120:
403:
438:
417:
2551:
2404:
5287:
1505:
20:
180:
5299:
1025:
250:, a process where the angle of reflection is dependent on the arrangement of the atoms in the gelatin. The holographic gratings can have up to 6000 lines/mm and can be up to twice as efficient in collecting light as blazed gratings. Because they are sealed between two sheets of glass, the holographic gratings are very versatile, potentially lasting decades before needing replacement.
1290:, a galaxy in the Virgo Cluster, has a large portion of its stars rotating in the opposite direction as the other portion. It is believed that the galaxy is the combination of two smaller galaxies that were rotating in opposite directions to each other. Bright stars in galaxies can also help determine the distance to a galaxy, which may be a more accurate method than
2469:. For objects surrounded by gas, such as comets and planets with atmospheres, further emission and absorption happens at specific wavelengths in the gas, imprinting the spectrum of the gas on that of the solid object. In the case of worlds with thick atmospheres or complete cloud or haze cover (such as the four
1443:
Dust and molecules in the interstellar medium not only obscures photometry, but also causes absorption lines in spectroscopy. Their spectral features are generated by transitions of component electrons between different energy levels, or by rotational or vibrational spectra. Detection usually occurs
1372:
noticed that many nebulae showed only emission lines rather than a full spectrum like stars. From the work of
Kirchhoff, he concluded that nebulae must contain "enormous masses of luminous gas or vapour." However, there were several emission lines that could not be linked to any terrestrial element,
1359:
difficult. Reflection nebulae, as their name suggest, reflect the light of nearby stars. Their spectra are the same as the stars surrounding them, though the light is bluer; shorter wavelengths scatter better than longer wavelengths. Emission nebulae emit light at specific wavelengths depending on
1266:
In the 1950s, strong radio sources were found to be associated with very dim, very red objects. When the first spectrum of one of these objects was taken there were absorption lines at wavelengths where none were expected. It was soon realised that what was observed was a normal galactic spectrum,
4305:
Ellis, Richard S.; McLure, Ross J.; Dunlop, James S.; Robertson, Brant E.; Ono, Yoshiaki; Schenker, Matthew A.; Koekemoer, Anton; Bowler, Rebecca A. A.; Ouchi, Masami; Rogers, Alexander B.; Curtis-Lake, Emma; Schneider, Evan; Charlot, Stephane; Stark, Daniel P.; Furlanetto, Steven R.; Cirasuolo,
237:
The limitation to a blazed grating is the width of the mirrors, which can only be ground a finite amount before focus is lost; the maximum is around 1000 lines/mm. In order to overcome this limitation holographic gratings were developed. Volume phase holographic gratings use a thin film of
1250:
in 1937 found that the galaxies in a cluster were moving much faster than seemed to be possible from the mass of the cluster inferred from the visible light. Zwicky hypothesized that there must be a great deal of non-luminous matter in the galaxy clusters, which became known as
219:
The resolution of a prism is limited by its size; a larger prism will provide a more detailed spectrum, but the increase in mass makes it unsuitable for highly detailed work. This issue was resolved in the early 1900s with the development of high-quality reflection gratings by
233:
which utilizes a large number of parallel mirrors, the small portion of light can be focused and visualized. These new spectroscopes were more detailed than a prism, required less light, and could be focused on a specific region of the spectrum by tilting the grating.
228:
in Ottawa, Canada. Light striking a mirror will reflect at the same angle, however a small portion of the light will be refracted at a different angle; this is dependent upon the indices of refraction of the materials and the wavelength of the light. By creating a
1964:
3564:
Romanowsky, Aaron J.; Douglas, Nigel G.; Arnaboldi, Magda; Kuijken, Konrad; Merrifield, Michael R.; Napolitano, Nicola R.; Capaccioli, Massimo; Freeman, Kenneth C. (19 September 2003). "A Dearth of Dark Matter in
Ordinary Elliptical Galaxies".
2419:. These two stars, when viewed through a spectrometer, will show a composite spectrum: the spectrum of each star will be added together. This composite spectrum becomes easier to detect when the stars are of similar luminosity and of different
347:
to observe 200 MHz solar radiation. Two incident beams, one directly from the sun and the other reflected from the sea surface, generated the necessary interference. The first multi-receiver interferometer was built in the same year by
2060:
2138:
1618:
90:
can reveal many properties of stars, such as their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance and luminosity. Spectroscopy can show the velocity of motion towards or away from the observer by measuring the
2390:
This motion can cause confusion when looking at a solar or galactic spectrum, because the expected redshift based on the simple Hubble law will be obscured by the peculiar motion. For example, the shape and size of the
199:
used his skills as a glassmaker to create very pure prisms, which allowed him to observe 574 dark lines in a seemingly continuous spectrum. Soon after this, he combined telescope and prism to observe the spectrum of
1709:
was blueshifted, meaning it was moving towards the Milky Way. He recorded the spectra of 20 other galaxies — all but four of which were redshifted — and was able to calculate their velocities relative to the Earth.
2214:
470:, hot gases emit light at specific wavelengths, and hot solid objects surrounded by cooler gases show a near-continuous spectrum with dark lines corresponding to the emission lines of the gases. By comparing the
2513:
Asteroids can be classified into three major types according to their spectra. The original categories were created by Clark R. Chapman, David
Morrison, and Ben Zellner in 1975, and further expanded by
2437:
of the system determines the magnitude of the observed shift: if the observer is looking perpendicular to the orbital plane there will be no observed radial velocity. For example, a person looking at a
2385:
308:. He built a radio antenna to look at potential sources of interference for transatlantic radio transmissions. One of the sources of noise discovered came not from Earth, but from the center of the
171:
light is absorbed by atmospheric water and carbon dioxide, so while the equipment is similar to that used in optical spectroscopy, satellites are required to record much of the infrared spectrum.
1122:. By measuring the peak wavelength of a star, the surface temperature can be determined. For example, if the peak wavelength of a star is 502 nm the corresponding temperature will be 5772
2538:
are 'metallic'. There are other classifications for unusual asteroids. C- and S-type asteroids are the most common asteroids. In 2002 the Tholen classification was further "evolved" into the
2306:
1408:. When the atom transitions between these two states, it releases an emission or absorption line of 21 cm. This line is within the radio range and allows for very precise measurements:
285:
scale of a spectrum can be calibrated as a function of wavelength by comparison with an observation of a standard star with corrections for atmospheric absorption of light; this is known as
2261:. The larger the value of z, the more redshifted the light and the farther away the object is from the Earth. As of January 2013, the largest galaxy redshift of z~12 was found using the
1016:; Population I stars are the youngest stars and have the highest metal content (the Sun is a Pop I star), while Population III stars are the oldest stars with a very low metal content.
1012:
of each spectral line in an emission spectrum, both the elements present in a star and their relative abundances can be determined. Using this information stars can be categorized into
4727:
Lisse, C. M.; Dennerl, K.; Englhauser, J.; Harden, M.; Marshall, F. E.; Mumma, M. J.; Petre, R.; Pye, J. P.; Ricketts, M. J.; Schmitt, J.; Trumper, J.; West, R. G. (11 October 1996).
4174:
Johansson, LE; Andersson, C; Ellder, J; Friberg, P; Hjalmarson, A; Hoglund, B; Irvine, WM; Olofsson, H; Rydbeck, G (1984). "Spectral scan of Orion A and IRC+10216 from 72 to 91 GHz".
1191:
1086:
1548:. The wavelength of redshifted light is longer, appearing redder than the source. Conversely, the wavelength of blueshifted light is shorter, appearing bluer than the source light:
1444:
in radio, microwave, or infrared portions of the spectrum. The chemical reactions that form these molecules can happen in cold, diffuse clouds or in dense regions illuminated with
1255:. Since his discovery, astronomers have determined that a large portion of galaxies (and most of the universe) is made up of dark matter. In 2003, however, four galaxies (NGC 821,
1874:
458:
Newton used a prism to split white light into a spectrum of color, and
Fraunhofer's high-quality prisms allowed scientists to see dark lines of an unknown origin. In the 1850s,
2562:
The spectra of comets consist of a reflected solar spectrum from the dusty clouds surrounding the comet, as well as emission lines from gaseous atoms and molecules excited to
1392:
Not all emission nebulae are found around or near stars where solar heating causes ionisation. The majority of gaseous emission nebulae are formed of neutral hydrogen. In the
3464:
1648:
2505:, as well as Earth-like planets. Using spectroscopy, compounds such as alkali metals, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane have all been discovered.
