International relations (1648–1814)

1368:, the chief American diplomat in Paris, proved highly popular with elite French opinion, including intellectuals and the Royal court. France wanted revenge after its defeat in the 1760s, and again heavily funding the American revolt. After the Americans captured a British invasion force at Saratoga, in upstate New York in 1777, the French officially declared war on Britain, recognize the independence of the new United States, and were joined officially by the Dutch (who recognized the United States) and Spanish (who did not). All of Europe was neutral, with the favoritism toward France and the United States. Britain had no major allies, but it did manage to hire tens of thousands of mercenaries from small German principalities such as Hesse. The Royal Navy was now outnumbered by the combined Allied navies, and the threat of an Allied invasion of the British Isles made its military situation precarious. The British had some success in sending a large invasion force into the southern United States, but a combined French-American army captured another invasion army at Yorktown in 1781, as the French Navy drove off a British rescue fleet. The United States was now effectively independent, and the British policy was to offer very good terms so as to guarantee strong Anglo-American foreign trade as soon as the war ended. The naval war was not over, however as the British made decisive gains against the French Navy, and protected Gibraltar against the Spanish threat. After the loss of the American colonies, Britain then turned its attention towards India and Asia, where they arguably regained most if not all of their losses. The long-term results were highly negative for France. It did achieve revenge, but its very heavy spending in the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War effectively bankrupted the French treasury, setting the stage for the French Revolution in 1789. 170:(1648) as a dividing line. It ended the Thirty Years' War, where religion and ideology had been powerful motivating forces for warfare. Westphalia, in the realist view, ushered in a new international system of sovereign states of roughly equal strength, dedicated not to ideology or religion but to enhance status, and territorial gains. The Catholic Church, for example, no longer devoted its energies to the very difficult task of reclaiming dioceses lost to Protestantism, but to build large-scale missions in overseas colonial possessions that could convert the natives by the thousands using devoted members of society such as the Jesuits. According to Scott Hamish, the realist model assumes that "foreign policies were guided entirely by "Realpolitik," by the resulting struggle for resources and, eventually, by the search for what became known as a 'balance of power.' 1957:

It was very expensive in money and lives. It became harder and harder to get the tax money owed by increasingly alienated powerful zamindars whose ancestors had been given the tax-collecting role by Babur or Akbar generations ago. They no longer had close ties to the throne. The result of a weak central government was that local zamindars, land owners, tribal leaders, money-lenders and merchants were increasingly independent of the central government, and instead shifted their allegiance to the East India Company, which paid them cash subsidies. It all greatly weakened the Mughar army, and strengthened the opposition Maratha caste of Hindus who gloried in their militaristic skills and took control of large sectors by 1720. The hapless Mughal emperor became a powerless figurehead; his empire was abolished in 1857.

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conspiracies multiplied, loyalties wavered, and competence became less important. By 1700, Europeans had begun to take control of regional trade routes, and started to take sides in internal political factionalism. Even at its height under Akbar, the Mughal Empire was not a centralized state, but a loosely knit collection of heterogeneous principalities. Akbar was a highly efficient military commander, and instead of paying his army salaries, he gave the victorious commanders the rights ("zamindars") to collect taxes locally. They therefore became locally powerful, and did not depend on central authority. A person who converted from Hinduism to Islam had much better political and economic opportunities. Akbar was highly tolerant of the Hindus, and reduced taxes.

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on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and made himself the ruler.

1455:, which wished to preserve the independence of the southern Netherlands from France. After the king's execution in January 1793, these powers, along with Spain and most other European states, joined the war against France. Almost immediately, French forces faced defeat on many fronts, and were driven out of their newly conquered territories in the spring of 1793. At the same time, the republican regime was forced to deal with rebellions against its authority in much of western and southern France. But the allies failed to take advantage of French disunity, and by the autumn of 1793 the republican regime had defeated most of the internal rebellions and halted the allied advance into France itself. 859: 638:. William's goal was to build coalitions against the powerful French monarchy, protect the autonomy of the Netherlands (where William continued in power) and to keep the Spanish Netherlands (present-day Belgium) out of French hands. The English elite was intensely anti-French, and generally supported William's broad goals. For his entire career in Netherlands and Britain, William was the arch-enemy of Louis XIV. The French king, in turn, denounced William as a usurper who had illegally taken the throne from the legitimate King James II, and ought to be overthrown. In May 1689, William, now king of England, with the support of Parliament, declared war on France. 999:

Philippine Islands. The overseas territories were an important outlet for migration by the Spanish population. Most important of all, Spain's colonies produced enormous quantities of silver, which were brought to Spain every few years in convoys. Spain had many weaknesses as well. Its home economy was poor, there was little business or industry, or advanced craftsmanship. It had to Import practically all its weapons. Spain had a large army but it was poorly trained and poorly equipped. It had a surprisingly small navy, for seamanship was a low priority among the Spanish elites. It never recovered from the self-inflicted disaster that destroyed half of the large

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peace, the others are cool in their affections. ... The English and Dutch are the main pillars of the Alliance; they support it by making war against us in concert with the other powers, and they keep it going by means of the money that they pay every year to ... Allies. ... We must, therefore, fall back on privateering as the method of conducting war which is most feasible, simple, cheap, and safe, and which will cost least to the state, the more so since any losses will not be felt by the King, who risks virtually nothing. ... It will enrich the country, train many good officers for the King, and in a short time force his enemies to sue for peace.

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aristocrats who enjoyed very high society at royal courts, especially because they carried the status of the most powerful nation in Europe. Increasingly, other nations copied the French model; French became the language of diplomacy, replacing Latin. By the early 18th century European diplomats had established an elaborate system of etiquette and ceremonies. Most diplomats came from high-status nobility, and were familiar with such elaborate customs. In the realm of diplomacy, ceremonial methods served to distinguish the relative power and importance of the different countries involved, and facilitated informal discussions among senior diplomats.

1479: 249:. The wars were very expensive but they defined Louis XIV's foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled "by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique," Louis sensed that warfare was the ideal way to enhance his glory. In peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military. By 1695, France retained much of its dominance, but had lost control of the seas to the combination of England and Holland. What's more, most countries, both Protestant and Catholic, were in alliance against it. 329:

intelligence departments with full-time staffs, and well-paid spies and agents. The militaries themselves became more bureaucratised, and sent out military attachés. They were very bright, personable middle-ranking officers stationed in embassies abroad. In each capital, the attaches evaluated the strength, capabilities, and war plan plans of the armies and navies. France under King Louis XIV was the largest, richest, and most powerful nation. It had many enemies and a few friends, and tried to keep track of them all through a well organized intelligence system. France and England pioneered the

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balance of power system in which no nation could dominate the rest. Other nations recognized Britain as the "balancer." Eventually the balancing act required Britain to contain French ambitions. Containment led to a series of increasingly large-scale wars between Britain and France, which ended with mixed results. Britain was usually aligned with the Netherlands and Prussia, and subsidised their armies. These wars enveloped all of Europe and the overseas colonies. These wars took place in every decade starting in the 1740s and climaxed in the defeat of Napoleon's France in 1814.

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oriented professional leadership at the top and middle ranks; a code of ethics and standards of expected behavior; and attractive pay scales and retirement pensions. Expertise was highly valued, although at the very highest level aristocratic status and family connections played an important role. The new bureaucracy preserved its documents carefully and central archives, maintain a professional office staff, and gained a reputation at home and abroad for the quality of its work in expressing both the short term needs and long-term alliances and values of the state. King

298:. Europe was largely regionalized, with wars fought either in the West, the North, or the Southeast. By 1700, there were four major states, England, France, Russia, and the Habsburg Monarchy (also called Austria or the Holy Roman Empire). Prussia was emerging primarily because of its aggressive leadership and its advances in the military arts. Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, Poland, Venice, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire were declining powers after losses in a series of wars. In 1659, the 30: 1432: 1587: 1027:. It included Prussia and most of the other German states, the Netherlands, Portugal, Savoy (in Italy), and especially England. France took control of Spanish forces and added a few allies in Bavaria and among several local dukes in Italy and Germany. Extensive fighting took place primarily in the Netherlands, with both sides swaying back and forth. When Emperor Leopold died, he was succeeded by his oldest son Joseph. However, when Joseph died in 1711, his brother 1996: 1391: 824: 931: 1136: 1913: 1524: 543: 1023:. France, of course, rallied to the choice. However a coalition of enemies quickly formed, and a major European war broke out 1701–1714. The notion of France gaining enormous strength by taking over Spain and all its European and overseas possessions was anathema to France's main rivals. Secondly the prospect of dividing up Spanish holdings prove very attractive. France's enemies formed a Grand Alliance, led by the Holy Roman Empire's 1807: 1976:

expanded to control most of the Indian subcontinent by the 1850s. It primarily used diplomacy and financial incentives, with occasional use of military force. By 1803, at the height of its rule in India, it had a large private army. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its private armies, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. The officers were British; the soldiers were "

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Leopold...recognized his leadership. William's English subjects played subordinate or even minor roles in diplomatic and military affairs, having a major share only in the direction of the war at sea. Parliament and the nation had to provide money, men and ships, and William had found it expedient to explain his intentions...but this did not mean that Parliament or even ministers assisted in the formulation of policy.

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recognize William as king of England, and by giving diplomatic, military and financial support to a series of pretenders to the English throne, all based in France. Williams focused most of his attention on foreign policy and foreign wars, spending a great deal of time in the Netherlands (where he continued to hold the dominant political office). His closest foreign-policy advisers were Dutch, most notably

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corners of the world where it has great establishments. France has ... undeclared enemies, indirectly hostile hostile and envious of its greatness, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Portugal, Venice, Genoa, and part of the Swiss Confederation, all of which states secretly aid France's enemies by the troops that they hire to them, the money they lend them and by protecting and covering their trade.

1952:(ruled 1658–1707) was deeply ascetic, and stopped the spending on magnificent palaces and shrines. He tried to curb numerous forms of corruption, and became especially unpopular when he tried to forbid gambling, drinking and prostitution. He ended the policy of religious tolerance, and was seen as hostile by the Hindus. They were no longer allowed to build temples, and the 969:

unimportant. The empire succeeded by the 1720s, obtaining not just access to the sea but ownership of Finland and the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. To the west, there were a series of wars with Poland and Lithuania, followed by negotiated settlements with Prussia and Austria that gave Russia control of most of Ukraine, and a large slice of Poland.

1876:. It also led to the pacification of the Islamicised, Turkic-speaking southern half of Xinjiang immediately thereafter. The Ten Great Campaigns demonstrated China's vitality on its western fringes, and in Mongolia, Tibet, and Turkestan. The main threat was that Russia would take control, but instead they were over Allied and stayed away. Treaties with Russia at 178:, England had no diplomats stationed in Denmark or Sweden. When King Charles realized he needed them as allies, he sent special missions that were uninformed about local political, military, and diplomatic situations, and were ignorant of personalities and political factionalism. Ignorance produced a series of blunders that ruined their efforts to find allies. 1884:(1727) demonstrated that diplomacy could effectively establish stable borders. The treaties allowed for a Russian Orthodox religious mission in Beijing, and a small Russian caravan trade. After 1724, in Qinghai (Eastern Tibet), China divided ethnic groups against each other and relied upon local leaders as a counterweight to the Tibetan religious leader the 680:(1688–1697), also called the War of the League of Augsburg, was a major conflict between France and a European-wide coalition of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Britain, and Savoy. It was fought on the European continent and the surrounding seas, Ireland, North America and in India. It is sometimes considered the first truly 1743:. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France. 1928:(ruled 1556–1605) followed. He was a charismatic and brilliant leader who organized a highly successful military, and set up a financial system to pay for his extravagances. The Mughal Empire maintained diplomatic relations with numerous local and international powers, including Uzbeks, the Safavid dynasty in Persia, the Ottoman Empire, the 1924:, (1483–1530) a Sunni Muslim based in Afghanistan. He used advanced weapons, artillery – and especially mobile cavalry, he captured Delhi in 1526 with only 12,000 soldiers against an enemy force of over 100,000. He continued his conquests across much of North Central India. His vigor and charismatic personality earned him strong loyalties. 776:. The fighting generally favoured Louis XIV's armies, but by 1696 his country was in the grip of an economic crisis. The Maritime Powers (England and the Dutch Republic) were also financially exhausted, and when Savoy defected from the Alliance all parties were keen for a negotiated settlement. By the terms of the 63:: The concept of the balance of power emerged as a fundamental principle in international relations during this period. Major powers sought to maintain a delicate equilibrium to prevent the domination of any single state or coalition, often leading to alliances, territorial adjustments, and military interventions. 1106:. He recognized that France needed to rebuild, so he pursued a peace policy. France had a poorly designed taxation system, whereby tax farmers kept much of the money, and the treasury was always short. The banking system in Paris was undeveloped, and the treasury was forced to borrow at very high interest rates. 3365: 1956:

tax was reimposed on non-Moslems. Forced conversions to Islam were resumed, and non-Muslims were expelled from high office. Hindus began to revolt. Most important, he spent decades in a futile military campaign to capture the large Deccan region south of the already large empire that Akbar had built.

