosfomycin 14344:Ramoplanin 14322:Daptomycin 14188:Relebactam 14161:Tazobactam 14092:Cefquinome 14079:Veterinary 14023:Cefquinome 14013:Cefozopran 13975:Ceftiolene 13965:Cefsulodin 13955:Cefodizime 13940:Cefditoren 13935:Ceftibuten 13883:Cefotaxime 13854:Loracarbef 13820:Cephamycin 13810:Ceforanide 13790:Cefuroxime 13747:Cefalonium 13717:Cefazaflur 13712:Cefazedone 13702:Cefadroxil 13569:Mecillinam 13548:Azlocillin 13524:Temocillin 13465:Hetacillin 13456:Ampicillin 13104:Flopristin 13064:Pirlimycin 13059:Lincomycin 13008:Tylvalosin 12988:Tilmicosin 12973:Spiramycin 12948:Miocamycin 12903:Carrimycin 12898:Carbomycin 12880:Macrolides 12803:Ranbezolid 12783:Eperezolid 12774:initiation 12603:Astromicin 12598:Verdamicin 12589:Isepamicin 12584:Plazomicin 12569:Netilmicin 12564:Gentamicin 12512:Tobramycin 12464:Framycetin 12425:initiation 12189:Antifungal 12116:Antibiotic 12100:Antibiotic 11132:(1): 397. 10910:Plotkin SA 9538:(7): 125. 8832:(2): 259. 8802:13 January 8454:31 January 8175:14 January 8089:31 January 7821:Mycologist 7490:Barnes S. 6770:: 102583. 6638:. London. 6057:3 February 5949:(6): 280. 5867:: 591349. 5549:(8): 500. 4529:6 February 3911:"βακτηρία" 3742:"βιωτικός" 3222:10161/8996 3060:Goodman LS 2798:17 January 2769:References 2727:Antifungal 2705:antibodies 2681:probiotics 2677:prebiotics 2626:resistance 2554:models of 2544:hybridizes 2512:(e.g. the 2455:infection. 2430:regulatory 2223:flavonoids 2221:, and the 2219:capsorubin 2215:capsanthin 2173:historical 2161:ecological 2084:See also: 2008:Brilacidin 1968:Plazomicin 1952:carbapenem 1942:carbapenem 1891:tazobactam 1816:tyrocidine 1812:gramicidin 1799:René Dubos 1739:penicillin 1716:inoculated 1652:Penicillin 1641:See also: 1593:The first 1584:immunology 1484:infections 1445:microbiome 1386:, and the 1378:, and the 1249:compound. 1181:ingesting 1179:neutrophil 1160:Resistance 1109:, and the 1107:quinolones 1093:, and the 1057:Production 1027:daptomycin 1016:, whereas 990:macrolides 974:quinolones 966:rifamycins 962:polymyxins 890:, such as 850:Fosfomycin 792:disulfiram 790:, cause a 768:tinidazole 735:rifampicin 639:probiotics 555:cellulitis 487:bacteremia 340:antibiotic 294:resistance 262:penicillin 191:penicillin 171:antibiotic 128:prevention 104:antibiotic 56:Drug class 49:Antibiotic 17458:Discovery 17384:Disease X 17344:Emerging 17292:Screening 17193:Isolation 17037:Antiviral 16863:Twindemic 16813:Incidence 16690:Modelling 16653:Perinatal 16585:Cutaneous 16476:Linked to 16386:Perinatal 16305:Exogenous 16297:formation 16039:Pregnancy 15896:Endotoxin 15891:Virulence 15770:Tedizolid 15740:Linezolid 15735:Lefamulin 15715:Clofoctol 15684:Nifurzide 15635:Lefamulin 15593:Imidazole 15506:Avoparcin 15429:Phase III 15417:Withdrawn 15376:Rifalazil 15371:Rifaximin 15361:Rifabutin 15335:synthesis 15296:Anaerobic 15267:Related ( 15017:Ofloxacin 14985:Rosoxacin 14955:Cinoxacin 14905:Sulfoxone 14758:Sulfalene 14681:Prontosil 14477:Phase III 14465:Withdrawn 14441:Isoniazid 14327:Surfactin 14178:Avibactam 14156:Sulbactam 14129:Carumonam 14124:Tigemonam 14119:Aztreonam 14097:Cefovecin 14087:Ceftiofur 14018:Cefpirome 13989:Latamoxef 13980:Oxacephem 13950:Cefetamet 13905:Cefcapene 13829:Cefotetan 13824:Cefoxitin 13815:Cefuzonam 13805:Cefonicid 13785:Cefprozil 13757:Cefalotin 13732:Ceftezole 13722:Cefradine 