2259:
1755:
1695:
1805:
1675:
5118:
3109:
2442:
from the side will see the animals moving toward and away from them, whereas if they look from directly above they will only be moving in the horizontal plane.
2239:
1857:
1829:
1778:
187:, incident light is separated into several diffraction orders which separate different wavelengths apart (red and blue lines), excepting the 0-th order (black).
4644:
Chapman, Clark R.; Morrison, David; Zellner, Ben (May 1975). "Surface properties of asteroids: A synthesis of polarimetry, radiometry, and spectrophotometry".
2433:; as they orbit around each other one star may be moving towards the Earth whilst the other moves away, causing a Doppler shift in the composite spectrum. The
1263:) were found to have little to no dark matter influencing the motion of the stars contained within them; the reason behind the lack of dark matter is unknown.
4306:
Michele (20 January 2013). "The
Abundance of Star-Forming Galaxies in the Redshift Range 8.5-12: New Results from the 2012 Hubble Ultra Deep Field Campaign".
1970:
1381:
determined in 1927 that the emission lines were from highly ionised oxygen (O). These emission lines could not be replicated in a laboratory because they are
2679:
4473:
4679:
Sekanina, Zdenek; Kracht, Rainer (3 Jun 2015). "Disintegration of Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON) Shortly Before
Perihelion: Evidence From Independent Data Sets".
3230:
2068:
1701:, a blueshifted wavelength. A redshifted absorption or emission line will appear more towards the red end of the spectrum than a stationary line. In 1913
4791:
2724:"Bestimmung des Brechungs- und des Farben-Zerstreuungs – Vermögens verschiedener Glasarten, in Bezug auf die Vervollkommnung achromatischer Fernröhre"
1554:
1279:
in 1964. Quasars are now thought to be galaxies formed in the early years of our universe, with their extreme energy output powered by super-massive
2415:
are visual binaries, meaning they can be observed orbiting each other through a telescope. Some binary stars, however, are too close together to be
3392:
1438:
143:. While all spectroscopy looks at specific bands of the spectrum, different methods are required to acquire the signal depending on the frequency.
3141:
3502:
3443:
2407:
Two stars of different size orbiting the center of mass. The spectrum can be seen to split depending on the position and velocity of the stars.
5009:
2144:
216:; his company continued to manufacture and sell high-quality refracting telescopes based on his original designs until its closure in 1884.
4942:
4887:
4856:
1217:. Thus, when both luminosity and temperature are known (via direct measurement and calculation) the radius of a star can be determined.
4851:
1355:
nebulae. Absorption (or dark) nebulae are made of dust and gas in such quantities that they obscure the starlight behind them, making
5224:
5042:
4904:
2850:
5173:
4992:
4381:
4701:
5113:
4915:
4836:
4816:
4556:
Tessenyi, M.; Tinetti, G.; Savini, G.; Pascale, E. (November 2013). "Molecular detectability in exoplanetary emission spectra".
4094:
2326:
265:
were widely used to record spectra until electronic detectors were developed, and today optical spectrographs most often employ
5059:
5037:
4784:
4123:
Cami, J.; Bernard-Salas, J.; Peeters, E.; Malek, S. E. (22 July 2010). "Detection of C60 and C70 in a Young
Planetary Nebula".
2316:
Objects that are gravitationally bound will rotate around a common center of mass. For stellar bodies, this motion is known as
2570:
was determined by spectroscopy due to the prominent emission lines of cyanogen (CN), as well as two- and three-carbon atoms (C
5125:
5047:
4515:
3468:
3376:
3291:
Pan, Liubin; Scannapieco, Evan; Scalo, Jon (1 October 2013). "Modeling the
Pollution of Pristine Gas in the Early Universe".
3243:
4982:
4927:
4877:
2465:
planets and asteroids, most of the emission is at infrared wavelengths we cannot see, but that are routinely measured with
3777:
Kudritzki, R.-P. (May 2010). "Dissecting galaxies with quantitative spectroscopy of the brightest stars in the
Universe".
2497:
in the rocks present for rocky bodies, or due to the elements and molecules present in the atmosphere. To date over 3,500
3472:
2582:
are neutralized. The cometary X-ray spectra therefore reflect the state of the solar wind rather than that of the comet.
2395:
has been a matter of great scientific scrutiny due to the very large peculiar velocities of the galaxies in the cluster.
2542:, expanding the number of categories from 14 to 26 to account for more precise spectroscopic analysis of the asteroids.
320:
captured the Sun's radio frequency using military radar receivers. Radio spectroscopy started with the discovery of the
127:. The atmosphere blocks some wavelengths but it is mostly transparent for visible light and a wide range of radio waves.
5325:
2519:
2539:
2271:
5209:
4961:
4777:
4540:
4218:
4077:
3891:
3846:
3419:
3275:
3208:
3092:
2833:
2805:
2777:
2663:
2592:
1368:
In the early years of astronomical spectroscopy, scientists were puzzled by the spectrum of gaseous nebulae. In 1864
1005:
between 293.5 and 877.0 nm, yet only approximately 75% of these lines have been linked to elemental absorption.
443:
1512:
Stars and interstellar gas are bound by gravity to form galaxies, and groups of galaxies can be bound by gravity in
5335:
5214:
5032:
5229:
5199:
5130:
5064:
2683:
1481:
239:
4481:
1295:
5158:
4949:
4846:
3679:
3249:
3116:
4601:
Bus, S (July 2002). "Phase II of the Small Main-Belt
Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey A Feature-Based Taxonomy".
2320:
and can alter the Hubble Flow. Thus, an extra term for the peculiar motion needs to be added to Hubble's law:
1144:
1055:
485:, and the elements with which they are associated, appear in the following table. Designations from the early
95:. Spectroscopy is also used to study the physical properties of many other types of celestial objects such as
5303:
4956:
4861:
1959:{\displaystyle z={\frac {\lambda _{\mathrm {obsv} }-\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}{\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}}}
1373:
brightest among them lines at 495.9 nm and 500.7 nm. These lines were attributed to a new element,
131:
Astronomical spectroscopy is used to measure three major bands of radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum:
3884:
Astronomical spectroscopy : an introduction to the atomic and molecular physics of astronomical spectra
3167:
2265:, corresponding to an age of over 13 billion years (the universe is approximately 13.82 billion years old).
1718:: The further a galaxy is from the Earth, the faster it is moving away. Hubble's law can be generalised to:
5090:
4937:
4826:
4260:
5246:
5085:
5054:
4987:
332:
160:
5236:
5178:
5027:
4899:
1119:
985:
iron (Fe). Other unusual lines in the coronal spectrum are also caused by highly charged ions, such as
365:
5241:
4882:
3145:
2434:
1525:
1137:
output in a given amount of time. Luminosity (L) can be related to the temperature (T) of a star by:
1044:
derived an expression relating the temperature (T) of a black body to its peak emission wavelength (λ
124:
55:
5004:
2985:
Pawsey, Joseph; Payne-Scott, Ruby; McCready, Lindsay (1946). "Radio-Frequency Energy from the Sun".
4304:
3346:"On the relation between the radiating and absorbing powers of different bodies for light and heat"
2878:
1096:
51:
2461:
all reflect light from their parent stars and emit their own light. For cooler objects, including
1626:
5135:
4831:
2411:
Just as planets can be gravitationally bound to stars, pairs of stars can orbit each other. Some
2262:
471:
108:
59:
3200:
2426:
1142:
368:
the incoming signal, recovers both the spatial and frequency variation in flux. The result is a
4922:
2873:
2828:. Bellingham, Washington: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers. pp. 24, 28.
2627:
2612:
2420:
1356:
958:
930:
Not all of the elements in the Sun were immediately identified. Two examples are listed below:
373:
4069:
4062:
3407:
2723:
2244:
1724:
1680:
1429:, though the exact number and position of the spiral arms is the subject of ongoing research.
1053:
246:. This wave pattern sets up a reflection pattern similar to the blazed gratings but utilizing
5330:
5291:
5163:
4894:
4808:
4385:
3082:
1536:
The motion of stellar objects can be determined by looking at their spectrum. Because of the
1239:
look similar to stellar spectra, as they consist of the combined light of billions of stars.
1225:
1013:
282:
266:
221:
196:
63:
4187:
3345:
1286:
The properties of a galaxy can also be determined by analyzing the stars found within them.