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The greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power

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In foreign affairs, the French Army down to 1812 was quite successful. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven. France conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas

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argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, "meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his

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From 1793 to 1815, France was engaged almost continuously (with two short breaks) in wars with Britain and a changing coalition of other major powers. The many French successes led to the spread of the French revolutionary ideals into neighbouring countries, and indeed across much of Europe. However,

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to coordinate their actions. Large scale boycotts proved highly damaging to British merchants who lost their American market overnight. London sent in more troops to Boston, while the colonists organized and drilled their militia. Fighting broke out in 1775, and the American Patriots seize control of

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was a Hanoverian who moved his court to London, but never learned English and surrounded himself with German advisors. They spent much of their time and most of their attention on Hanoverian affairs. He too was threatened by instability of the throne, for the Stuart pretenders, long supported by King

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and the entrance of Spain, Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Austrian Hapsburgs on the Dutch side forced Louis to divide his forces. England made peace with the Dutch in 1674 after several disastrous defeats and eventually joined the alliance against France. The war dragged into a stalemate and concluded

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France set the standards for the new professional diplomacy, which were soon emulated by the other powers; the French language became the diplomatic tongue. The professional model slowly spread other national government agencies, and included distinct specified scope of operations, a full-time career

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The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King, many of the Feuillants, and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity

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But "balance" needed armed enforcement. Britain played a key military role as "balancer." The goals were to bolster Europe's balance of power system to maintain the peace that was needed for British trade to flourish and its colonies to grow, and finally to strengthen its own central position in the

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Spain's silver, and its inability to protect its assets, made it a highly visible target for ambitious Europeans. For generations, Englishmen had contemplated capturing the treasure fleet—which happened only once—in 1628 by the Dutch. English mariners nevertheless seriously pursued the opportunities

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William was usually supported by the English leadership, which saw France as its greatest enemy. But eventually the expenses, and war weariness, caused second thoughts. At first, Parliament voted him the funds for his expensive wars, and for his subsidies to smaller allies. Private investors created

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London's financial system proved strikingly competent in funding not only the English forces, but its allies as well. The Treasury raised £46,000,000 in loans to pay for the wars with France of 1689–1697 and 1702–1713; by 1714 the national debt stood at £40,000,000, with a sinking fund operating to

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The European political scene changed in the late 17th century. Warfare was still a more powerful influence than demography, economics or diplomacy, so the major changes resulted from a series of large wars. At first France, with the largest population, a well-developed economy, and a good navy, was

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The 17th century, 1601–1700, saw very little peace in Europe – major wars were fought every year except 1610, 1669 to 1671, and 1680 to 1682. The wars were unusually ugly. Europe in the late 17th century, 1648 to 1700, was an age of great intellectual, scientific, artistic and cultural achievement.

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The East India Company was a privately owned British commercial trading firm that exported British goods to India and adjacent areas, and imported Indian products such as tea, spices, textiles and (for the Chinese market), opium. It started with several small port facilities, called factories, and

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and the Mongols. In Turkestan, they encountered a growing and expanding Muslim population. The solution was to appoint local Muslim chieftains, as governors, and allowing Islamic law to prevail. The Chinese did collect taxes on trade, and tried to keep order. The expansion to the west was the last

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For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the

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so that no rival could sweep its ships from the world's trading routes, nor invade the British Isles. The London government enhanced the private sector by incorporating numerous privately financed London-based companies for establishing trading posts and opening import-export businesses across the

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That Treaty , which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large, — the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great

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For lukewarm, useless, or impotent friends, France has the Pope, who is indifferent; the King of England expelled from his country; the Grand Duke of Tuscany; the Dukes of Mantua, Modena, and Parma ; and the other faction of the Swiss. Some of these are sunk in the softness that comes of years of

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By 1700, the British and Dutch, with small land armies, large navies, and large treasuries, used astute diplomacy to build alliances, subsidizing as needed land powers to fight on their side, or as in the case of the Hessians, hiring regiments of soldiers from mercenary princes in small countries.

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Independence amounted to a new status of interdependence: the United States was now a sovereign nation entitled to the privileges and responsibilities that came with that status. America thus became a member of the international community, which meant becoming a maker of treaties and alliances, a

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After victory against France in the Seven Years' War, the British government decided to rein in the rapidly growing American colonies, with 2.5 million population in contrast to Britain's 6 million. The new policy in 1765 of imposing taxes, without seeking the consent of colonial parliaments, was

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As an island nation secure from invasion, it could keep its army small, and invest in subsidies to support the armies of smaller countries to maintain its alliances. Its policy was to use diplomacy and enter wars on the weaker side so as to maintain a balance of power, and to thwart the danger of

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In 1700, Denmark, Poland and Russia, the countries that had lost the most territory to Sweden, jointly declared war. Denmark was soon forced to peace after a joint intervention of Swedish, English and Dutch armies. King Charles XII took his Swedish army to the Baltic provinces, where Russian and

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The ruling regime did not value cohesion or loyalty to the lineage. Instead, fratricide was the standard in politics: it was son against father, brother against brother. To get the throne heirs murdered their brothers and executed all their retinue. Ugly rumors of betrayal were easy to believe,

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British historian Max Hastings says there is no question that as a military genius Napoleon ranks with Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in greatness. However, in the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or,

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It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic

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had designs on recovering much of Italy that Spain had lost to the Habsburgs in 1714 and perhaps even put Philip on the French throne. Spanish fleets captured Sicily and Sardinia. The Quadruple Alliance of Britain, France, Austria, the Dutch Republic, and (later) Savoy was a coalition formed to

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The main powers had exhausted themselves in warfare, with many deaths, disabled veterans, ruined navies, high pension costs, heavy loans and high taxes. Utrecht strengthened the sense of useful international law and inaugurated an era of relative stability in the European state system, based on

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province on France's eastern border, as well as a large portion of southern Italy and Sicily. Overseas it had a major empire that dominated much of the New World, including South America, Mexico, Central America, and some critical West Indies islands such as Cuba. Other possessions included the

753:; they shared little information with their English counterparts. The net result was that the Netherlands remained independent, and France never took control of the Spanish Netherlands. The wars were very expensive to both sides but inconclusive. William died just as the continuation war, the 748:

William's main strategy was to form a military alliance of England, the Netherlands, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and some smaller states, to attack France at sea, and from land in different directions, while defending the Netherlands. Louis XIV tried to undermine this strategy by refusing to

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supreme command within the alliance throughout the Nine Years war. His experience and knowledge of European affairs made him the indispensable director of Allied diplomatic and military strategy, and he derived additional authority from his enhanced status as king of England – even the Emperor

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prolific in genius, in common sense, and in organizing ability. It could properly have been expected that intelligence, comprehension and high purpose would be applied to the control of human relations in general and to the relations between states and peoples in particular. The fact was almost

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was made up by a very favorable trading relationship with the newly created United States. British gained dominance in the trade with India, and largely dominated the highly lucrative slave, sugar, and commercial trades originating in West Africa and the West Indies. China would be next on the

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activities. It was a time of war: in nine years out of ten, two or more major powers were at war. Armies grew much larger, with corresponding budgets. Likewise the foreign ministries all grew in size and complexity. National budgets expanded to pay for these expansions, and room was found for

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France has its declared enemies Germany and all the states that it embraces; Spain with all its dependencies in Europe, Asia, Africa and America; the Duke of Savoy , England, Scotland, Ireland, and all their colonies in the East and West Indies; and Holland with all its possessions in the four

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was one of the world's most dominant soldiers and statesmen, leading France to great victories over numerous European enemies. Despite modest origins he made himself an Emperor and restructured much of European diplomacy, politics and law, until he was forced to abdicate in 1814. His 100-day

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worked hard to systematically develop the most sophisticated diplomatic service, with permanent ambassadors and lesser ministers in major and minor capitals, all preparing steady streams of information and advice to Paris. Diplomacy became a career that proved highly attractive to rich senior

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In 1648 France was the leading European power, and most of the wars pivoted around its aggressiveness. No one could match its population and wealth, central location, or very strong professional army. It had largely avoided the devastation of the Thirty Years War. Its weaknesses included an

122:: Economic considerations played a vital role in international relations during this period. Expansion of trade, mercantilist policies, and the development of global markets influenced diplomatic relations, wars, and alliances as states sought to protect and expand their economic interests. 1462:, leading to a full Allied withdrawal from the Austrian Netherlands. They followed up by a campaign which swept the allies to the east bank of the Rhine and left the French, by the beginning of 1795, conquering the Dutch Republic itself. The House of Orange was expelled and replaced by the 1407:

throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the Revolution within France. The forces opposing war were much weaker. Barnave and his supporters among the Feuillants feared a war they thought France had little chance to win and which they feared might lead to greater radicalisation of the

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To the northwest, Russia engaged in a century long struggle against Sweden for control of the Baltic Sea. Peter the Great systematically remodeled the Russian administrative and military system along Western lines, building up a large army in the process. The Russian Navy remains small and

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to its ruler and give up any gains on the right bank of the Rhine. Louis XIV also accepted William III as the rightful King of England, while the Dutch acquired their Barrier fortress system in the Spanish Netherlands to help secure their own borders. However, with the ailing and childless

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in 1678 as the most powerful monarch in Europe, an absolute ruler who had won numerous military victories. Using a combination of aggression, annexation, and quasi-legal means, Louis XIV set about extending his gains to stabilize and strengthen France's frontiers, culminating in the brief

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was a naval war between Britain and Spain regarding British smuggling into Spanish colonies. It started in 1739 and was fought in the Caribbean. After a small British victory in 1741, the Spanish repelled a major British invasion, and the fighting petered out with no gain to either side.

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in 1713 resolved all of the issues. Philip V became king of Spain, and kept all his overseas colonies, but renounced any rights to the French throne. Spain lost its European holdings outside the homeland itself. As the former members of the alliance picked up their spoils. England gained

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was the dominant decision-maker, 1722–1740, although the role was not yet called prime minister. Walpole strongly rejected militaristic options, and promoted a peace program. He signed an alliance with France. The Netherlands was much reduced in power, and followed along with England.

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in 1699. The war was a defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which for the first time lost large amounts of territory. It lost lands in Hungary and Poland, as well as part of the western Balkans. The war marked the first time Russia was involved in a western European alliance.

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completely opposite. It was a period of marked unintelligence, immorality and frivolity in the conduct of international relations, marked by wars undertaken for dimly conceived purposes, waged with the utmost brutality and conducted by reckless betrayals of allies.

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became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized—new names were given, "left" and "right" for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.