13707:Cefapirin 13697:Cefalexin 13692:Cefazolin 13652:Ritipenem 13647:Faropenem 13640:Panipenem 13629:Meropenem 13619:Doripenem 13610:Ertapenem 13491:Epicillin 13412:Nafcillin 13407:Oxacillin 13255:β-lactams 13234:cell wall 13182:Phase III 13170:Withdrawn 13018:Ketolides 12933:Josamycin 12893:Boromycin 12813:Tedizolid 12808:Sutezolid 12798:Radezolid 12793:Posizolid 12788:Linezolid 12619:Butirosin 12574:Sisomicin 12537:Apramycin 12532:Totomycin 12503:Dibekacin 12493:Arbekacin 12483:Kanamycin 12336:Types of 12225:multidrug 12194:Antiviral 11820:244147577 11804:2666-5247 11788:(1): e7. 11688:(1): 51. 11510:203720304 11467:209358146 11107:204967212 10851:220699939 10640:205171789 10573:Biochimie 10484:: 35–41. 10301:Pathogens 10115:22 August 10030:: 72–80. 9560:219590658 9502:25 August 9199:19 August 8717:0080-4606 8069:Frith J. 7978:(3): 58. 7972:Medicines 7635:Virulence 7555:230811912 7527:BioEssays 7413:4 October 6951:CiteSeerX 6802:248736289 6668:16 August 6435:: 13803. 6332:(1): 36. 5963:1432-072X 5599:25 August 5396:Infection 5057:: a2885. 4861:(1): 11. 4803:BioEssays 4735:1546-1718 4256:207217730 3944:bacterial 3617:Mycologia 3582:Mycologia 3567:143223535 3249:25 August 3003:0305-7453 2757:Probiotic 2630:virulence 2602:studies. 2592:oxacillin 2580:S. aureus 2567:S. aureus 2559:pneumonia 2540:liposomes 2472:infection 2370:S. aureus 2366:infection 2297:exotoxins 2145:bacterial 2002:Lefamulin 1962:quinolone 1912:avibactam 1615:IG Farben 1603:Prontosil 1568:Wiesbaden 1527:salvarsan 1049:(such as 1043:linezolid 1041:(such as 1033:(such as 1025:(such as 896:sulbactam 776:latamoxef 743:estrogens 637:. Taking 543:ear drops 533:onto the 531:eye drops 527:topically 479:incisions 463:pneumonia 395:baktērion 360:synthetic 338:The term 309:Etymology 286:IG Farben 274:Prontosil 152:influenza 124:treatment 81:S. aureus 17525:Medicine 17367:EARS-Net 17282:Safe sex 17234:services 17205:Lockdown 16976:measures 16878:location 16858:Syndemic 16853:Sporadic 16833:Pandemic 16828:Outbreak 16786:Epidemic 16639:Prenatal 16531:Mosquito 16415:to-human 16390:Neonatal 16383:Prenatal 16331:Zoonosis 16176:concepts 16107:Humidity 16092:Commerce 15968:Diabetes 15901:Exotoxin 15775:Xibornol 15645:Tiamulin 15630:Azamulin 15559:Colistin 15022:Enoxacin 14809:Mafenide 14586:Iclaprim 14417:lysozyme 14363:Inhibit 14008:Cefepime 13984:Flomoxef 13970:Cefteram 13945:Cefotiam 13900:Cefdinir 13873:Cefixime 13834:Cefminox 13780:Cefaclor 13645:Penems ( 13635:Biapenem 13624:Imipenem 13433:spectrum 13431:Extended 13313:spectrum 13283:-alanine 13279:-alanyl- 13238:envelope 12640:binding) 12551:-micin ( 12488:Amikacin 12459:Neomycin 12434:-mycin ( 12208:Concepts 12067:21822035 12045:Medicina 12032:26301604 11965:Archived 11953:20805405 11910:26851273 11812:35544116 11763:34632433 11714:33866972 11663:33066185 11612:31083597 11561:32800382 11502:31585470 11459:31836329 11424:21453872 11367:Archived 11349:30545014 11290:Archived 11267:Archived 11250:29358495 11201:24461869 11193:29696802 11158:27978847 11099:31665644 11048:25393203 10992:11181338 10938:Archived 10923:Vaccines 10920:(2012). 