372:
whose third axis is frequency. For this work, Ryle and Hewish were jointly awarded the 1974
195:
first used a simple prism to observe the refractive properties of light. In the early 1800s
4740:
4653:
4610:
4575:
4442:
4325:
4183:
4132:
4026:
3971:
3916:
3796:
3749:
3708:
3639:
3584:
3536:
3310:
3047:
2996:
2932:
2923:
Oke, J. B.; Gunn, J. E. (1983). "Secondary standard stars for absolute spectrophotometry".
2865:
2735:
2602:
1783:
1653:
1199:
225:
4407:
2899:
163:. Radio signals have much longer wavelengths than optical signals, and require the use of
16:
Study of astronomy using spectroscopy to measure the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
8:
5219:
4932:
4841:
3839:
Stars, nebulae, and the interstellar medium : observational physics and astrophysics
2708:
Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light
1382:
1307:
467:
254:
4744:
4657:
4614:
4579:
4446:
4329:
4136:
4030:
3975:
3920:
3800:
3753:
3712:
3643:
3588:
3540:
3314:
3051:
3000:
2936:
2869:
2739:
2055:{\displaystyle z={\frac {f_{\mathrm {emit} }-f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}{f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}}}
466:
described the phenomena behind these dark lines. Hot solid objects produce light with a
5267:
5204:
5183:
4999:
4977:
4910:
4821:
4756:
4705:
4680:
4626:
4565:
4341:
4315:
4156:
4042:
4016:
4007:
Efremov, Yu. N. (22 February 2011). "On the spiral structure of the Milky Way Galaxy".
3989:
3940:
3932:
3812:
3786:
3608:
3574:
3386:
3326:
3300:
3193:
3063:
3020:
2891:
2607:
2416:
2224:
1842:
1814:
1763:
1418:
The intensity of the 21 cm line gives the density and number of atoms in the cloud
982:
357:
344:
336:
278:
262:
184:
164:
71:
3322:
119:
5168:
5095:
5069:
4760:
4665:
4536:
4511:
4337:
4214:
4191:
4148:
4098:
4073:
3944:
3887:
3842:
3816:
3675:
3612:
3600:
3415:
3372:
3330:
3271:
3239:
3204:
3088:
3012:
2851:"Volume-phase holographic gratings and their potential for astronomical applications"
2829:
2801:
2773:
2659:
2597:
2317:
1378:
1348:
649:
475:
426:
422:
317:
301:
286:
4729:"Discovery of X-ray and Extreme Ultraviolet Emission from Comet C/Hyakutake 1996 B2"
4345:
4160:
4046:
2895:
2133:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {\lambda _{\mathrm {obsv} }}{\lambda _{\mathrm {emit} }}}}
4748:
4661:
4630:
4618:
4583:
4450:
4333:
4140:
4034:
3993:
3979:
3924:
3804:
3757:
3716:
3647:
3592:
3544:
3494:
3435:
3318:
3067:
3055:
3024:
3004:
2987:
2940:
2883:
2743:
1706:
1449:
1389:
ions to decay via forbidden line emission rather than collisions with other atoms.
1033:
1009:
962:
482:
459:
340:
132:
24:
4752:
4587:
2959:
2579:
2555:
2535:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2430:
1808:
1715:
1513:
1369:
1352:
974:
385:
361:
297:
75:
67:
2566:
by sunlight and/or chemical reactions. For example, the chemical composition of
1613:{\displaystyle {\frac {\lambda -\lambda _{0}}{\lambda _{0}}}={\frac {v_{0}}{c}}}
4726:
4359:
4234:
3350:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
2617:
1537:
1425:
Using this information, the shape of the Milky Way has been determined to be a
1397:
1243:
1134:
939:
935:
360:
to analyze interferometer data. The aperture synthesis process, which involves
247:
243:
230:
92:
79:
4038:
2849:
Barden, S.C.; Arns, J.A.; Colburn, W.S. (July 1998). d'Odorico, Sandro (ed.).
2706:
2550:
1040:, a material that emits electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. In 1894
978:
5319:
4283:
2747:
2392:
1714:
would later use this information, as well as his own observations, to define
1702:
1426:
1386:
1276:
486:
463:
353:
321:
313:
274:
32:
4144:
4122:
3738:"Cospatial counterrotating stellar disks in the Virgo E7/S0 galaxy NGC 4550"
3596:
3412:
Engineering thermofluids: thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer
2578:). Nearby comets can even be seen in X-ray as solar wind ions flying to the
1697:
is the observed wavelength. Note that v<0 corresponds to λ<λ
437:
402:
4800:
4622:
4195:
4152:
3808:
3604:
3016:
2622:
2563:
2482:
2470:
2466:
2462:
1711:
1393:
1313:
1247:
1041:
994:
966:
258:
238:
dichromated gelatin on a glass surface, which is subsequently exposed to a
192:
47:
28:
3628:"Optical Identification of 3c 48, 3c 196, and 3c 286 with Stellar Objects"
416:
155:) absorb light with wavelengths under 300 nm, meaning that X-ray and
4428:
3579:
2502:
2412:
2403:
2268:
The Doppler effect and Hubble's law can be combined to form the equation
1521:
1445:
1385:; the low density of a nebula (one atom per cubic centimetre) allows for
1344:
1256:
1252:
349:
270:
156:
4555:
4173:
4097:. Goddard Space Flight Center Astrochemistry Laboratory. Archived from
3735:
1477:
1280:
1221:
1130:
1037:
213:
136:
4429:
Yasuda, Naoki; Fukugita, Masataka; Okamura, Sadanori (February 1997).
3936:
3886:(. ed.). London: Imperial College Press. pp. 46–47, 99–100.
3721:
3696:
2887:
2209:{\displaystyle 1+z={\frac {f_{\mathrm {emit} }}{f_{\mathrm {obsv} }}}}
973:, as it was only found in the corona. It was not until the 1930s that
3984:
3959:
3059:
3008:
2567:
2531:
2498:
2485:), the spectrum is mostly or completely due to the atmosphere alone.
1541:
1517:
1504:
1453:
746:
681:
506:
478:
of known gases, the chemical composition of stars can be determined.
369:
309:
305:
43:
4728:
4685:
19:
4455:
4431:"Study of the Virgo Cluster Using the B-Band Tully-Fisher Relation"
4430:
4068:(12. . ed.). Sausalito, Calif.: Univ. Science Books. pp.
3928:
3907:
Hirsh, Richard F (June 1979). "The Riddle of the Gaseous Nebulae".
3762:
3737:
3652:
3627:
3549:
3524:
2944:
2454:
2439:
1545:
1489:
1401:
1374:
1333:
1329:
1317:
1291:
1287:
1260:
1001:
To date more than 20 000 absorption lines have been listed for the
970:
891:
575:
168:
4643:
4570:
4320:
4021:
3791:
3736:
Rubin, Vera C.; Graham, J. A.; Kenney, Jeffrey D. P. (July 1992).
3305:
1312:
The interstellar medium is matter that occupies the space between
993:, the high ionization being due to the extreme temperature of the
4510:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 507–513.
3563:
3265:
3038:
Ryle, M.; Vonberg, D. D. (1946). "Solar Radiation on 175 Mc./s".
2494:
2493:
The reflected light of a planet contains absorption bands due to
1465:
1272:
990:
823:
3270:(4. ed.). Fort Worth : Saunders College Publ. p. 322.
179:
4769:
3084:
Beyond southern skies: radio astronomy and the Parkes telescope
2800:. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. pp. 127, 143.
2478:
2450:
1405:
1337:
1325:
1321:
1236:
1123:
986:
951:
915:
636:
605:
517:
123:
Opacity of the Earth's atmosphere for different wavelengths of
104:
100:
96:
4235:"Hubble Pinpoints Furthest Protocluster of Galaxies Ever Seen"
3436:"2022 CODATA Value: Wien wavelength displacement law constant"
3290:
981:
discovered that the spectral line at 530.3 nm was due to
2474:
2458:
1485:
1024:
201:
144:
140:
1524:, almost all galaxies are moving away from Earth due to the
969:
during an eclipse. This "new" element was incorrectly named
950:) which Lockyer determined to be a new element. He named it
4505:
1493:
1324:, and smaller quantities of other ionized elements such as
942:
independently observed a line next to the sodium doublet (D
665:
209:
205:
83:
3371:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 7, 221.