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into the kingdom of France. Most scholars argue that Louis XV's decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the

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the final defeat of Napoleon in 1814 (and 1815) brought a reaction that reversed some – but not all – of the revolutionary achievements in France and Europe. The Bourbons were restored to the throne, with the brother of executed King Louis XVI becoming

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marked the end of the Franco-Spanish war. The major powers each developed sophisticated diplomatic, military, and financial systems at the national level, with a striking fall-off of the autonomy of regional aristocrats. England, although wracked by an

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In the meantime, Russia had managed to take possession of several towns by the Baltic Sea. Instead of trying to retake these, Charles chose to march directly on Moscow, but due to extremely cold weather, failures in his supply lines and the Russian

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In sharp contrast to the hyperactive Louis XIV, his successor was largely uninterested in the complex diplomacy and warfare during his long reign. His active role began in 1722 and lasted to 1774. France's main foreign policy decision-maker was

1159:, rather than a male heir succeeding. In reality Bourbon France, and German rivals Prussia and Bavaria saw an opportunity to challenge Hapsburg power. Maria Theresa was backed by Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Hanover (also ruled by King 1010:

King Charles II had no children, and which of two rival would become king of Spain unleashed a major war. Charles II represented the Habsburg family, and that family, based in Vienna, had its candidate. However the Bourbons, based in Paris,

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warned the king in 1689 that a hostile "Alliance" was too powerful at sea. He recommended the best way for France to fight back was to license French merchants ships to privateer and seize enemy merchant ships, while avoiding its navies:

1194:) in Prussia). Britain had a different primary interest (besides defense of the homeland). Its national policy was building a worldwide trading network for its merchants, manufacturers, shippers and financiers. This required a hegemonic 140:(1789–1799), challenged traditional monarchical systems and aristocratic privileges. These movements had profound implications for international relations, inspiring other revolutionary movements and challenging the existing order. 87:: European powers engaged in extensive colonial expansion during this period, leading to occasional imperial rivalries. Competition over resources, trade routes, and territories fueled conflicts between the powers, most notably the 1939:

The young new empire had severe weaknesses. Extravagant spending drained the treasury and forced an extremely unpopular increase in taxes. The artistic achievement remains highly impressive in the 21st century: most notably, the

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in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–1799. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's

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on his eastern frontiers; William worked to achieve a negotiated settlement between the Ottomans and the Empire. William displayed in imaginative Europe-wide strategy, but Louis always managed to come up with a counter play.

889:, which gave him refuge for six years. Following Poltava, Poland and Denmark re-entered the war, along with other countries wanting parts of the Swedish provinces. In the following years, most of them would fall, and Russia 1118:(1718–1720). In Vienna, Austria (formally the Holy Roman Empire) the Habsburg emperors were bickering with the new Bourbon King of Spain, Philip V, over Habsburg control of most of Italy. Philip V, and especially his wife 1764:

restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works.

1328:." For a dozen years different solutions were attempted, but London kept insisting on imposing taxes without consultation. When American patriots in 1773 destroyed a shipment of taxed British tea in Boston Harbor in the 1175:

which saw Austria ally with France, ending the long-standing rivalry between the Bourbons and Hapsburg dynasties and pushing England into an alliance with Prussia to continue its efforts to contain French ambitions.

602:

brought an army of 200,000 soldiers to besiege, Vienna. The issue was control of Central and Eastern Europe. By September, the invaders were defeated in full retreat down the Danube. It ended with the signing of the

1037:

Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Gibraltar, as well as trading rights in the Spanish colonies. Spain now had a new Bourbon government, which proved far more effective and energetic than the previous Habsburg rulers.

173:

Diplomacy before 1700 was not well developed, and chances to avoid wars were too often squandered. In England, for example, King Charles II paid little attention to diplomacy, which proved disastrous. During the

976:. The invasion was repelled with heavy losses, and Russia played a decisive role in defeating Napoleon, any new territory, and played a strong conservative voice in the affairs of Europe from 1814 to the 1840s. 1466:, a French satellite state. These victories led to the collapse of the coalition against France. Prussia, having effectively abandoned the coalition in the fall of 1794, made peace with revolutionary France at 191:

The balance of power was very delicately calculated, so that winning a battle here was worth the slice of territory there, with no regard to the wishes of the inhabitants. Important peacemaking conferences at

1031:

became not only the Alliance candidate for king of Spain, but he also became Emperor. That combination would make the Empire much too powerful, so the allies deserted the alliance, and peace was at hand. The

893:(present-day Finland). Sweden lost control of the eastern Baltic and never recovered its former greatness. Instead Russia gained Finland and access to the Baltic Sea, gaining recognition as a European power. 927:. However, there were numerous weak tsars—such as children with a regent in control—as well as numerous plots and assassinations. With weak tsars or rapid turnover there was unpredictability and even chaos. 1839:

in Beijing used military force, diplomacy, and reliance on local leaders to extend its domain to western regions where the Han Chinese had not settled, but where Russian expansion was a threat. It launched

524:, became King of England. William continued to lead the European opposition to Louis XIV's expansionism the locus of political, financial, and mercantile power slowly shifted from the Amsterdam to London. 1003:

in 1588. Local and regional governments, and the local nobility, controlled most of the decision-making. The central government was quite weak, with a mediocre bureaucracy, and few able leaders. King

162:(1618–1648) which had an extremely negative impact on the civilian population of Germany and surrounding areas, with massive loss of life and disruption of the economy and society. Scholars taking a " 1412:, fearing that it would strengthen the monarchy and military at the expense of the revolution, and that it would incur the anger of ordinary people in Austria and elsewhere. The Austrian emperor 1289:, which broke out 15 years after his death. Norman Davies characterized Louis XV's reign as "one of debilitating stagnation," characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and 634:, and stop his efforts to reestablish Catholicism. However the primary reason William accepted the challenge was to gain a powerful ally in his war to contain the threatened expansion of King 1539:, which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield. In 1804 he crowned himself 994:

Spain had a number of major assets, apart from its homeland itself. It controlled important territory in Europe, especially the Spanish Netherlands ( which eventually became Belgian) and the

645:. The combined English and Dutch fleets could overpower France in a far-flung naval war, but France still had superiority on land. William wanted to neutralize that advantage by allying with 487:. The Dutch were the greatest naval power in the world and dominated sea trade with Asia and the Americas and intra-European trade routes from the Baltic Sea to Portugal. In the age of 1656:

Roberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from 1793 to 1815, caused 4 million deaths (of whom 1 million were civilians); 1.4 million were French deaths.

3722: 1531:

Napoleon, despite his youth, was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In the

2453: 222:

inefficient financial system that was hard-pressed to pay for all the military adventures, and the tendency of most other powers to form alliances and coalitions against it.

44:

covers the major interactions of the nations of Europe, as well as the other continents, with emphasis on diplomacy, warfare, migration, and cultural interactions, from the

1980:" (Indians). Parts of the Sepoys revolted in 1857—after heavy loss of life, the British prevailed. The British government abolished the East India Company and set up the 3656: 1341:

the Thirteen Colonies, expelling nearly all Royal officials. The king refused to compromise. An American Army, organized by Congress and under the control of general

1293:, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his highly negative reputation was based on later propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. 1219:

in 1672 and focused on the slave trade. British involvement in each of the four major wars, 1740 to 1783, paid off handsomely in terms of trade. Even the loss of the

1171:

and cede control of several Italian duchies. The main results of the war were the recognition of Prussia's growing role as an international player and eventually the

736:

and William III brought the Dutch and the English into the war against France, the French King at last faced a powerful coalition aimed at curtailing his ambitions.

1746:

Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:

1056:

The quarter century after the Peace of Utrecht was harmonious, with no major wars, and only a few secondary military episodes of minor importance. For example, the

1936:. It tolerated the establishment of trading forts along the coast by Europeans because they brought trade, and because the Europeans had far superior naval power. 1345:, forced the British out of Boston. After securing unanimous support from the legislatures of all thirteen states, Congress voted for independence on July 2. The 6044: 1860:, another to suppress rebels in Taiwan (1787–1788), and four expeditions abroad against the Burmese (1765–1769), the Vietnamese (1788–1789), and two against the 1618:, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a 1944:

shrine, built in 1632–1653 by tens of thousands of highly skilled artisans over two decades, using the most expensive materials, including jewels in the walls.

1215:

in Canada. The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa had been set up in 1662 to trade in gold, ivory and slaves in Africa; it was reestablished as the

337:(1642–1661) did not invent the new methods; they combined the best practices from other states, and supported it at the highest political and financial levels. 2087: 1185: 617: 17: 3517:; 700–900 pages; very wide coverage by leading experts; scholarship as of 1960s; chief focus is Europe but includes chapters on Asia, Africa and the Americas 1167:

and very little in the way of territorial changes. Maria Theresa's inheritance was acknowledged, though Austria was forced to recognize Prussia's control of

890: 4895: 1190:

The major powers were primarily motivated toward territorial gains, and protection of their dynasties (such as the Habsburg and Bourbon dynasties or the

1614:

Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army. He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by

3837: 207:(1763) had a cheerful, cynical, game-like atmosphere in which professional diplomats cashed in victories like casino chips in exchange for territory. 5519: 4564: 1163:). As the conflict widened, it drew in other participants, among them Spain, Sardinia, Saxony, Sweden and Russia. The war concluded in 1748 with the 516:

which resulted in limited territorial gains for the French, mainly at the expense of the Spanish Habsburgs and smaller German princes. Following the

6019: 6014: 6009: 5887: 3939: 877:. He had lost most of his soldiers and supplies but Charles, trusting in supposedly superior skills, faced the Russians in 1709. Russia under Tsar 119: 1856:(1758–1759). The other seven campaigns were more in the nature of police actions on frontiers already established: two wars to suppress rebels in 1470:

in April 1795, and soon thereafter Spain, too, made peace with France. Of the major powers, only Britain and Austria remained at war with France.

1237:

Louis XIV, threatened repeatedly to invade through Ireland or Scotland, and had significant internal support from the Tory faction. However, Sir

6039: 696:

struggled for control of Britain and Ireland, and a campaign in colonial North America between French and English settlers and their respective

5116: 1494:

put it, "there was in each French colony a specific revolution, that occurred on the occasion of the French Revolution, in tune with it." The

4591: 2201:

John C. Rule, "Colbert de Torcy, an emergent bureaucracy, and the formulation of French foreign policy, 1698–1715." in Ragnhild Hatton, ed.,

1520:, and he died in exile on a remote island, remembered as a great hero by many Frenchmen and as a great villain by British and other enemies. 1320:

highly controversial in Britain itself. The taxes were small but the principle was great and the taxes angered leaders and public in all the

972:

Napoleon at one point was willing to split Eastern Europe with Russia. In 1812, he unsuccessfully challenged the Russians directly with his

6034: 6029: 6024: 1486:

Although the French Revolution had a dramatic impact in numerous areas of Europe, the French colonies felt a particular influence. As the

69:: The establishment of formal diplomatic practices and treaty systems became more widespread. Major international agreements, such as the 5989: 5106: 1314: 2610:

David Onnekink, "‘Mynheer Benting now rules over us’: the 1st Earl of Portland and the Re-emergence of the English Favourite, 1689–99."

1547:), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the 831:

From 1560 to 1660, Sweden had engaged in large-scale territorial expansion in the Baltic region, at the expense of Denmark and Poland.

495:

were fought from 1652 to 1674 with nearly all battles being naval. The first two wars did not resolve the underlying dispute. In 1672,

60: 965:, although the large domestic economy was poor and was hard-pressed to provide adequate support given the poor transportation system. 5539: 1346: 1667:

Furthermore, the French armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised

5882: 5374: 2956:

Ann M. Carlos and Stephen Nicholas. "'Giants of an Earlier Capitalism': The Chartered Trading Companies as Modern Multinationals."

649:, the Habsburg Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (1658–1705), who was based in Vienna, Austria. Leopold, however, was tied down in 291: 108:: The period saw the rise of naval power as a crucial determinant of international influence. Naval dominance, particularly by the 4361: 1224:

agenda. Other powers set up similar monopolies on a much smaller scale; only the Netherlands emphasized trade as much as England.

5647: 5642: 5569: 5215: 2050: 2023: 333:

whereby foreign correspondence was opened and deciphered, then forwarded to the recipient. France's chief ministers, especially

94:

Wars over succession and territory: Numerous conflicts erupted due to succession disputes and territorial claims. Wars like the

5902: 5327: 4496: 2097: 906: 818: 750: 732:

into accepting his territorial and dynastic claims. But when Leopold I and the German princes resolved to resist, and when the

109: 1451:

on 6 November, and had soon taken over most of the Austrian Netherlands. This brought them into conflict with Britain and the

1409: 5512: 1420:, may have wished to avoid war, but he died on 1 March 1792. France preemptively declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and 1127:

restore the balance of power and end Spanish threats. Naval victories by the Alliance proved decisive and Spain pulled back.