10918:Offit PA 10896:32463353 10843:32697213 10798:31410034 10736:Archived 10732:21514796 10690:20645919 10644:Archived 10632:25130096 10593:15951096 10558:21562562 10498:27890726 10463:22786554 10423:10515903 10374:27373625 10333:25437810 10279:44317367 10271:17713333 10236:20519844 10195:41282022 10187:26738402 10152:23978412 10087:29191667 10046:31733401 10005:32575913 9950:24780848 9942:28814204 9892:Archived 9888:21677232 9880:26795692 9835:22334863 9786:59274650 9778:30683453 9726:31295426 9664:53097836 9656:30360704 9621:32199982 9564:Archived 9552:32529587 9496:Archived 9484:27267698 9432:Archived 9406:Archived 9385:38172635 9376:10794137 9326:38172634 9317:10794144 9267:32152527 9176:27687641 9130:27284210 9081:23599308 8998:23599308 8934:18159536 8883:26054208 8856:16528813 8796:Archived 8778:20786386 8721:Archived 8701:: 5–22. 8676:11545336 8566:26243971 8517:32973216 8448:Archived 8320:32847260 8312:18347757 8277:21687759 8226:24990531 8169:Archived 8143:Archived 8113:Archived 8083:Archived 8053:10515903 8004:28930272 7953:19679737 7901:15616162 7861:13 March 7749:18483011 7714:58949829 7706:30671622 7665:24185508 7616:23825301 7559:Archived 7547:33410142 7500:Archived 7475:24 March 7469:Archived 7438:Archived 7404:Archived 7349:15 April 7343:Archived 7316:15 April 7310:Archived 7277:Archived 7241:19492093 7154:Archived 7138:13904240 7130:26603919 7094:26560888 7045:17509729 7009:17467120 6973:18684701 6925:17094768 6879:31996961 6794:35568274 6764:Anaerobe 6741:Archived 6719:27230792 6640:Archived 6605:16537105 6565:19231985 6467:27929110 6410:18343252 6402:17382878 6358:23374913 6299:21881561 6256:16890008 6188:15450197 6132:Archived 6128:23673752 6081:Archived 6051:Archived 6047:17247100 6017:Genetics 5922:28 March 5916:Archived 5893:26339625 5840:28 April 5834:Archived 5803:16881035 5765:21862392 5691:15494908 5650:20065329 5593:Archived 5575:32785114 5524:26042389 5480:24867991 5424:20538901 5416:19629383 5372:18274517 5337:15356797 5281:17923487 5232:14999632 5171:17608249 5114:Archived 5089:Archived 5071:58765542 5034:11 March 5028:Archived 4958:25187892 4950:10384856 4915:10361620 4875:23355994 4833:26347282 4784:29565407 4696:24762232 4647:16954250 4598:23520586 4523:Archived 4501:15993671 4460:15993671 4390:30429360 4349:27819748 4300:19842981 4248:19803705 4213:33704780 4164:23830647 4129:23319691 4085:27199000 4049:21282489 3991:28 April 3985:Archived 3947:Archived 3919:Archived 3884:Archived 3849:Archived 3785:Archived 3777:"βίωσις" 3750:Archived 3727:20805405 3645:20264541 3602:20264541 3491:36527513 3445:35065702 3385:Archived 3325:26851273 3276:Archived 3243:Archived 3239:19489131 3231:24252483 3182:18679046 3126:21687759 3066:(1941). 3064:Gilman A 3011:26851273 2924:Archived 2857:Archived 2792:Archived 2715:See also 2695:rely on 2693:Vaccines 2688:Vaccines 2612:nuclease 2596:in vitro 2594:in both 2582:strains 2510:proteins 2322:motility 2285:adhesins 2246:fructose 2242:mannitol 2226:rotenone 2208:lysergol 2205:alkaloid 2198:inhibit 1938:Imipenem 1832:Cold War 1826:and the 1814:and 80% 1687:In 1895 1564:syphilis 1439:seen in 1281:colistin 1277:superbug 1246:plasmids 1216:through 1146:bacteria 1142:medicine 822:in vitro 625:diarrhea 610:allergic 399:baktēria 375:biōtikos 187:microbes 112:bacteria 17171:Hygiene 17109:booster 17042:Asepsis 16781:Endemic 16776:Cluster 16360:Source 16295:Biofilm 16132:Poverty 16102:Ecology 16080:El Niño 16033:Smoking 15911:factors 15852:Biofilm 15828:Outline 15574:Steroid 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