2380:{\displaystyle v_{\text{total}}=H_{0}d+v_{\mathrm {pec} }}
1834:
Redshift (z) can be expressed by the following equations:
1336:, and ices. Clouds of the dust and gas are referred to as
965:
independently observed a novel green emission line in the
954:, but it wasn't until 1895 the element was found on Earth.
4064:
The physical universe : an introduction to astronomy
3625:
2984:
1002:
191:
Physicists have been looking at the solar spectrum since
159:
spectroscopy require the use of a satellite telescope or
4480:. Australia Telescope National Facility. Archived from
3499:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
3440:
The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
1328:. The other 1% is dust particles, thought to be mainly
3190:
3525:"On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae"
2329:
2274:
2247:
2227:
2147:
2071:
1973:
1877:
1845:
1817:
1786:
1766:
1727:
1683:
1656:
1629:
1557:
1404:
has either the same spin or the opposite spin of the
1147:
1058:
4535:. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press.
3626:
Matthews, Thomas A.; Sandage, Allan R. (July 1963).
2682:. California Institute of Technology. Archived from
4530:
4360:"Hubble census finds galaxies at redshifts 9 to 12"
3866:. London: William Wesley and Son. pp. 114–115.
4506:Gray, Richard O.; Christopher J. Corbally (2009).
4061:
3192:
2379:
2300:
2253:
2233:
2208:
2132:
2054:
1958:
1851:
1823:
1799:
1772:
1749:
1689:
1669:
1642:
1612:
1185:
1080:
269:(CCDs). The wavelength scale of a spectrum can be
4208:
3674:. Singapore: World Scientific. pp. 235–246.
2848:
2445:
5317:
3199:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.
3168:"Press Release: The 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics"
2301:{\displaystyle z={\frac {v_{\text{Hubble}}}{c}}}
1439:List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
4704:. Comet ISON Observing Campaign. Archived from
4501:
4499:
3487:
3428:
3405:
1198:where R is the radius of the star and σ is the
4678:
4672:
4468:
4466:
4400:
3495:"2022 CODATA Value: Stefan–Boltzmann constant"
2501:have been discovered. These include so-called
1531:
1421:The temperature of the cloud can be calculated
4785:
4202:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3191:Jenkins, Francis A.; Harvey E. White (1957).
1476:CO; to entire classes of large molecule e.g.
1316:in a galaxy. 99% of this matter is gaseous –
390:
261:can be recorded by a detector. Historically,
4857:Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules
4496:
4422:
4374:
4118:
4116:
3864:The Scientific Papers of Sir William Huggins
3391:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3343:
3266:Gregory, Stephen A.; Michael Zeilik (1998).
3110:"A Chronological History of Radio Astronomy"
3087:. University of Cambridge. pp. 42, 43.
2221:In these equations, frequency is denoted by
4463:
4435:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
4382:"Planck reveals an almost perfect universe"
4213:. Bristol : Inst. of Physics. p. 116.
3877:
3875:
3873:
3367:Nahar, Anil K. Pradhan, Sultana N. (2010).
3037:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2757:
1363:
1028:Black body curves for various temperatures.
4852:Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy
4792:
4778:
4531:Goody, Richard M.; Yung, Yuk Ling (1989).
4478:Australia Telescope Outreach and Education
4086:
3823:
3665:
3663:
3557:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3186:
3184:
2721:
1412:Velocity of the cloud can be measured via
5225:Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
4905:Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization
4684:
4569:
4524:
4454:
4319:
4252:
4113:
4020:
3983:
3790:
3776:
3770:
3761:
3720:
3651:
3578:
3548:
3457:
3337:
3304:
3268:Introductory astronomy & astrophysics
3080:
3074:
2877:
2791:
2789:
2772:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2767:
2715:
1499:
1448:light. Most known compounds in space are
1267:but highly red shifted. These were named
4993:Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
4549:
4533:Atmospheric Radiation: Theoretical Basis
4352:
4275:
3881:
3870:
3841:. Bristol: A. Hilger. pp. 265–277.
3619:
3107:
2860:. Optical Astronomical Instrumentation.
2754:
2711:. London: Royal Society. pp. 13–19.
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2549:
2402:
1503:
1186:{\displaystyle L=4\pi R^{2}\sigma T^{4}}
1081:{\displaystyle \lambda _{\text{max}}T=b}
1023:
178:
118:
18:
4637:
4167:
4006:
4000:
3861:
3855:
3836:
3669:
3660:
3399:
3360:
3259:
3232:Introduction to Astronomy and Cosmology
3228:
3217:
3181:
2922:
2795:
1019:
327:
174:
5318:
4227:
3672:Physics : imagination and reality
3522:
3516:
3284:
2819:
2817:
2786:
2704:
2698:
2653:
1343:There are three main types of nebula:
1301:
453:
304:in the early 1930s, while working for
4773:
4720:
4298:
3960:"The Origin of the Nebulium Spectrum"
3957:
3951:
3906:
3900:
3729:
3469:Australia Telescope National Facility
3366:
2640:
2518:in 1984. In what is now known as the
1540:, objects moving towards someone are
1516:. With the exception of stars in the
379:
292:
5298:
4693:
4410:. Swinburne University of Technology
4286:. California Institute of Technology
3694:
3688:
3369:Atomic astrophysics and spectroscopy
2964:National Radio Astronomy Observatory
2823:
1452:, ranging from small molecules e.g.
1432:
1141:
4600:
4594:
4059:
4053:
2814:
2658:. Weinheim: Wiley VCH. p. 69.
2526:are made of carbonaceous material,
1677:is the velocity of the object, and
13:
4699:
4281:
4258:
4092:
2680:"Cool Cosmos – Infrared Astronomy"
2429:can be also detected due to their
2371:
2368:
2365:
2311:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1989:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1780:is the velocity (or Hubble Flow),
1413:
1396:neutral hydrogen has two possible
1052:
446:(continuum plus discrete spectrum)
14:
5347:
5210:Deep-level transient spectroscopy
4962:Saturated absorption spectroscopy
2957:
2798:Optical Astronomical Spectroscopy
2593:Atomic and molecular astrophysics
2308:, where c is the speed of light.
5297:
5286:
5285:
5215:Dual-polarization interferometry
4799:
4209:Millar, TJ; DA Williams (1993).
3408:"§ 2.1 Blackbody radiation"
1482:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
436:
415:
401:
5230:Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
5205:Circular dichroism spectroscopy
5200:Acoustic resonance spectroscopy
4508:Stellar spectral classification
4211:Dust and chemistry in astronomy
3958:Bowen, I. S. (1 October 1927).
3238:. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 61.
3160:
3134:
3101:
3031:
2978:
2951:
2398:
352:and Vonberg. In 1960, Ryle and
345:single antenna atop a sea cliff
86:and other celestial objects. A
5159:Fourier-transform spectroscopy
4847:Vibrational circular dichroism
3471:. 12 July 2004. Archived from
2966:. Associated Universities, Inc
2916:
2842:
2672:
2446:Planets, asteroids, and comets
1544:, and objects moving away are
1133:of a star is a measure of the
1:
4957:Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
4862:Thermal infrared spectroscopy
3862:Huggins, Sir William (1899).
2634:
366:discrete Fourier transforming
300:was founded with the work of
273:by observing the spectrum of
257:by the grating or prism in a
114:
23:The Star-Spectroscope of the
5091:Inelastic neutron scattering
4753:10.1126/science.274.5285.205
4666:10.1016/0019-1035(75)90191-8
4588:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.08.022
3356:(130). Taylor & Francis.
2508:
2064:
1870:
1831:is the distance from Earth.
1643:{\displaystyle \lambda _{0}}
1360:their chemical composition.
1101:Wien's displacement constant
343:and Lindsay McCready used a
335:was pioneered in 1946, when
212:, and various stars such as
7:
5152:Data collection, processing
5028:Photoelectron/photoemission
4702:"Why does ISON look green?"
3882:Tennyson, Jonathan (2005).
3523:Zwicky, F. (October 1937).
3323:10.1088/0004-637X/775/2/111
3142:"How Radio Telescopes Work"
2722:Fraunhofer, Joseph (1817).
2585:
1650:is the emitted wavelength,
1532:Doppler effect and redshift
1269:quasi-stellar radio sources
1230:
1097:constant of proportionality
356:published the technique of
322:21-centimeter H I line
277:of known wavelength from a
10:
5352:
5237:Photoacoustic spectroscopy
5179:Time-resolved spectroscopy
4338:10.1088/2041-8205/763/1/L7
4176:Astronomy and Astrophysics
3344:G. Kirchhoff (July 1860).