1019:

Charles II made a disastrous decision: in his will he bequeathed his throne to the Bourbon candidate, a Frenchman who became

626:

William III exerted tight personal control over diplomacy and foreign policy. The primary reason the English elite called on

3703:

Lindström, Peter, and Svante Norrhem. "Diplomats and kin networks: diplomatic strategy and gender in Sweden, 1648–1740." in

5907: 5897: 4076: 2931: 2092: 2077: 902: 77:(1713), redefined territorial boundaries, recognized states' sovereignty, and shaped the norms and practices of diplomacy. 3572: 6004: 5892: 5745: 5735: 5465: 3817: 2072: 2067: 1551:, ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at 1012: 989: 1294: 5662: 5652: 4870: 4838: 4444: 1651: 1424:

joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The invading Prussian Army faced little resistance until checked at the

1325: 1069:, the key British policy maker, prioritized peace in Europe because it was good for his trading nation and its growing 697: 583: 116:. The navies enabled projection of power, control over trade routes, and territorial expansion into overseas colonies. 3392:

Peter C. Perdue, "Empire and nation in comparative perspective: Frontier administration in eighteenth-century China."

5958: 5912: 5589: 5222: 4789: 4584: 3923: 3107: 3054: 3027: 2997: 2827: 2758: 2394: 733: 641:

England and France were at war almost continuously until 1713, with a short interlude 1697–1701 made possible by the

163: 4548:

International Politics and Warfare in the Age of Louis XIV and Peter the Great: A Guide to the Historical Literature

3895: 1458:

The stalemate was broken in the summer of 1794 with dramatic French victories. They defeated the allied army at the

250: 5505: 4709: 4323: 3513: 2038: 1199:

world. Each was given a monopoly of English trade to a specified geographical region. The first enterprise was the

1164: 1140: 200: 5953: 5812: 5455: 4741: 1276:

in North America to Spain and Great Britain after France's defeat in the war. He incorporated the territories of

4749: 3459:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient/Journal de l'histoire economique et sociale de l'Orient

852: 739:

William III of England became the main allied leader. Historian J.R. Jones states that King William was given:

5874: 5629: 5084: 4515:

Carrió-Invernizzi, Diana. "A New Diplomatic History and the Networks of Spanish Diplomacy in the Baroque Era."

4222:(1991) 1096pp; pp 296–425 cover relations with the Ottoman Empire, Russia, European traders, Britain and India 3138:

Gunther E. Rothenberg, "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon".

1732: 1413: 1156: 1148: 1028: 949:

Geographical expansion by warfare and treaty was the central strategy of Russian foreign policy from the small

662:

in 1694; it provided a sound system that made financing wars much easier by encouraging bankers to loan money.

919:), so there was a uniformity of policy and a forcefulness during the long regimes of powerful leaders such as 724:

in 1685 – led to the deterioration of his military and political dominance. Louis XIV's decision to cross the

5429: 5391: 5267: 5255: 5057: 5021: 4382: 1724: 1712: 1115: 1024: 985: 798: 754: 646: 579: 283: 238: 6049: 4451:

War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia

4392: 3496:

Philip J. Stern "History and historiography of the English East India Company: Past, present, and future!."

102:(1799–1815) reshaped European borders and power dynamics, with consequences extending beyond the continent. 5574: 5332: 5312: 5016: 4577: 4565:

new scholarly journal in 2023 title= "EUROPEAN REVIEW OF STUDIES ON THE NAPOLEONIC AND RESTORATION PERIODS"

1568: 1229: 216: 4029: 5755: 5042: 4973: 4917: 4495:(S. Sonnenschein, 1899). Extracts from letters of British diplomats and analysis by the famous Marxist. 4401: 3875: 3627: 2791: 2033: 1786: 1417: 858: 2889: 5999: 5963: 5772: 5549: 5439: 5434: 5238: 5156: 4626: 2082: 1984:, which ruled most of India directly, and the rest indirectly through semi-autonomous princely states. 1660: 1619: 1556: 1544: 1543:. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria ( 1310: 1261: 1160: 113: 1478: 1103: 546:

The Ottoman Empire in 1683; core possessions in dark green; vassal or autonomous areas in light green.

491:

economic policies, this led to conflict with the growing colonial powers of England and France. Three

5424: 5379: 5173: 2043: 1929: 1607: 1599: 1436: 1377: 1233: 973: 773: 685: 533: 95: 3741:

Scott, Hamish. ‘Diplomatic Culture in Old Regime Europe’, in: Hamish Scott and Brendan Simms (eds),

3677:

The European Diplomatic Corps: Diplomats and International Cooperation from Westphalia to Maastricht

2750:

Britain and Colonial Maritime War in the Early Eighteenth Century: Silver, Seapower and the Atlantic

5765: 3802: 2868:

Michael Sheehan, "Balance of power intervention: Britain's decisions for or against war, 1733–56."

1881: 1459: 720:

guaranteed France's new borders for twenty years, but Louis XIV's subsequent actions – notably his

5938: 5750: 5528: 5460: 5001: 4303:

The Founding of the Second British Empire 1763–1793. Volume 2: New Continents and Changing Values

2214:

Gaston Zeller, "French diplomacy and foreign policy in their European setting." in Carsten, ed.,

1692: 1212: 958: 196: 4074:(1988). "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon". 3686:(Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 663–95. doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199597260.013.25 2133:

John A. Mears, "The Emergence Of The Standing Professional Army in Seventeenth-Century Europe,"

1443:

The new-born Republic followed up on this success with a series of victories in Belgium and the

1272:

Louis XV is best known for losing badly in the worldwide Seven Years' War. In 1763, Louis ceded

6054: 5205: 5121: 4929: 4736: 3717:

Pal, Maïa. "Early modern extraterritoriality, diplomacy, and the transition to capitalism." in

2873: 1756: 1057: 848: 844: 721: 627: 537: 521: 504: 299: 204: 175: 4141:

The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume II: Cultures and Power

3684:

The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750, Volume II: Cultures and Power

3044: 2817: 2384: 1773:

instead, a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler".

1630:

and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of

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Dover, Paul and Hamish Scott. "The Growth of Diplomacy, c. 1450–1815", in Hamish Scott (ed),

3097: 3017: 1970: 1869: 1801: 1720: 1627: 1404: 1384: 1324:. The Americans claimed it violated their historic privileges as Englishmen and insisted on " 1216: 1191: 1172: 962: 950: 862: 701: 4009: 3913: 3584: 2748: 2122: 1679:

of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised of divorce, closed the

5994: 5928: 5842: 5579: 5210: 5151: 5094: 5052: 5006: 4843: 4684: 4663: 4465:

Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization

1816: 1552: 1337: 159: 129: 4315:

6th ed. (Oxford University Press, 1999), highly detailed coverage of 1644–1999, in 1136pp.

2242:

The Hessian mercenary state: ideas, institutions, and reform under Frederick II, 1760–1785

278:

predominant. It lost part of its preeminence in stages during a series of major wars: the

8: 5852: 5847: 5710: 5396: 5317: 5168: 5161: 5141: 5089: 5047: 5026: 4890: 4833: 4689: 4643: 4638: 4600: 3976: 3787: 2819:

A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East , vol 2

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in the mid–late 18th century. Three were launched to enlarge the area of Qing control in

1841: 1830: 1684: 1572: 1548: 1540: 1532: 1306: 1256: 1251: 1004: 924: 790: 761: 713: 693: 635: 631: 621: 604: 517: 484: 246: 167: 133: 88: 70: 45: 34: 5683: 5126: 4912: 4826: 4794: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4299:

The Founding of the Second British Empire 1763–1793. Volume 1: Discovery and Revolution

4247: 4194:Ágoston, Gábor. "Military transformation in the Ottoman Empire and Russia, 1500–1800." 4172: 4120:

The origins of American diplomacy: the international history of Angloamerica, 1492–1763

4093: 4057: 3999: 3933: 3885: 3865: 3777: 3542: 3127: 2670: 1966: 1933: 1708: 1639: 1611: 1591: 1576: 1517: 1495: 1448: 1208: 810: 677: 671: 559: 295: 279: 234: 66: 49: 4539:

Watkins, John. "Toward a new diplomatic history of medieval and early modern Europe."

4358:

A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires

4264: 1403:

to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to

843:

Polish armies were laying siege to several towns. He defeated the Russian army in the

5948: 5817: 5782: 5725: 5693: 5610: 5488: 5369: 5364: 5322: 5277: 4945: 4902: 4875: 4860: 4821: 4784: 4406: 4047: 4019: 3986: 3919: 3855: 3797: 3589: 3562: 3552: 3525: 3284: 3226: 3210: 3181: 3103: 3050: 3023: 2993: 2823: 2754: 2534:

The New Cambridge Modern History, VI: The Rise of Great Britain and Russia, 1688-1725

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defeated the combined armies of Austrians, Dutch and British at Fleurus in June 1794.

1365: 1342: 1321: 1286: 1220: 1119: 1020: 938: 916: 882: 785: 729: 717: 650: 642: 595: 591: 587: 575: 551: 513: 304: 287: 242: 137: 4365: 3194:

The Abolition of Slavery: From L.F. Sonthonax to Victor Schoelcher, 1793, 1794, 1848

2639:

Ragnhild M. Hatton, "Charles XII and the Great Northern War." in J.S. Bromley, ed.,

5968: 5837: 5760: 5354: 4968: 4924: 4653: 4633: 4085: 3945: 1782: 1728: 1638:), raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the 1564: 1536: 1350: 1333: 1329: 1277: 1033: 777: 708: 598:

joined the League in 1686. Intensive fighting began in 1683 when Ottoman commander

567: 508: 500: 476: 470: 466: 462: 334: 312: 230: 192: 74: 4978: 1151:. The last of the Bourbon-Hapsburg dynastic conflicts, the war was nominally over 1051: 995: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5705: 5384: 5304: 5272: 4953: 4648: 4551: 4425: 4397: 4344:

Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.

4223: 3639: 3099:

American Constitutionalism Heard Round the World, 1776-1989: A Global Perspective

2987: 2001: 1580: 1507: 1498:(Saint Domingue) became a central example of slave uprisings in French colonies. 1425: 1395: 1361:

military ally in diplomacy, and a partner in foreign trade on a more equal basis.

1200: 1123: 1074: 934: 920: 878: 659: 492: 99: 1603: 5594: 4958: 4907: 4885: 4880: 4865: 4855: 4848: 3972: 2641:

New Cambridge Modern History VI: The Rise of Great Britain and Russia 1688–1725

2015: 1865: 1849: 1659:

Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread.

1467: 1452: 1238: 1204: 1070: 1066: 1000: 942: 886: 881:

had recently modernized its military forces, and won a decisive victory at the

870: 847:. Charles then moved into Poland with the intent of dethroning the Polish king 814: 794: 769: 555: 480: 4199: 1723:

was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the

1203:

set up in 1555 to trade with Russia. Other prominent enterprises included the

5983: 5480: 5419: 4189: 3822: 3712:

Soldiers, statecraft, and history: coercive diplomacy and international order

3013: 1903: 1864:

in Nepal. The most important and successful saw the final destruction of the

1759:, the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin: 1691:. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and 1535:(9 November 1799), he overthrew the feeble government, replacing it with the 1152: 105: 3962: 2340:

Andrew A. Lossky, "International Relations in Europe," in J.S. Bromley, ed.

210: 29: 5857: 5777: 5730: 5011: 1845: 1836: 1797: 1668: 1635: 1431: 599: 571: 488: 330: 5497: 4351:

The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800

2628:

A Warrior Dynasty: The Rise and Decline of Sweden as a Military Superpower

1586: 1007:

reigned 1665 to 1700, but he was in very poor physical and mental health.

5943: 5822: 5802: 5715: 5700: 5615: 5146: 4621: 3607:

The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis

3457:

Satish Chandra, "Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century."

2028: 1981: 1672: 1266: 954: 797:

would soon embroil Louis XIV and the Grand Alliance in a final war – the

84: 80: 4527: 4478: 4468: 4434:

The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 BC to the Present

3906: 3610: 2138: 1995: 1390: 930: 823: 728:

in September 1688 was designed to extend his influence and pressure the

479:

between Spain and the Netherlands, resulting in the independence of the

5827: 4306: 3985:(1953), despite the narrow title, a general survey of European history 2961: 2615: 1885: 1811: 1571:, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at 1487: 1273: 1195: 957:

in 1914. The goals were territory, warm water ports, and protection of

689: 308: 125: 37:

in 1648, Europe's borders were largely stable. 1708 map by Herman Moll.