2488:
1436:
1305:
1219:
1202:constant, with a value of
1118:. This equation is called
734:
494:
489:are shown in parentheses.
391:Stars and their properties
383:
5326:Astronomical spectroscopy
5281:
5263:Astronomical spectroscopy
5255:
5242:Photothermal spectroscopy
5192:
5151:
5144:
5106:
5078:
5020:
4970:
4870:
4807:
4308:The Astrophysical Journal
4284:"Extragalactic Redshifts"
4095:"The Interstellar Medium"
4039:10.1134/S1063772911020016
3779:Astronomische Nachrichten
3742:The Astrophysical Journal
3632:The Astrophysical Journal
3529:The Astrophysical Journal
3414:. Springer. p. 568.
3293:The Astrophysical Journal
3081:Robertson, Peter (1992).
2925:The Astrophysical Journal
2770:The analysis of starlight
2654:Foukal, Peter V. (2004).
2545:
1839:Calculation of redshift,
1526:expansion of the universe
1242:Doppler shift studies of
151:) and molecular oxygen (O
125:electromagnetic radiation
56:electromagnetic radiation
40:Astronomical spectroscopy
4239:ESA/Hubble Press Release
3697:"Gravitational collapse"
3406:Mahmoud Massoud (2005).
2768:Hearnshaw, J.B. (1986).
2748:10.1002/andp.18170560706
2254:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1750:{\displaystyle v=H_{0}d}
1690:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1520:and the galaxies in the
1364:Gaseous emission nebulae
957:In 1869 the astronomers
165:antennas or radio dishes
161:rocket mounted detectors
46:using the techniques of
5336:Observational astronomy
5247:Pump–probe spectroscopy
5136:Ferromagnetic resonance
4928:Laser-induced breakdown
4474:"Types of Binary Stars"
4188:1984A&A...130..227J
4145:10.1126/science.1192035
3695:Chiu, Hong-Yee (1964).
3597:10.1126/science.1087441
2824:Ball, David W. (2001).
2263:Hubble Ultra-Deep Field
1036:proposed the idea of a
312:, in the constellation
4943:Glow-discharge optical
4923:Raman optical activity
4837:Rotational–vibrational
4623:10.1006/icar.2002.6856
4060:Shu, Frank H. (1982).
3837:Kitchin, C.R. (1987).
3809:10.1002/asna.200911342
3670:Wallace, P.R. (1991).
3195:Fundamentals of Optics
2826:Basics of Spectroscopy
2796:Kitchin, C.R. (1995).
2705:Newton, Isaac (1705).
2628:Telluric contamination
2613:Photometry (astronomy)
2559:
2427:Spectroscopic binaries
2408:
2381:
2302:
2255:
2235:
2210:
2134:
2056:
1960:
1853:
1825:
1801:
1774:
1751:
1691:
1671:
1644:
1614:
1509:
1508:Redshift and blueshift
1500:Motion in the universe
1187:
1135:electromagnetic energy
1082:
1029:
959:Charles Augustus Young
374:Nobel Prize in Physics
267:charge-coupled devices
188:
128:
109:active galactic nuclei
36:
5164:Hyperspectral imaging
3465:"Luminosity of Stars"
3229:Morison, Ian (2008).
2553:
2520:Tholen classification
2406:
2382:
2303:
2256:
2236:
2211:
2135:
2057:
1961:
1854:
1826:
1802:
1800:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
1775:
1752:
1692:
1672:
1670:{\displaystyle v_{0}}
1645:
1615:
1507:
1226:Magnitude (astronomy)
1188:
1083:
1027:
197:Joseph von Fraunhofer
182:
122:
27:in 1898. Designed by
22:
4916:Coherent anti-Stokes
4871:UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"
4263:. Cornell University
2603:Gunn-Peterson trough
2554:Optical spectrum of
2540:SMASS classification
2327:
2272:
2245:
2225:
2145:
2069:
1971:
1875:
1843:
1815:
1784:
1764:
1725:
1681:
1654:
1627:
1555:
1145:
1056:
1020:Temperature and size
333:Radio interferometry
328:Radio interferometry
226:Dominion Observatory
175:Optical spectroscopy
5220:Hadron spectroscopy
5010:Conversion electron
4971:X-ray and Gamma ray
4878:Ultraviolet–visible
4745:1996Sci...274..205L
4658:1975Icar...25..104C
4615:2002Icar..158..146B
4580:2013Icar..226.1654T
4447:1997ApJS..108..417Y
4408:"Peculiar Velocity"
4330:2013ApJ...763L...7E
4137:2010Sci...329.1180C
4131:(5996): 1180–1182.
4031:2011ARep...55..108E
3976:1927Natur.120..473B
3921:1979Isis...70..197H
3801:2010AN....331..459K
3754:1992ApJ...394L...9R
3713:1964PhT....17e..21C
3644:1963ApJ...138...30M
3589:2003Sci...301.1696R
3573:(5640): 1696–1698.
3541:1937ApJ....86..217Z
3315:2013ApJ...775..111P
3052:1946Natur.158..339R
3001:1946Natur.157..158P
2937:1983ApJ...266..713O
2870:1998SPIE.3355..866B
2740:1817AnP....56..264F
1867:Based on frequency
1864:Based on wavelength
1860:
1308:Interstellar medium
1302:Interstellar medium
1014:stellar populations
468:continuous spectrum
454:Chemical properties
408:Continuous spectrum
263:photographic plates
31:and constructed by
5268:Force spectroscopy
5193:Measured phenomena
5184:Video spectroscopy
4888:Cold vapour atomic
4708:on 3 December 2013
4484:on 8 December 2013
4093:Hudson, Reggie L.
3148:on 3 December 2013
2728:Annalen der Physik
2686:on 11 October 2018
2656:Solar Astrophysics
2608:Lyman-alpha forest
2560:
2530:consist mainly of
2409:
2377:
2298:
2251:
2241:and wavelength by
2231:
2206:
2130:
2052:
1956:
1849:
1837:
1821:
1797:
1770:
1747:
1687:
1667:
1640:
1610:
1510:
1183:
1078:
1030:
380:X-ray spectroscopy
358:aperture synthesis
337:Joseph Lade Pawsey
293:Radio spectroscopy
279:gas-discharge lamp
189:
185:reflection grating
129:
37:
5313:
5312:
5277:
5276:
5169:Spectrophotometry
5096:Neutron spin echo
5070:Beta spectroscopy
4983:Energy-dispersive
4739:(5285): 205–209.
4700:Knight, Matthew.
4517:978-0-691-12510-7
4009:Astronomy Reports
3722:10.1063/1.3051610
3378:978-0-521-82536-8
3245:978-0-470-03333-3
3046:(4010): 339–340.
2995:(3980): 158–159.
2888:10.1117/12.316806
2598:Emission spectrum
2337:
2318:peculiar velocity
2296:
2290:
2234:{\displaystyle f}
2219:
2218:
2204:
2128:
2050:
1954:
1852:{\displaystyle z}
1824:{\displaystyle d}
1773:{\displaystyle v}
1608:
1588:
1433:Complex molecules
1066:
1008:By analyzing the
928:
927:
924:
923:
732:
731:
427:discrete spectrum
287:spectrophotometry
248:Bragg diffraction
5343:
5301:
5300:
5289:
5288:
5149:
5148:
5060:phenomenological
4809:Vibrational (IR)
4794:
4787:
4780:
4771:
4770:
4765:
4764:
4724:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4676:
4670:
4669:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4598:
4592:
4591:
4573:
4564:(2): 1654–1672.
4553:
4547:
4546:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4503:
4494:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4470:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4426:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4404:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4378:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4356:
4350:
4349:
4323:
4302:
4296:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4279:
4273:
4272:
4270:
4268:
4259:Haynes, Martha.