4569: 4186:

The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1425–1980

4097: 3143: 2508: 2371: 1135: 554:

or the "War of the Holy League" was a series of conflicts between the

507:, and nearly overran the Dutch, but was slowed by the flooding of the 5933: 5688: 5136: 5131: 4983: 2366:

William J. Roosen, "The functioning of ambassadors under Louis XIV."

2279:

James Nathan, "Force, Order, and Diplomacy in the Age of Louis XIV."

1949: 1941: 1912: 1907: 1523: 1447:

in the fall of 1792. The French armies defeated the Austrians at the

1444: 1371: 1290: 1065:

balance-of-power politics that no one country would become dominant.

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Lodge, Richard. "The Continental Policy of Great Britain, 1740–60."

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The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783–1872

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Dale Miquelon, "Envisioning the French Empire: Utrecht, 1711–1713."

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described him as "a perpetual adolescent called to do a man's job."

542: 263:

Vauban was pessimistic about France's so-called friends and allies:

5740: 5678: 5657: 5111: 5099: 4089: 1873: 1872:. The two campaigns secured the northern and western boundaries of 1853: 1615: 1512: 1096: 961:. The main weapon was the very large and increasingly well-trained 1806: 912: 4658: 3892:

A history of diplomacy in the international development of Europe

2974:

The sinews of power: War, money, and the English state, 1688–1783

2547:

The sinews of power: War, money, and the English state, 1688-1783

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was set up. On 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the

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Lodge, Richard. "The Maritime Powers in the Eighteenth Century"

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Britain Against Napoleon: The Organization of Victory; 1793–1815

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All the main decisions in the Russian Empire were made by the

5807: 5564: 4065:

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Practices of diplomacy in the early modern world c. 1410–1800

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1977: 1925: 1921: 1703: 1676: 1130: 760:

The main fighting took place around France's borders: in the

725: 4292:

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This took several years, but in 1706, with the 5981: 4271:Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire 2746: 2532:For the European context, see J.S. Bromley, ed. 1428:(20 September 1792) and was forced to withdraw. 1300: 1045: 804: 307:, managed to gain strength internationally. Its 4232:(1976) uses map-like diagrams to explain events 2411:The Cambridge Companion to the Dutch Golden Age 527: 340: 6045:Peace treaties of the Kingdom of Great Britain 5570:Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) 5117:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 2409:Helmer J. Helmers, and Geert H. Janssen, eds. 1179: 5513: 4585: 4215:(Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2004) pp. 36–65. 4188:(Yale UP, 2000), political science approach. 3595:(6th ed. 2001) 1244pp; very detailed outline. 3431:William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, 3364:Max Hastings, "Everything Is Owed to Glory," 3325:(2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59 3042: 3012: 2915:Europe of the Ancien Régime: 1715–1783 (1965) 1920:The Mughal Empire (1526–1720) was founded by 1634:. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see 1594:, where Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 1527:Europe in 1812 after several French victories 1155:'s right to inherit from her father, Emperor 324:The 18th century saw a dramatic expansion of 4541:Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 4178: 4169:The Emergence of the Great Powers, 1685–1715 4134:The Birth of a Great Power System, 1740–1815 4129:(1994) 920pp; advanced analysis of diplomacy 3983:The Triumph of Science and Reason, 1660–1685 3938:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2735:The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715 2586:The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715 2466:Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 2437:The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715 2151:The Triumph of Science and Reason, 1660–1685 1852:(1755–1757) and one for the pacification of 980:The War of the Spanish Succession: 1702–1714 665: 612:British policy under William III (1689–1702) 503:. Louis called for English support under a 251:Vauban, France's leading military strategist 241:. There were also two lesser conflicts: the 5527: 5107:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages 3872:The War of the Spanish Succession 1701–1714 3814:European International Relations, 1648–1815 3774:Europe in the Eighteenth Century: 1713–1783 3748:Sowerby, Tracey A., and Jan Hennings, eds. 3600:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World 3297:The Oxford History of the French Revolution 2985: 2788:The War of the Spanish Succession 1701–1714 2389:. Transaction Publishers. pp. 147–56. 1315:Diplomacy in the American Revolutionary War 1016:for plunder and trade in Spain's colonies. 630:to invade England in 1688 was to overthrow 5520: 5506: 4592: 4578: 4503:War, Diplomacy, and Imperialism, 1618–1763 4389:An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History 4070: 3959:A History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789 3834:Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814 3670:British Diplomats and Diplomacy, 1688–1800 3178:A Concise History of the French Revolution 2355:British Diplomats and Diplomacy, 1688-1800 2294:War, Diplomacy, and Imperialism, 1618–1763 1683:and made Jews equal to everyone else. The 1131:War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) 149:Historian Frederick Nussbaum says it was: 55: 5585:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 4405:(1999), 876pp; survey from 1644 to 1990s 4235:Cleveland, William L. and Martin Bunton. 3969:A History of European Diplomacy 1815–1914 3422:(1995), pp 19, 110–112, 196–201, 239–241. 3323:Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe 3270:(New York: McGraw Hill, 1995), pp. 428–9. 3124:A Diplomatic History Of The United States 2681:Nicholas Riasanovsky and Mark Steinberg, 1394:French victory over the Prussians at the 1110:War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720) 885:. Charles managed to escape south to the 42:International relations from 1648 to 1814 4332:(2004), by seven leading French scholars 4171:(1951), . wide-ranging scholarly survey 3915:The Rise of the Great Powers 1648 - 1815 3766: 3736:The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime 3698:The British Diplomatic Service 1689–1789 3645: 2928:The War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748 1911: 1805: 1585: 1522: 1477: 1430: 1410:Robespierre opposed a war on two grounds 1389: 1255: 1134: 929: 873:strategy, he was forced to turn towards 857: 833: 827:The Swedish Empire at its height in 1658 822: 780:(1697), Louis XIV retained the whole of 541: 143: 132:and subsequent revolutions, such as the 28: 6020:19th century in international relations 6015:18th century in international relations 6010:17th century in international relations 5590:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 4599: 4554:; evaluates over 600 books and articles 4505:(1974), war on land, sea & colonies 4220:The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 7 3882:From Despotism to Revolution, 1763–1789 3854:(1940). wide-ranging scholarly survey 3249: 3247: 3223:The rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte 3165:The French Revolutionary Wars 1787–1802 2775:The War of Succession in Spain, 1700–15 2722:Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715 520:when the leader of the Dutch Republic, 14: 5982: 4155:The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 4046:(1963). wide-ranging scholarly survey 3912:Mckay, Derek , and H.M. Scott (1983). 3845:Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History 3827:The Pursuit of Glory: Europe 1648–1815 3663:The Rise of Modern Diplomacy 1450–1919 3567:Darby, H. C., and Harold Fullard, eds 2886:The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780 2753:. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 1–2. 2696:Strategy and Power in Russia 1600–1914 2098:Timeline of British diplomatic history 1892: 1824: 945:in 1721, and became its first emperor. 907:Military history of the Russian Empire 819:Military history of the Russian Empire 751:William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland 311:reigned supreme on the oceans after a 229:, France fought three major wars: the 106:Rise of British and French naval power 5501: 4573: 4356:Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., 4026:Earlier Diplomatic History, 1492–1713 4006:Europe of the Ancien Regime 1715–1783 1960: 1791: 1473: 1336:. The colonies rallied, and set up a 5256:Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) 4430:The Encyclopedia of Military History 4337:India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885 4330:A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 4164:(Cambridge History of Europe) (2006) 4077:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 3693:(Ohio State University Press, 1999). 3651:Adams, Robyn, and Rosanna Cox, eds. 3635:(1983), Published in Britain as the 3281:Napoleon and the awakening of Europe 3244: 3140:Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2709:A History of Russia. Vol. 1: To 1917 2093:Historiography of the British Empire 2078:Foreign policy of the Russian Empire 1040: 903:Foreign policy of the Russian Empire 483:while Spain retained control of the 316:France maintaining its preeminence. 313:series of wars with the Netherlands. 272: 6040:Peace treaties of the Ancien Régime 6035:19th-century diplomatic conferences 6030:18th-century diplomatic conferences 6025:17th-century diplomatic conferences 5466:History of the Mediterranean region 4669:International relations (1648–1814) 4419: 4237:A History of the Modern Middle East 3807:Eighteenth Century Europe 1700–1789 3689:Frey, Linda S. and Marsha L. Frey. 3672:(Liverpool University Press, 2001). 3633:Rand McNally Atlas of World History 3522:V. The Ascendancy of France 1648–88 2073:History of French foreign relations 2068:Foreign relations of imperial China 2051:International relations (1919–1939) 2024:International relations (1814–1919) 1245: 990:Bourbon claim to the Spanish throne 891:occupied the eastern half of Sweden 457:The Dutch Republic as a great power 225:During the very long reign of King 24: 5990:History of international relations 5663:International relations since 1989 5653:Diplomatic history of World War II 5575:International Criminal Court (ICC) 4485: 3840:, political and diplomatic context 3691:The History of Diplomatic Immunity 3653:Diplomacy and early modern culture 3506: 3336:Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 3266:Robert R. Palmer and Joel Colton, 1814:(right) in the Chinese edition of 1652:Influence of the French Revolution 1501: 1326:No taxation without representation 566:). The coalition was organized by 558:and ad-hoc European coalition the 25: 18:International relations, 1648–1814 6066: 5959:International political sociology 5223:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 4790:Journalism of Early Modern Europe 4558: 4509: 4016:Europe in the Seventeenth Century 3996:Europe in the Seventeenth Century 3862:The Old European Order, 1660–1800 3852:Competition for Empire, 1740–1763 3707:(Routledge, 2016) pp. 68–86. 3485:The East India Company: A History 3353:A Decade of Revolution: 1789–1799 2902:The Quest for Security: 1715–1740 2329:The Age of the Baroque, 1610–1660 2316:The age of the baroque, 1610–1660 1265:, on the Plains of Abraham, near 1232:was dead, and her successor King 838:Baltic Sea region in 21st century 722:revocation of the Edict of Nantes 120:Economic and commercial interests 4278:The New Atlas of African History 3864:(2nd ed. 1992), esp pp 265–340. 3700:(Oxford University Press, 1961). 3593:An Encyclopedia of World History 3581:An encyclopedia of world history 3514:The New Cambridge Modern History 2599:Britain and the World, 1649-1815 2342:The New Cambridge Modern History 2292:Quoted in Geoffrey Simcox, ed., 2216:The New Cambridge Modern History 2190:Britain and the World: 1649–1815 2119:An encyclopedia of world history 2039:Timeline of European imperialism 2008: 1994: 1897: 1715:was formed as well as the small 5954:International political economy 5456:History of Western civilization 4742:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 3784:The Age of Absolutism 1660–1815 3539:VII. The Old Regime, 1713–1763 3490: 3477: 3464: 3451: 3438: 3425: 3412: 3399: 3394:Journal of Early Modern History 3386: 3373: 3358: 3341: 3328: 3315: 3302: 3289: 3273: 3260: 3231: 3215: 3199: 3186: 3170: 3157: 3148: 3132: 3116: 3089: 3076: 3063: 3049:. Oxford U.P. pp. 627–28. 3036: 3006: 2979: 2966: 2950: 2937: 2920: 2907: 2894: 2878: 2862: 2849: 2836: 2809: 2796: 2780: 2767: 2740: 2727: 2714: 2701: 2688: 2675: 2659: 2646: 2633: 2620: 2604: 2591: 2578: 2565: 2552: 2539: 2526: 2513: 2497: 2484: 2471: 2458: 2442: 2429: 2416: 2403: 2376: 2360: 2347: 2334: 2321: 2308: 2305:Quoted in Simcox, pp. 237, 242. 2299: 2286: 2273: 2268:The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714 2260: 2247: 2234: 1646:Impact of the French Revolution 1516:comeback in 1815 failed at the 1356:Historian George Billias says: 707:Louis XIV had emerged from the 5085:Christianity in the modern era 4871:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 4162:Early Modern Europe, 1450–1789 3734:Scott, Hamish. ‘Diplomacy" in 3196:(Paris: UNESCO, 2003), 167–80. 2992:. Souvenir Press. p. 64. 2857:A Shortened History of England 2221: 2208: 2195: 2182: 2169: 2156: 2143: 2127: 2111: 1482:Slave revolt in Saint Domingue 1149:War of the Austrian Succession 1139:Europe in the years after the 784:, but he was forced to return 584:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 13: 1: 5430:History of the European Union 5268:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 5058:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 5022:War of the Spanish Succession 4372:The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 4320:China at War: An Encyclopedia 4254:Encyclopedia of Asian History 4230:A Map History of Modern China 4037:Diplomatic History, 1713–1933 3752:(Taylor & Francis, 2017). 3268:A History of the Modern World 3096:George Athan Billias (2011). 3071:The European World: A History 3022:. Routledge. pp. 44–45. 2383:William James Roosen (1976). 2175:Scott Hamish, book review in 2105: 1301:American War for Independence 1116:War of the Quadruple Alliance 1046:Peaceful interlude: 1715–1740 986:War of the Spanish Succession 805:Great Northern War: 1700–1721 799:War of the Spanish Succession 755:War of the Spanish Succession 475:1648 had seen the end of the 284:War of the Spanish Succession 239:War of the Spanish Succession 5922:Related fields and subfields 5333:Early Netherlandish painting 4517:International History Review 4432:(2nd ed. 1970); new edition 4346:Facts on File, 1999. 662 pp. 4276:Freeman-Grenville, G. S. 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The resulting 651:war with the Ottoman Empire 370:Holy Roman Empire (Austria) 10: 6071: 6005:European political history 5964:Peace and conflict studies 5580:Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) 5440:Military history of Europe 5435:Maritime history of Europe 5328:Dutch and Flemish painting 5239:Science in the Renaissance 4349:Peterson, Willard J., ed. 4311:Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh. 4294:(1991) covers 1550 to 1800 3571:(1970), over 300 new maps 3207:Napoleon: A Political Life 2816:Spencer C. 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British historian 381:Brandenburg-Prussia 136:(1775–1783) and the 130:Age of Enlightenment 98:(1701–1714) and the 5711:Collective security 5595:United Nations (UN) 5397:Revolutions of 1848 5318:Florentine painting 5169:Counter-Reformation 5090:Proto-Protestantism 5048:Peace of Westphalia 4891:Seventeen Provinces 4750:Printing Revolution 4644:Early modern Europe 4639:Early modern period 4601:Early modern Europe 4398:Spence, Jonathan D. 4297:Harlow, Vincent T. 4283:Gray, Richard, ed. 4208:(1936) online 560pp 4143:(2015). pp 561–696. 4139:Scott, Hamish, ed. 4125:Schroeder, Paul W. 4052:Roosen, William J. 4042:Roberts, Penfield. 3890:Hill, David Jayne. 3721:(Routledge, 2019). 3714:(Bloomsbury, 2002). 3696:Horn, David Bayne. 3537:J. O. Lindsay, ed. 3530:J. S. Bromley, ed. 3520:F. L. Carsten, ed. 3334:Frederick B. Artz, 3154:Schama 2004, p. 505 3073:(3rd ed 1970) p 454 2884:Geoffrey Treasure, 2683:A History of Russia 2575:(1966), pp 288-401. 2571:Stephen B. 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S. 3731:(Schenkman, 1976). 3655:(Springer, 2010). 3557:C.W. Crawley, ed. 3448:(1998), pp 164–89. 3446:A History of India 3418:John F. Richards, 3383:(1999), pp 936–939 3221:Robert B. Asprey, 3084:American Scripture 2930:(Routledge, 2014) 2900:Penfield Roberts, 2669:(1899) pp 56–190. 2562:(1956) pp 174-79. 2468:10 (1927): 87-109. 2318:(1952) pp. 246–66. 