4256:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4245:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4206:
4200:
4199:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4120:
4111:
4110:
4108:
4106:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4067:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4024:
4004:
3998:
3997:
3987:
3985:10.1038/120473a0
3955:
3949:
3948:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3879:
3868:
3867:
3859:
3853:
3852:
3834:
3821:
3820:
3794:
3774:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3692:
3686:
3685:
3667:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3582:
3580:astro-ph/0308518
3561:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3480:
3475:on 9 August 2014
3461:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3451:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3390:
3382:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3308:
3288:
3282:
3281:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3248:. Archived from
3237:
3226:
3215:
3214:
3198:
3188:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3153:
3144:. Archived from
3138:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3121:
3115:. Archived from
3114:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3060:10.1038/158339b0
3035:
3029:
3028:
3009:10.1038/157158a0
2982:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2971:
2955:
2949:
2948:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2904:
2898:. Archived from
2881:
2855:
2846:
2840:
2839:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2793:
2784:
2783:
2765:
2752:
2751:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2651:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2352:
2351:
2339:
2338:
2335:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2282:
2260:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2161:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2106:
2105:
2104:
2085:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2028:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1981:
1965:
1963:
1962:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1932:
1931:
1930:
1929:
1907:
1906:
1905:
1885:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1836:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1806:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1796:
1795:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1771:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1742:
1707:Andromeda Galaxy
1696:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1649:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1559:
1296:standard candles
1259:, NGC 4494, and
1216:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1200:Stefan–Boltzmann
1193:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1182:
1181:
1169:
1168:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1079:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1034:Gustav Kirchhoff
1010:equivalent width
963:William Harkness
736:
735:
496:
495:
492:
491:
483:Fraunhofer lines
476:emission spectra
474:of the Sun with
472:absorption lines
460:Gustav Kirchhoff
444:Absorption lines
440:
419:
405:
341:Ruby Payne-Scott
231:"blazed" grating
88:stellar spectrum
42:is the study of
25:Lick Observatory
5351:
5350:
5346:
5345:
5344:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5316:
5315:
5314:
5309:
5273:
5251:
5188:
5140:
5102:
5074:
5016:
4966:
4866:
4827:Resonance Raman
4803:
4798:
4768:
4725:
4721:
4711:
4709:
4698:
4694:
4677:
4673:
4642:
4638:
4599:
4595:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4529:
4525:
4518:
4504:
4497:
4487:
4485:
4472:
4471:
4464:
4427:
4423:
4413:
4411:
4406:
4405:
4401:
4391:
4389:
4388:. 21 March 2013
4380:
4379:
4375:
4365:
4363:
4358:
4357:
4353:
4303:
4299:
4289:
4287:
4280:
4276:
4266:
4264:
4257:
4253:
4243:
4241:
4233:
4232:
4228:
4221:
4207:
4203:
4172:
4168:
4121:
4114:
4104:
4102:
4101:on 13 July 2013
4091:
4087:
4080:
4058:
4054:
4005:
4001:
3956:
3952:
3905:
3901:
3894:
3880:
3871:
3860:
3856:
3849:
3835:
3824:
3775:
3771:
3734:
3730:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3668:
3661:
3624:
3620:
3562:
3558:
3521:
3517:
3508:
3506:
3493:
3492:
3488:
3478:
3476:
3463:
3462:
3458:
3449:
3447:
3434:
3433:
3429:
3422:
3404:
3400:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3365:
3361:
3342:
3338:
3289:
3285:
3278:
3264:
3260:
3252:
3246:
3235:
3227:
3218:
3211:
3189:
3182:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3165:
3161:
3151:
3149:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3106:
3102:
3095:
3079:
3075:
3036:
3032:
2983:
2979:
2969:
2967:
2956:
2952:
2921:
2917:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2853:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2822:
2815:
2808:
2794:
2787:
2780:
2766:
2755:
2720:
2716:
2703:
2699:
2689:
2687:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2666:
2652:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2588:
2577:
2573:
2556:Comet Hyakutake
2548:
2516:David J. Tholen
2511:
2491:
2448:
2431:radial velocity
2401:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2347:
2343:
2334:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2324:
2314:
2312:Peculiar motion
2287:
2283:
2281:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2188:
2187:
2183:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2160:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2084:
2070:
2067:
2066:
2034:
2033:
2029:
2012:
2011:
2007:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1938:
1937:
1933:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1892:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1809:Hubble Constant
1791:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1781:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1738:
1734:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1705:determined the
1700:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1634:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1599:
1595:
1593:
1582:
1578:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1534:
1514:galaxy clusters
1502:
1475:
1471:
1463:
1459:
1441:
1435:
1383:forbidden lines
1370:William Huggins
1366:
1310:
1304:
1244:galaxy clusters
1235:The spectra of
1233:
1228:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1177:
1173:
1164:
1160:
1146:
1143:
1113:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1047:
1022:
975:Walter Grotrian
949:
945:
722:
708:
694:
678:
662:
632:
618:
602:
591:
564:
550:
536:
521:
456:
451:
450:
449:
448:
447:
441:
432:
431:
430:
420:
411:
410:
409:
406:
393:
388:
386:X-ray astronomy
382:
362:autocorrelating
330:
298:Radio astronomy
295:
177:
154:
150:
117:
50:to measure the
17:
12:
11:
5:
5349:
5339:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5311:
5310:
5308:
5307:
5295:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5275:
5274:
5272:
5271:
5265:
5259:
5257:
5253:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5233:
5232:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5196:
5194:
5190:
5189:
5187:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5155:
5153:
5146:
5142:
5141:
5139:
5138:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5110:
5108:
5104:
5103:
5101:
5100:
5099:
5098:
5088:
5082:
5080:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5045:
5043:Angle-resolved
5040:
5035:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5017:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5002:
4997:
4996:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4919:
4918:
4908:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4891:
4890:
4880:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4813:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4797:
4796:
4789:
4782:
4774:
4767:
4766:
4719:
4692:
4671:
4652:(1): 104–130.
4636:
4609:(1): 146–177.
4593:
4548:
4541:
4523:
4516:
4495:
4462:
4456:10.1086/312960
4441:(2): 417–448.
4421:
4399:
4373:
4351:
4297:
4282:Huchra, John.
4274:
4261:"Hubble's Law"
4251:
4226:
4219:
4201:
4166:
4112:
4085:
4078:
4052:
4015:(2): 108–122.
3999:
3950:
3929:10.1086/352195
3915:(2): 162–212.
3899:
3892:
3869:
3854:
3847:
3822:
3785:(5): 459–473.
3769:
3763:10.1086/186460
3728:
3687:
3680:
3659:
3653:10.1086/147615
3618:
3556:
3550:10.1086/143864
3515:
3486:
3456:
3427:
3420:
3398:
3377:
3359:
3336:
3283:
3276:
3258:
3255:on 2013-10-29.
3244:
3216:
3209:
3180:
3159:
3133:
3108:W. E. Howard.
3100:
3093:
3073:
3030:
2977:
2950:
2945:10.1086/160817
2915:
2879:10.1.1.25.5736
2841:
2834:
2813:
2806:
2785:
2778:
2753:
2734:(7): 282–287.
2714:
2697:
2671:
2664:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2575:
2571:
2547:
2544:
2510:
2507:
2490:
2487:
2447:
2444:
2421:spectral class
2400:
2397:
2388:
2387:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2333:
2313:
2310:
2295:
2286:
2280:
2277:
2250:
2230:
2217:
2216:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2140:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2063:
2062:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1979:
1976:
1966:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1890:
1883:
1880:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1848:
1820:
1794:
1790:
1769:
1758:
1757:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1698:
1686:
1664:
1660:
1637:
1633:
1621:
1620:
1607:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1585:
1581:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1538:Doppler effect
1533:
1530:
1501:
1498:
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1437:Main article:
1434:
1431:
1423:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1365:
1362:
1306:Main article:
1303:
1300:
1232:
1229:
1196:
1195:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1090:
1089:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1062:
1045:
1021:
1018:
999:
998:
983:highly ionized
955:
947:
943:
940:Pierre Janssen
936:Norman Lockyer
926:
925:
922:
921:
918:
913:
909:
908:
905:
902:
898:
897:
894:
889:
885:
884:
881:
878:
874:
873:
870:
867:
863:
862:
859:
856:
852:
851:
848:
845:
841:
840:
837:
834:
830:
829:
826:
821:
817:
816:
813:
810:
806:
805:
802:
799:
795:
794:
791:
788:
784:
783:
780:
777:
773:
772:
769:
766:
762:
761:
758:
755:
751:
750:
743:
740:
733:
730:
729:
726:
723:
720:
716:
715:
712:
709:
706:
702:
701:
698:
695:
692:
688:
687:
684:
679:
676:
672:
671:
668:
663:
660:
656:
655:
652:
647:
643:
642:
639:
634:
630:
626:
625:
622:
619:
616:
612:
611:
608:
603:
600:
596:
595:
592:
589:
586:
582:
581:
578:
573:
569:
568:
565:
562:
559:
555:
554:
551:
548:
545:
541:
540:
537:
534:
531:
527:
526:
523:
519:
515:
511:
510:
503:
500:
455:
452:
442:
435:
434:
433:
423:Emission lines
421:
414:
413:
412:
407:
400:
399:
398:
397:
396:
392:
389:
384:Main article:
381:
378:
329:
326:
294:
291:
275:emission lines
244:interferometer
242:created by an
176:
173:
152:
148:
116:
113:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5348:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5306:
5305:
5296:
5294:
5293:
5284:
5283:
5280:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5260:
5258:
5254:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5185:
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5156:
5154:
5150:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5127:
5124:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5112:
5111:
5109:
5105:
5097:
5094:
5093:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5030:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5023:
5019:
5011:
5008:
5007:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4969:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4951:
4948:
4944:
4941:
4940:
4939:
4936:
4935:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4900:Near-infrared
4898:
4896:
4893:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4795:
4790:
4788:
4783:
4781:
4776:
4775:
4772:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4723:
4707:
4703:
4696:
4687:
4682:
4675:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4640:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4597:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4572:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4552:
4544:
4542:0-19-505134-3
4538:
4534:
4527:
4519:
4513:
4509:
4502:
4500:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4469:
4467:
4457:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4425:
4409:
4403:
4387:
4383:
4377:
4361:
4355:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4301:
4285:
4278:
4262:
4255:
4240:
4236:
4230:
4222:
4220:0-7503-0271-2
4216:
4212:
4205:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4170:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4119:
4117:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4079:0-935702-05-9
4075:
4071:
4066:
4065:
4056:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4003:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3970:(3022): 473.
3969:
3965:
3961:
3954:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3903:
3895:
3893:1-86094-513-9
3889:
3885:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3865:
3858:
3850:
3848:0-85274-580-X
3844:
3840:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3827:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3773:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3723:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3701:Physics Today
3698:
3691:
3683:
3677:
3673:
3666:
3664:
3654:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3622:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3560:
3551:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3490:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3423:
3421:3-540-22292-8
3417:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3394:
3388:
3380:
3374:
3370:
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3347:
3340:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3287:
3279:
3277:0-03-006228-4
3273:
3269:
3262:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3234:
3233:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3212:
3210:0-07-085346-0
3206:
3202:
3197:
3196:
3187:
3185:
3169:
3163:
3147:
3143:
3137:
3122:on 2012-07-14
3118:
3111:
3104:
3096:
3094:0-521-41408-3
3090:
3086:
3085:
3077:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
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3041:
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3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2989:
2981:
2965:
2961:
2960:"Karl Jansky"
2954:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2905:on 2010-07-28
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2845:
2837:
2835:0-8194-4104-X
2831:
2827:
2820:
2818:
2809:
2807:0-7503-0346-8
2803:
2799:
2792:
2790:
2781:
2779:0-521-39916-5
2775:
2771:
2764:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2749:
2745:
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2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2710:
2709:
2701:
2685:
2681:
2675:
2667:
2665:3-527-40374-4
2661:
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2646:
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2557:
2552:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2506:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2486:
2484:
2481:'s satellite
2480:
2476:
2472:
2471:giant planets
2468:
2467:spectrometers
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2443:
2441:
2436:
2435:orbital plane
2432:
2428:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2405:
2396:
2394:
2393:Virgo Cluster
2360:
2356:
2353:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2331:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2309:
2293:
2284:
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2248:
2228:
2184:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2141:
2108:
2087:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2065:
2030:
2008:
2004:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1967:
1934:
1912:
1908:
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1871:
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1767:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1721:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1703:Vesto Slipher
1684:
1662:
1658:
1635:
1631:
1605:
1600:
1596:
1590:
1583:
1579:
1572:
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1551:
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1529:
1527:
1523:
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1506:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1467:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1430:
1428:
1427:spiral galaxy
1420:
1417:
1415:
1414:Doppler shift
1411:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1361:
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1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1278:
1277:Hong-Yee Chiu
1274:
1270:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1238:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1215:10 W⋅m⋅K
1201:
1192:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1140:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1102:
1098:
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1072:
1069:
1060:
1051:
1050:
1049:
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1004:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
953:
941:
937:
933:
932:
931:
919:
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914:
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910:
906:
903:
900:
899:
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893:
890:
887:
886:
882:
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868:
865:
864:
860:
857:
854:
853:
849:
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842:
838:
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832:
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822:
819:
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811:
808:
807:
803:
800:
797:
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792:
789:
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785:
781:
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764:
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748:
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741:
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724:
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627:
623:
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528:
524:
522:
516:
513:
512:
508:
504:
501:
498:
497:
493:
490:
488:
487:Balmer Series
484:
479:
477:
473:
469:
465:
464:Robert Bunsen
461:
445:
439:
428:
424:
418:
404:
395:
387:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
354:Antony Hewish
351:
346:
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338:
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319:
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307:
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299:
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288:
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276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
251:
249:
245:
241:
235:
232:
227:
223:
222:J.S. Plaskett
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
198:
194:
186:
181:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
146:
142:
138:
134:
133:visible light
126:
121:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
93:Doppler shift
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
60:visible light
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
34:
33:John Brashear
30:
26:
21:
5331:Spectroscopy
5302:
5290:
5270:(a misnomer)
5262:
5256:Applications
5174:Time-stretch
5065:paramagnetic
4883:Fluorescence
4801:Spectroscopy
4736:
4732:
4722:
4710:. Retrieved
4706:the original
4695:
4674:
4649:
4645:
4639:
4606:
4602:
4596:
4561:
4557:
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4507:
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4482:the original
4477:
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4412:. Retrieved
4402:
4390:. Retrieved
4376:
4364:. Retrieved
4354:
4311:
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4300:
4288:. Retrieved
4277:
4265:. Retrieved
4254:
4242:. Retrieved
4238:
4229:
4210:
4204:
4179:
4175:
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4103:. Retrieved
4099:the original
4088:
4063:
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4008:
4002:
3967:
3963:
3953:
3912:
3908:
3902:
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3772:
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3731:
3707:(5): 21–34.
3704:
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3635:
3631:
3621:
3570:
3566:
3559:
3532:
3528:
3518:
3507:. Retrieved
3498:
3489:
3477:. Retrieved
3473:the original
3459:
3448:. Retrieved
3439:
3430:
3411:
3401:
3368:
3362:
3353:
3349:
3339:
3296:
3292:
3286:
3267:
3261:
3250:the original
3231:
3194:
3171:. Retrieved
3162:
3150:. Retrieved
3146:the original
3136:
3124:. Retrieved
3117:the original
3103:
3083:
3076:
3043:
3039:
3033:
2992:
2986:
2980:
2968:. Retrieved
2963:
2953:
2928:
2924:
2918:
2907:. Retrieved
2900:the original
2861:
2857:
2844:
2825:
2797:
2769:
2731:
2727:
2717:
2707:
2700:
2688:. Retrieved
2684:the original
2674:
2655:
2623:Spectrometer
2564:fluorescence
2561:
2512:
2503:Hot Jupiters
2492:
2463:Solar System
2449:
2425:
2413:binary stars
2410:
2399:Binary stars
2389:
2315:
2267:
2220:
1838:
1833:
1759:
1716:Hubble's law
1712:Edwin Hubble
1622:
1535:
1511:
1442:
1424:
1394:ground state
1391:
1367:
1342:
1314:star systems
1311:
1285:
1268:
1265:
1248:Fritz Zwicky
1241:
1234:
1197:
1128:
1100:
1092:
1091:
1042:Wilhelm Wien
1031:
1007:
1000:
995:solar corona
967:Sun's corona
929:
745:Wavelength (
739:Designation
505:Wavelength (
499:Designation
480:
457:
394:
331:
296:
259:spectrograph
252:
240:wave pattern
236:
218:
193:Isaac Newton
190:
130:
87:
58:, including
48:spectroscopy
39:
38:
29:James Keeler
4842:Vibrational
4712:26 November
4686:1404.5968v6
4488:26 November
4414:26 November
4392:26 November
4366:26 November
4290:26 November
4267:26 November
4105:19 November
2864:: 866–876.
1542:blueshifted
1522:Local Group
1446:ultraviolet
1398:spin states
1281:black holes
1253:dark matter
1116:10 m⋅K
1103:, equal to
979:Bengt Edlén
350:Martin Ryle
316:. In 1942,
314:Sagittarius
302:Karl Jansky
157:ultraviolet
137:radio waves
78:waves that
64:ultraviolet
5320:Categories
5048:Two-photon
4950:absorption
4832:Rotational
4362:. NASA/ESA
4244:13 January
4182:: 227–56.