1967:East India Company 1961:East India Company 1934:East India Company 1918: 1848:: two against the 1822: 1792:Impact of the West 1719:around Genoa. The 1709:Cisalpine Republic 1640:Battle of Waterloo 1628:Six Days' Campaign 1596: 1592:Battle of Waterloo 1577:Treaties of Tilsit 1529: 1518:Battle of Waterloo 1513:Napoleon Bonaparte 1496:Haitian Revolution 1484: 1474:Colonial uprisings 1449:Battle of Jemappes 1441: 1400: 1270: 1209:East India Company 1145: 947: 866: 840: 829: 811:Great Northern War 702:King William's War 686:theatre in Ireland 548: 296:Great Northern War 110:British Royal Navy 67:Diplomatic history 50:Congress of Vienna 39: 6000:History of Europe 5977: 5976: 5949:International law 5818:Right of conquest 5783:National interest 5726:Deterrence theory 5624: 5623: 5611:League of Nations 5495: 5494: 5489:History of Europe 5474: 5473: 5370:French Revolution 5365:Age of Revolution 5343: 5342: 5323:Venetian painting 5286: 5285: 5278:Leonardo da Vinci 5182: 5181: 5066: 5065: 5007:Thirty Years' War 4946:Habsburg monarchy 4903:Habsburg monarchy 4876:Cossack Hetmanate 4861:Portuguese Empire 4822:Holy Roman Empire 4803: 4802: 4785:Absolute monarchy 4766: 4765: 4718: 4717: 4387:Schmidt, Karl J. 4379:The Mughal Empire 4035:Petrie, Charles. 4024:Petrie, Charles. 4018:(2nd ed. 1989). 3832:Bruun, Geoffrey. 3710:Nathan, James A. 3590:Stearns, Peter N. 3472:The Mughal Empire 3435:(2013) pp 464–473 3420:The Mughal Empire 3409:(1992) pp 152–53. 3257:(1 November 2014) 3241:(1 November 2014) 3163:T.C.W. Blanning, 3046:Europe: A History 2976:(1989) pp 167-78. 2737:(1951), pp 59-91. 2720:Cathal J. Nolan, 2643:(1970) pp 648–80. 2630:(Casemate, 2014). 2626:Henrik O. Lunde, 2523:(1956) pp 160-79. 2439:(1951), pp 15–53. 2357:(2001) pp 143-45. 2283:69#4 (1993) 633+. 2257:(1996) pp 581–82. 2192:(1980), pp 38–39. 2164:Europe: A History 2153:(1953) pp 147–48. 2056:History of Europe 1820:published in 1607 1817:Euclid's Elements 1741:Helvetic Republic 1737:Batavian Republic 1733:Kingdom of Naples 1717:Ligurian Republic 1689:Holy Roman Empire 1687:ended as did the 1624:Battle of Leipzig 1620:seven-nation army 1561:Holy Roman Empire 1464:Batavian Republic 1460:Battle of Fleurus 1366:Benjamin Franklin 1343:George Washington 1334:severe punishment 1322:Thirteen Colonies 1287:French Revolution 1221:Thirteen Colonies 1120:Elisabeth Farnese 1041:Europe: 1715–1789 1021:Philip V of Spain 939:Tsardom of Russia 917:tsarist autocracy 883:Battle of Poltava 730:Holy Roman Empire 718:Truce of Ratisbon 643:Treaty of Ryswick 592:Venetian Republic 588:John III Sobieski 576:Holy Roman Empire 570:and included the 552:Great Turkish War 522:William of Orange 514:Peace of Nijmegen 454: 453: 305:intense civil war 273:Europe: 1648–1721 243:War of Devolution 160:Thirty Years' War 138:French Revolution 16:(Redirected from 6062: 6050:Seven Years' War 5969:Security studies 5761:Internationality 5756:Internationalism 5555: 5554: 5522: 5515: 5508: 5499: 5498: 5410: 5409: 5355:Great Divergence 5313:Italian painting 5295: 5294: 5193: 5192: 5075: 5074: 5027:Seven Years' War 4969:House of Bourbon 4925:Protestant Union 4896:Economic history 4812: 4811: 4775: 4774: 4727: 4726: 4654:Age of Discovery 4634:High Renaissance 4612: 4611: 4594: 4587: 4580: 4571: 4570: 4546:Young, William. 4491:Marx, Karl, ed. 4443:(2008); 645 pp. 4426:Dupuy, Trevor N. 4420:Military history 4104:Saul, Norman E. 4101: 4063:Ross, Steven T. 3950:Merriman, John. 3943: 3937: 3929: 3870:Falkner, James. 3860:Doyle, William. 3850:Dorn, Walter L. 3665:(Longman, 1993). 3661:Anderson, M. S. 3547:A. Goodwin, ed. 3501: 3494: 3488: 3481: 3475: 3468: 3462: 3461:(1969): 322–340. 3455: 3449: 3442: 3436: 3429: 3423: 3416: 3410: 3403: 3397: 3390: 3384: 3377: 3371: 3362: 3356: 3347:William Martin, 3345: 3339: 3338:(1934) pp 142–43 3332: 3326: 3321:Alexander Grab, 3319: 3313: 3308:Steven T. Ross, 3306: 3300: 3299:(1989) pp 341–68 3293: 3287: 3277: 3271: 3264: 3258: 3251: 3242: 3235: 3229: 3219: 3213: 3205:Steven Englund, 3203: 3197: 3192:Marcel Dorginy, 3190: 3184: 3174: 3168: 3161: 3155: 3152: 3146: 3136: 3130: 3120: 3114: 3113: 3093: 3087: 3086:(1997) pp. 41–46 3080: 3074: 3067: 3061: 3060: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2983: 2977: 2970: 2964: 2954: 2948: 2941: 2935: 2924: 2918: 2911: 2905: 2898: 2892: 2882: 2876: 2866: 2860: 2855:G.M. Trevelyan, 2853: 2847: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2813: 2807: 2800: 2794: 2784: 2778: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2744: 2738: 2731: 2725: 2718: 2712: 2707:Walter G. Moss, 2705: 2699: 2692: 2686: 2679: 2673: 2665:R. Nisbet Bain, 2663: 2657: 2656:59.3 (2009): 23+ 2650: 2644: 2637: 2631: 2624: 2618: 2608: 2602: 2595: 2589: 2588:(1951) pp 15–53. 2582: 2576: 2569: 2563: 2556: 2550: 2543: 2537: 2530: 2524: 2517: 2511: 2501: 2495: 2488: 2482: 2475: 2469: 2462: 2456: 2446: 2440: 2433: 2427: 2420: 2414: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2380: 2374: 2364: 2358: 2351: 2345: 2338: 2332: 2325: 2319: 2312: 2306: 2303: 2297: 2290: 2284: 2277: 2271: 2264: 2258: 2251: 2245: 2238: 2232: 2225: 2219: 2212: 2206: 2199: 2193: 2186: 2180: 2173: 2167: 2166:(1996) p 593–94. 2160: 2154: 2147: 2141: 2131: 2125: 2115: 2018: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2004: 1999: 1998: 1783:History of China 1725:Kingdom of Italy 1675:, abolished the 1673:seigneurial dues 1590:Painting of the 1565:Fourth Coalition 1418:Marie Antoinette 1385:King Louis XVIII 1351:Thomas Jefferson 1330:Boston Tea Party 1252:Seven Years' War 1246:Seven Years' War 1034:Peace of Utrecht 778:Peace of Ryswick 709:Franco-Dutch War 568:Pope Innocent XI 509:Dutch Water Line 501:Franco-Dutch War 493:Anglo-Dutch Wars 477:Eighty Years War 471:Franco-Dutch War 467:Anglo-Dutch Wars 463:Dutch Golden Age 448:Pursuit of Glory 354:Army about 1690 345: 344: 335:Cardinal Mazarin 231:Franco-Dutch War 89:Seven Years' War 75:Peace of Utrecht 61:Balance of power 21: 6070: 6069: 6065: 6064: 6063: 6061: 6060: 6059: 5980: 5979: 5978: 5973: 5917: 5908:Postcolonialism 5869: 5798:Non-state actor 5793:Non-belligerent 5788:Neutral country 5773:Interventionism 5706:Co-belligerence 5667: 5620: 5599: 5544: 5531: 5526: 5496: 5491: 5470: 5444: 5401: 5339: 5305:Renaissance art 5282: 5273:Matteo Palmieri 5243: 5227: 5216:Northern Europe 5188: 5178: 5062: 5031: 4990: 4954:House of Stuart 4934: 4799: 4762: 4714: 4685:Northern Europe 4673: 4649:Elizabethan era 4603: 4598: 4561: 4534:History Compass 4512: 4488: 4486:Primary sources 4463:Nolan, Cathal. 4456:Knight, Roger. 4422: 4415:(8th ed. 2008). 4353:(2002). 753 pp. 4246:(2nd ed. 1991) 4239:(6th ed. 2016). 4181: 4157:(3rd ed. 2003). 4150:(2nd ed. 2000). 4136:(2nd ed. 2005) 4132:Scott, Hamish. 3931: 3930: 3926: 3880:Gershoy, Leo. 3843:Cameron, Euan. 3812:Black, Jeremy. 3769: 3757:History Compass 3668:Black, Jeremy. 3648: 3622:Haywood, John. 3619: 3609:(2nd ed. 2009) 3509: 3507:Further reading 3504: 3498:History Compass 3495: 3491: 3483:Philip Lawson, 3482: 3478: 3469: 3465: 3456: 3452: 3443: 3439: 3430: 3426: 3417: 3413: 3404: 3400: 3391: 3387: 3378: 3374: 3369:31 October 2014 3363: 3359: 3346: 3342: 3333: 3329: 3320: 3316: 3307: 3303: 3295:William Doyle, 3294: 3290: 3279:Felix Markham, 3278: 3274: 3265: 3261: 3252: 3245: 3236: 3232: 3220: 3216: 3204: 3200: 3191: 3187: 3175: 3171: 3162: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3137: 3133: 3121: 3117: 3110: 3094: 3090: 3082:Pauline Maier, 3081: 3077: 3068: 3064: 3057: 3041: 3037: 3030: 3011: 3007: 3000: 2984: 2980: 2971: 2967: 2955: 2951: 2943:Eric J. 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Anderson, 2925: 2921: 2912: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2883: 2879: 2867: 2863: 2854: 2850: 2841: 2837: 2830: 2814: 2810: 2801: 2797: 2786:James Falkner, 2785: 2781: 2772: 2768: 2761: 2745: 2741: 2732: 2728: 2719: 2715: 2706: 2702: 2693: 2689: 2685:(8th ed. 2010). 2680: 2676: 2664: 2660: 2651: 2647: 2638: 2634: 2625: 2621: 2609: 2605: 2596: 2592: 2583: 2579: 2570: 2566: 2557: 2553: 2544: 2540: 2531: 2527: 2518: 2514: 2502: 2498: 2489: 2485: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2459: 2447: 2443: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2417: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2381: 2377: 2365: 2361: 2352: 2348: 2339: 2335: 2326: 2322: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2300: 2291: 2287: 2278: 2274: 2265: 2261: 2252: 2248: 2239: 2235: 2226: 2222: 2213: 2209: 2200: 2196: 2187: 2183: 2174: 2170: 2162:Norman Davies, 2161: 2157: 2148: 2144: 2132: 2128: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2002:Politics portal 2000: 1993: 1990: 1973: 1965:Main articles: 1963: 1910: 1902:Main articles: 1900: 1895: 1833: 1827: 1804: 1796:Main articles: 1794: 1789: 1781:Main articles: 1779: 1654: 1648: 1581:Duchy of Warsaw 1545:Third Coalition 1510: 1508:Napoleonic Wars 1504: 1502:Napoleonic Wars 1476: 1426:Battle of Valmy 1396:Battle of Valmy 1380: 1374: 1317: 1305:Main articles: 1303: 1254: 1248: 1201:Muscovy Company 1188: 1182: 1133: 1124:Giulio Alberoni 1112: 1104:Cardinal Fleury 1099: 1093: 1075:G. 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Trevelyan 1054: 1048: 1043: 992: 984:Main articles: 982: 951:Muscovite state 935:Peter the Great 921:Peter the Great 909: 901:Main articles: 899: 879:Peter the Great 845:Battle of Narva 821: 809:Main articles: 807: 698:Native American 678:Nine Years' War 674: 672:Nine Years' War 668: 660:Bank of England 624: 614: 540: 532:Main articles: 530: 473: 459: 343: 322: 280:Nine Years' War 275: 235:Nine Years' War 219: 213: 201:Aix-la-Chapelle 146: 100:Napoleonic Wars 73:(1648) and the 58: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6068: 6058: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5975: 5974: 5972: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5925: 5923: 5919: 5918: 5916: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5888:English school 5885: 5883:Constructivism 5879: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5853:Non-aggression 5850: 5845: 5840: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5769: 5768: 5763: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5697: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5675: 5673: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5634: 5632: 5626: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5607: 5605: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5561: 5559: 5552: 5546: 5545: 5543: 5542: 5536: 5533: 5532: 5525: 5524: 5517: 5510: 5502: 5493: 5492: 5479: 5476: 5475: 5472: 5471: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5458: 5452: 5450: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5416: 5414: 5407: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5388: 5387: 5382: 5375:Coalition Wars 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5351: 5349: 5345: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5307: 5301: 5299: 5292: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5283: 5281: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5259: 5251: 5249: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5241: 5235: 5233: 5229: 5228: 5226: 5225: 5220: 5219: 5218: 5208: 5203: 5199: 5197: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5165: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5103: 5102: 5092: 5087: 5081: 5079: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5039: 5037: 5033: 5032: 5030: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4998: 4996: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4988: 4987: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4963: 4962: 4961: 4959:House of Tudor 4956: 4948: 4942: 4940: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4910: 4908:Russian Empire 4905: 4900: 4899: 4898: 4893: 4886:Dutch Republic 4883: 4881:Swedish Empire 4878: 4873: 4868: 4866:Spanish Empire 4863: 4858: 4856:Ottoman Empire 4853: 4852: 4851: 4849:British Empire 4841: 4836: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4818: 4816: 4809: 4805: 4804: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4781: 4779: 4772: 4771:Social history 4768: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4760: 4755: 4752: 4747: 4746:Technological: 4744: 4739: 4733: 4731: 4724: 4720: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4713: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4681: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4630: 4629: 4618: 4616: 4609: 4605: 4604: 4597: 4596: 4589: 4582: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4560: 4559:External links 4557: 4556: 4555: 4544: 4537: 4530: 4520: 4511: 4510:Historiography 4508: 4507: 4506: 4499: 4487: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4471: 4461: 4454: 4447: 4437: 4421: 4418: 4417: 4416: 4409: 4395: 4385: 4375: 4368: 4354: 4347: 4340: 4333: 4326: 4316: 4309: 4295: 4288: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4257: 4256:(4 vol. 1988). 4250: 4240: 4233: 4226: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4192: 4180: 4177: 4176: 4175: 4167:Wolf, John B. 4165: 4158: 4151: 4144: 4137: 4130: 4123: 4118:Savelle, Max. 4116: 4115:(1974); 335pp. 4111:Savelle, Max. 4109: 4102: 4090:10.2307/204824 4084:(4): 771–793. 4068: 4061: 4050: 4040: 4033: 4022: 4012: 4002: 3989: 3979: 3965: 3955: 3948: 3924: 3909: 3899: 3894:(3 vol. 1914) 3888: 3878: 3868: 3858: 3848: 3841: 3830: 3820: 3810: 3800: 3790: 3786:(1962), 215pp 3780: 3768: 3765: 3764: 3763: 3753: 3746: 3739: 3732: 3725: 3715: 3708: 3701: 3694: 3687: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3659: 3647: 3644: 3643: 3642: 3630: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3613: 3605:Watson, Adam. 3603: 3596: 3587: 3577: 3576: 3575: 3565: 3555: 3545: 3535: 3528: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3502: 3489: 3476: 3463: 3450: 3444:Burton Stein, 3437: 3424: 3411: 3398: 3385: 3372: 3357: 3340: 3327: 3314: 3301: 3288: 3272: 3259: 3243: 3230: 3214: 3198: 3185: 3176:Sylvia Neely, 3169: 3156: 3147: 3131: 3126:(1950) ch 2-4 3115: 3108: 3088: 3075: 3062: 3055: 3035: 3028: 3005: 2998: 2978: 2965: 2949: 2936: 2919: 2906: 2893: 2877: 2861: 2848: 2835: 2828: 2808: 2795: 2779: 2766: 2759: 2739: 2726: 2713: 2711:(2d ed. 2002). 2700: 2687: 2674: 2658: 2645: 2632: 2619: 2603: 2601:(1980) p. 157. 2590: 2584:John B. Wolf, 2577: 2564: 2551: 2538: 2525: 2512: 2496: 2483: 2477:George Clark, 2470: 2457: 2441: 2428: 2426:(Osprey, 2008) 2422:Simon Millar, 2415: 2402: 2395: 2375: 2359: 2353:Jeremy Black, 2346: 2333: 2320: 2307: 2298: 2285: 2272: 2266:John A. Lynn, 2259: 2246: 2233: 2220: 2207: 2194: 2181: 2168: 2155: 2142: 2126: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2100: 2095: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2053: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2020: 2019: 2016:History portal 2005: 1989: 1986: 1962: 1959: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1866:Dzungar people 1829:Main article: 1826: 1823: 1793: 1790: 1778: 1775: 1766: 1765: 1753: 1752: 1713:Roman Republic 1681:Jewish ghettos 1661:Andrew Roberts 1650:Main article: 1647: 1644: 1600:invaded Russia 1506:Main article: 1503: 1500: 1475: 1472: 1453:Dutch Republic 1376:Main article: 1373: 1370: 1363: 1362: 1302: 1299: 1250:Main article: 1247: 1244: 1239:Robert Walpole 1205:Levant Company 1181: 1178: 1132: 1129: 1111: 1108: 1092: 1089: 1084: 1083: 1071:British Empire 1067:Robert Walpole 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1001:Spanish Armada 981: 978: 943:Russian Empire 898: 895: 887:Ottoman Empire 871:scorched earth 815:Swedish Empire 806: 803: 795:Spanish Empire 770:Duchy of Savoy 746: 745: 734:States General 704:by Americans. 