3681:997150930X
3509:2024-05-18
3505:. May 2024
3450:2024-05-18
3446:. May 2024
3299:(2): 111.
3173:2 December
3152:2 December
3126:2 December
2970:24 October
2958:Ghigo, F.
2909:2019-09-12
2858:Proc. SPIE
2690:23 October
2635:References
2568:Comet ISON
2499:exoplanets
1546:redshifted
1496:material.
1488:, such as
1478:fullerenes
1387:metastable
1357:photometry
1349:reflection
1345:absorption
1222:Luminosity
1220:See also:
1131:luminosity
1120:Wien's Law
1038:black body
481:The major
271:calibrated
214:Betelgeuse
115:Background
5126:Terahertz
5107:Radiowave
5005:Mössbauer
4761:122700701
4571:1308.4986
4321:1211.6804
4314:(1): L7.
4022:1011.4576
3945:123234614
3817:119211740
3792:1002.5039
3613:120137872
3387:cite book
3331:119233184
3306:1306.4663
2874:CiteSeerX
2532:silicates
2509:Asteroids
2455:asteroids
2249:λ
2109:λ
2088:λ
2005:−
1935:λ
1913:λ
1909:−
1889:λ
1685:λ
1632:λ
1580:λ
1569:λ
1565:−
1562:λ
1518:Milky Way
1492:or other
1454:acetylene
1379:Ira Bowen
1334:silicates
1171:σ
1158:π
1061:λ
641:587.5618
324:in 1951.
310:Milky Way
306:Bell Labs
255:dispersed
44:astronomy
5292:Category
5021:Electron
4988:Emission
4938:emission
4895:Vibronic
4346:17883532
4196:11541988
4161:33588270
4153:20651118
4047:55372968
3605:12947033
3017:21015114
2896:17445305
2586:See also
2495:minerals
2440:carousel
2417:resolved
1490:graphite
1402:electron
1377:, until
1375:nebulium
1353:emission
1330:graphite
1318:hydrogen
1292:parallax
1288:NGC 4550
1261:NGC 4697
1257:NGC 3379
1237:galaxies
1231:Galaxies
1032:In 1860
971:coronium
934:In 1868
920:299.444
907:302.108
896:336.112
883:358.121
872:382.044
861:393.368
850:396.847
839:410.175
828:430.774
815:430.790
804:434.047
798:G' (Hγ)
793:438.355
782:466.814
771:486.134
760:495.761
742:Element
728:516.733
714:516.891
700:517.270
686:518.362
670:527.039
654:546.073
624:588.995
610:589.592
594:627.661
580:656.281
567:686.719
553:759.370
539:822.696
525:898.765
502:Element
370:3D image
169:Infrared
105:galaxies
72:infrared
52:spectrum
5304:Commons
5131:ESR/EPR
5079:Nucleon
4907:(REMPI)
4741:Bibcode
4733:Science
4654:Bibcode
4631:4880578
4611:Bibcode
4576:Bibcode
4443:Bibcode
4326:Bibcode
4184:Bibcode
4133:Bibcode
4125:Science
4070:232–234
4027:Bibcode
3994:4066813
3972:Bibcode
3917:Bibcode
3797:Bibcode
3750:Bibcode
3709:Bibcode
3640:Bibcode
3585:Bibcode
3567:Science
3537:Bibcode
3535:: 217.
3311:Bibcode
3201:430–437
3068:4097569
3048:Bibcode
3025:4056021
2997:Bibcode
2933:Bibcode
2931:: 713.
2866:Bibcode
2736:Bibcode
2536:X-types
2528:S-types
2524:C-types
2489:Planets
2451:Planets
1807:is the
1466:acetone
1450:organic
1338:nebulae
1273:quasars
1124:kelvins
1099:called
991:calcium
833:h (Hδ)
765:F (Hβ)
572:C (Hα)
224:at the
183:With a
101:nebulae
97:planets
80:radiate
5145:Others
4933:Atomic
4759:
4646:Icarus
4629:
4603:Icarus
4558:Icarus
4539:
4514:
4344:
4217:
4194:
4159:
4151:
4076:
4045:
3992:
3964:Nature
3943:
3937:230787
3935:
3890:
3845:
3815:
3748:: L9.
3678:
3638:: 30.
3611:
3603:
3479:2 July
3418:
3375:
3329:
3274:
3242:
3207:
3091:
3066:
3040:Nature
3023:
3015:
2988:Nature
2894:
2876:
2832:
2804:
2776:
2662:
2546:Comets
2534:, and
2522:, the
2479:Saturn
2477:, and
2459:comets
2457:, and
2289:Hubble
1811:, and
1760:where
1623:where
1486:solids
1406:proton
1400:: the
1351:, and
1326:oxygen
1322:helium
987:nickel
952:Helium
318:JS Hey
281:. The
253:Light
204:, the
141:X-rays
139:, and
107:, and
5086:Alpha
5055:Auger
5033:X-ray
5000:Gamma
4978:X-ray
4911:Raman
4822:Raman
4817:FT-IR
4757:S2CID
4681:arXiv
4627:S2CID
4566:arXiv
4342:S2CID
4316:arXiv
4157:S2CID
4043:S2CID
4017:arXiv
3990:S2CID
3941:S2CID
3933:JSTOR
3813:S2CID
3787:arXiv
3609:S2CID
3575:arXiv
3327:S2CID
3301:arXiv
3253:(PDF)
3236:(PDF)
3120:(PDF)
3113:(PDF)
3064:S2CID
3021:S2CID
2903:(PDF)
2892:S2CID
2854:(PDF)
2618:Prism
2574:and C
2483:Titan
2475:Venus
2336:total
1494:sooty
1484:; to
1275:, by
1271:, or
1204:5.670
1105:2.897
1095:is a
946:and D
633:or d
202:Venus
145:Ozone
84:stars
82:from
76:radio
68:X-ray
4714:2013
4537:ISBN
4512:ISBN
4490:2013
4416:2013
4394:2013
4368:2013
4292:2013
4269:2013
4246:2012
4215:ISBN
4192:PMID
4149:PMID
4107:2013
4074:ISBN
3909:Isis
3888:ISBN
3843:ISBN
3676:ISBN
3601:PMID
3503:NIST
3481:2012
3444:NIST
3416:ISBN
3393:link
3373:ISBN
3272:ISBN
3240:ISBN
3205:ISBN
3175:2013
3154:2013
3128:2013
3089:ISBN
3013:PMID
2972:2013
2862:3355
2830:ISBN
2802:ISBN
2774:ISBN
2692:2013
2660:ISBN
2580:coma
1480:and
1464:and
1224:and
1129:The
989:and
977:and
961:and
938:and
462:and
364:and
283:flux
210:Mars
206:Moon
74:and
5114:NMR
4749:doi
4737:274
4662:doi
4619:doi
4607:158
4584:doi
4562:226
4451:doi
4439:108
4386:ESA
4334:doi
4312:763
4180:130
4141:doi
4129:329
4035:doi
3980:doi
3968:120
3925:doi
3805:doi
3783:331
3758:doi
3746:394
3717:doi
3648:doi
3636:138
3593:doi
3571:301
3545:doi
3319:doi
3297:775
3056:doi
3044:158
3005:doi
2993:157
2941:doi
2929:266
2884:doi
2744:doi
1468:(CH
1294:or
1246:by
1211:...
1209:419
1206:374
1112:...
1110:955
1107:771
1065:max
1048:):
1046:max
1003:Sun
904:Fe
880:Fe
869:Fe
858:Ca
847:Ca
812:Fe
790:Fe
779:Fe
757:Fe
725:Mg
711:Fe
697:Mg
621:Na
54:of
5322::
5119:2D
5038:UV
4755:.
4747:.
4735:.
4731:.
4660:.
4650:25
4648:.
4625:.
4617:.
4605:.
4582:.
4574:.
4560:.
4498:^
4476:.
4465:^
4449:.
4437:.
4433:.
4384:.
4340:.
4332:.
4324:.
4310:.
4237:.
4190:.
4178:.
4155:.
4147:.
4139:.
4127:.
4115:^
4072:.
4041:.
4033:.
4025:.
4013:55
4011:.
3988:.
3978:.
3966:.
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