670:Main article: 667: 664: 613: 610: 556:Ottoman Empire 529: 526: 481:Dutch Republic 458: 455: 452: 451: 444: 437: 433: 432: 429: 426: 422: 421: 418: 415: 411: 410: 407: 404: 400: 399: 396: 393: 392:Italian states 389: 388: 385: 382: 378: 377: 374: 371: 367: 366: 363: 360: 356: 355: 352: 349: 342: 339: 321: 318: 274: 271: 270: 269: 261: 260: 215:Main article: 212: 209: 156: 155: 145: 142: 57: 54: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6067: 6056: 6055:World history 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5872: 5866: 5863: 5859: 5856: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5681: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5627: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5550:Organizations 5547: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5523: 5518: 5516: 5511: 5509: 5504: 5503: 5500: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5481:Human history 5477: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5447: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5420:Art of Europe 5418: 5417: 5415: 5411: 5408: 5404: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5380:Revolutionary 5378: 5377: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5348:End of period 5346: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5296: 5293: 5289: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5257: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5246: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5234: 5230: 5224: 5221: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5194: 5191: 5185: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5080: 5076: 5073: 5069: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5034: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4999: 4997: 4993: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4979:Ancien Régime 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4888: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4813: 4810: 4806: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4782: 4780: 4776: 4773: 4769: 4759: 4756: 4754:Intellectual: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4732: 4728: 4725: 4721: 4711: 4710:Low Countries 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4682: 4680: 4676: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4628: 4625: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4613: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4590: 4588: 4583: 4581: 4576: 4575: 4572: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4538: 4535: 4531: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4518: 4514: 4513: 4504: 4500: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4489: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4460:(2013); 710pp 4459: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4424: 4423: 4414: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4403: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4373: 4369: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4345: 4341: 4338: 4334: 4331: 4327: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4314: 4310: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4293: 4289: 4286: 4282: 4279: 4275: 4272: 4268: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4255: 4251: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4231: 4227: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4191: 4190:online review 4187: 4183: 4182: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4156: 4152: 4149: 4146:Stoye, John. 4145: 4142: 4138: 4135: 4131: 4128: 4124: 4121: 4117: 4114: 4110: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4078: 4073: 4069: 4066: 4062: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4011: 4007: 4003: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3967:Mowat, R. B. 3966: 3964: 3960: 3957:Mowat, R. B. 3956: 3953: 3949: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3927: 3925:9781317872849 3921: 3917: 3916: 3910: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3823:Blanning, Tim 3821: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3808: 3804: 3803:Black, Jeremy 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3789: 3785: 3782:Beloff, Max. 3781: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3770: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3751: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3730: 3726: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3713: 3709: 3706: 3702: 3699: 3695: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3681: 3678: 3674: 3671: 3667: 3664: 3660: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3649: 3641: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3620: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3602:(8 vol 2008). 3601: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3518: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3510: 3499: 3493: 3486: 3480: 3473: 3467: 3460: 3454: 3447: 3441: 3434: 3433:World History 3428: 3421: 3415: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3368: 3361: 3354: 3350: 3344: 3337: 3331: 3324: 3318: 3311: 3305: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3282: 3276: 3269: 3263: 3256: 3250: 3248: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3224: 3218: 3212: 3208: 3202: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3173: 3166: 3160: 3151: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3125: 3119: 3111: 3109:9780814725177 3105: 3101: 3100: 3092: 3085: 3079: 3072: 3066: 3058: 3056:9780198201717 3052: 3048: 3047: 3039: 3031: 3029:9780415119450 3025: 3021: 3020: 3015: 3014:J. H. Shennan 3009: 3001: 2999:9780285628397 2995: 2991: 2990: 2982: 2975: 2972:John Brewer, 2969: 2963: 2959: 2953: 2946: 2940: 2933: 2929: 2923: 2916: 2910: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2871: 2865: 2859:(1942) p 363. 2858: 2852: 2845: 2839: 2831: 2829:9781851096725 2825: 2821: 2820: 2812: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2789: 2783: 2776: 2773:Henry Kamen, 2770: 2762: 2760:9781843838623 2756: 2752: 2751: 2743: 2736: 2730: 2723: 2717: 2710: 2704: 2697: 2691: 2684: 2678: 2672: 2668: 2662: 2655: 2654:History Today 2649: 2642: 2636: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2613: 2607: 2600: 2594: 2587: 2581: 2574: 2568: 2561: 2555: 2549:(1989) p 133. 2548: 2545:John Brewer, 2542: 2535: 2529: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2506: 2500: 2493: 2487: 2480: 2474: 2467: 2461: 2455: 2451: 2445: 2438: 2432: 2425: 2419: 2412: 2406: 2398: 2396:9781412816670 2392: 2388: 2387: 2379: 2373: 2369: 2363: 2356: 2350: 2343: 2337: 2330: 2324: 2317: 2311: 2302: 2295: 2289: 2282: 2276: 2269: 2263: 2256: 2250: 2243: 2237: 2230: 2224: 2217: 2211: 2204: 2198: 2191: 2185: 2178: 2172: 2165: 2159: 2152: 2146: 2140: 2136: 2130: 2124: 2120: 2114: 2110: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2045: 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2017: 2006: 2003: 1997: 1992: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1972: 1968: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1943: 1937: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1904:Mughal Empire 1898:Mughal Empire 1890: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1832: 1819: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1799: 1788: 1784: 1774: 1770: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1758: 1749: 1748: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1669:property laws 1665: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1563:. In 1806, a 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1499: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1480: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1438: 1433: 1429: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1416:, brother of 1415: 1411: 1406: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1386: 1379: 1369: 1367: 1359: 1358: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1298: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1268: 1264: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1243: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1225: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1193: 1187: 1177: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1153:Maria Theresa 1150: 1142: 1137: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1107: 1105: 1098: 1088: 1080: 1079: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1062: 1059: 1053: 1052:Ancien Régime 1038: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1014: 1008: 1006: 1002: 997: 996:Franche-Comté 991: 987: 977: 975: 970: 966: 964: 960: 956: 952: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 926: 922: 918: 914: 908: 904: 894: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 864: 860: 856: 854: 850: 846: 836: 832: 825: 820: 816: 812: 802: 800: 796: 792: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 758: 756: 752: 742: 741: 740: 737: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 710: 705: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 673: 663: 661: 655: 652: 648: 644: 639: 637: 633: 632:King James II 629: 623: 619: 609: 606: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 544: 539: 535: 525: 523: 519: 515: 510: 506: 505:secret treaty 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 472: 468: 464: 450:(2007) p 289 449: 445: 442: 438: 435: 434: 430: 427: 424: 423: 419: 416: 414:British Isles 413: 412: 408: 405: 403:Low Countries 402: 401: 397: 394: 391: 390: 386: 383: 380: 379: 375: 372: 369: 368: 365:130 Thousand 364: 361: 358: 357: 353: 350: 347: 346: 338: 336: 332: 327: 317: 314: 310: 306: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 266: 265: 264: 257: 256: 255: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 223: 218: 208: 206: 202: 198: 194: 188: 185: 179: 177: 171: 169: 165: 161: 152: 151: 150: 141: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 121: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 101: 97: 92: 91:(1756–1763). 90: 86: 82: 78: 76: 72: 68: 64: 62: 53: 51: 47: 43: 36: 31: 27: 19: 5848:Multilateral 5778:Isolationism 5731:Expansionism 5637: 5261: 5254: 5012:Cabinet wars 4668: 4547: 4540: 4533: 4523: 4516: 4502: 4492: 4474: 4464: 4457: 4450: 4440: 4433: 4429: 4412: 4400: 4388: 4378: 4371: 4357: 4350: 4343: 4336: 4329: 4319: 4312: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4284: 4277: 4270: 4260: 4253: 4243: 4236: 4229: 4219: 4212: 4205: 4195: 4185: 4168: 4161: 4154: 4147: 4140: 4133: 4126: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4081: 4075: 4064: 4053: 4043: 4036: 4025: 4015: 4005: 4004:Ogg, David. 3995: 3982: 3968: 3958: 3951: 3914: 3902: 3891: 3881: 3871: 3861: 3851: 3844: 3833: 3826: 3813: 3806: 3793: 3783: 3773: 3756: 3749: 3742: 3735: 3728: 3718: 3711: 3704: 3697: 3690: 3683: 3676: 3669: 3662: 3652: 3636: 3632: 3623: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3580: 3568: 3558: 3548: 3538: 3531: 3521: 3512: 3497: 3492: 3484: 3479: 3471: 3466: 3458: 3453: 3445: 3440: 3432: 3427: 3419: 3414: 3406: 3401: 3393: 3388: 3380: 3375: 3366: 3360: 3355:(1934) p 235 3352: 3348: 3343: 3335: 3330: 3322: 3317: 3309: 3304: 3296: 3291: 3280: 3275: 3267: 3262: 3254: 3238: 3233: 3222: 3217: 3206: 3201: 3193: 3188: 3177: 3172: 3164: 3159: 3150: 3139: 3134: 3123: 3118: 3098: 3091: 3083: 3078: 3070: 3065: 3045: 3038: 3018: 3008: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2968: 2957: 2952: 2947:(1996) p 31. 2944: 2939: 2927: 2922: 2914: 2909: 2901: 2896: 2885: 2880: 2869: 2864: 2856: 2851: 2843: 2838: 2818: 2811: 2803: 2802:John Lynch, 2798: 2787: 2782: 2774: 2769: 2749: 2742: 2734: 2729: 2721: 2716: 2708: 2703: 2695: 2690: 2682: 2677: 2666: 2661: 2653: 2648: 2640: 2635: 2627: 2622: 2611: 2606: 2598: 2597:J.R. Jones, 2593: 2585: 2580: 2572: 2567: 2559: 2554: 2546: 2541: 2533: 2528: 2520: 2515: 2504: 2499: 2491: 2486: 2478: 2473: 2465: 2460: 2449: 2444: 2436: 2431: 2423: 2418: 2410: 2405: 2385: 2378: 2367: 2362: 2354: 2349: 2341: 2336: 2328: 2323: 2315: 2310: 2301: 2293: 2288: 2280: 2275: 2267: 2262: 2254: 2249: 2241: 2236: 2228: 2223: 2215: 2210: 2202: 2197: 2189: 2188:J.R. Jones, 2184: 2176: 2171: 2163: 2158: 2150: 2145: 2134: 2129: 2118: 2113: 1974: 1946: 1938: 1919: 1868:in the 1755 1846:Central Asia 1834: 1815: 1798:Matteo Ricci 1771: 1767: 1755:Likewise in 1754: 1745: 1731:, ruled the 1701: 1697: 1666: 1658: 1655: 1636:Hundred Days 1604:Grande Armée 1597: 1530: 1511: 1492:Aimé Césaire 1485: 1457: 1442: 1401: 1381: 1364: 1355: 1318: 1271: 1260: 1226: 1189: 1146: 1113: 1100: 1085: 1063: 1055: 1018: 1009: 993: 971: 967: 948: 910: 867: 841: 830: 759: 747: 738: 706: 675: 656: 640: 625: 600:Kara Mustafa 572:Papal States 563: 549: 489:mercantalist 474: 447: 443:(2001) p 284 441:Encyclopedia 440: 387:25 Thousand 384:1.4 Million 376:50 Thousand 331:cabinet noir 323: 276: 262: 224: 220: 203:(1748), and 189: 180: 172: 157: 147: 124: 118: 104: 93: 79: 65: 59: 41: 40: 26: 5995:Imperialism 5944:Geopolitics 5823:Sovereignty 5803:Imperialism 5716:Colonialism 5701:Appeasement 5616:Warsaw Pact 5392:Nationalism 5202:Philosophy: 5157:Switzerland 5147:Lutheranism 4622:Renaissance 3918:. Pearson. 3798:online free 3640:online free 3628:online free 3379:F.W. Mote, 2327:Friedrich, 2029:Great power 1982:British Raj 1880:(1689) and 1757:Switzerland 1685:Inquisition 1295:Jerome Blum 955:World War I 849:Augustus II 690:in Scotland 564:Sacra Ligua 560:Holy League 428:2.5 Million 425:Scandinavia 417:7.5 Million 406:3.5 Million 85:imperialism 81:Colonialism 5984:Categories 5898:Liberalism 5843:Friendship 5828:Suzerainty 5385:Napoleonic 5309:Painting: 5196:Philosophy 4678:By country 3992:Ogg, David 3569:XIV. Atlas 3470:Richards, 2106:References 1886:Dalai Lama 1812:Xu Guangqi 1553:Austerlitz 1488:Martinican 1414:Leopold II 1274:New France 1211:, and the 1196:Royal Navy 1157:Charles VI 1005:Charles II 772:; and the 682:global war 590:, and the 446:Blanning, 395:12 Million 362:15 Million 309:Royal Navy 294:, and the 237:, and the 126:Revolution 33:After the 5934:Diplomacy 5838:Bilateral 5736:Grey-zone 5689:Coalition 5648:1919–1939 5643:1814–1919 5638:1648–1814 5187:Academic 5137:Huguenots 5132:Calvinism 5078:Overviews 5036:Diplomacy 4984:Louis XIV 4815:Countries 4730:Political 4608:Overviews 3934:cite book 1950:Aurangzeb 1942:Taj Mahal 1908:Aurangzeb 1878:Nerchinsk 1573:Friedland 1537:Consulate 1445:Rhineland 1291:Parlement 1025:Leopold I 766:Rhineland 647:Leopold I 580:Leopold I 512:with the 497:Louis XIV 439:Stearns, 373:8 Million 326:espionage 320:Espionage 292:1714–1718 288:1683–1699 227:Louis XIV 5893:Feminism 5746:Idealism 5741:Hegemony 5694:Military 5679:Alliance 5672:Concepts 5658:Cold War 5540:Glossary 5406:See also 5152:Scottish 5112:Haskalah 5100:Hussites 5071:Religion 4950:England 4839:Germany 4808:Politics 4778:Concepts 4381:(1995). 4301:(1952); 4263:(1992). 3998:(1954). 3016:(1995). 2962:in JSTOR 2917:, p 131. 2253:Davies, 2139:in JSTOR 1988:See also 1874:Xinjiang 1854:Xinjiang 1850:Dzungars 1671:, ended 1616:Cossacks 1612:Borodino 1608:Smolensk 1278:Lorraine 1234:George I 1097:Louis XV 1091:Louis XV 1082:Britain. 1077:argues: 786:Lorraine 694:James II 562:(Latin: 398:Unknown 245:and the 199:(1738), 195:(1713), 5913:Realism 5903:Marxism 5766:Liberal 5684:Entente 5630:History 5558:Present 5298:General 5262:Authors 5232:Science 5162:Radical 5142:English 4965:France 4939:Leaders 4844:Britain 4705:Germany 4690:England 4659:Baroque 4627:Outline 4552:excerpt 4550:(2004) 4524:History 4479:excerpt 4477:(2013) 4469:excerpt 4467:(2008) 4445:excerpt 4436:(1993). 4393:excerpt 4391:(1995) 4383:excerpt 4374:(2000). 4362:excerpt 4339:(2006). 4324:excerpt 4322:(2012) 4305:(1964) 4280:(1991). 4273:(2007). 4224:excerpt 4122:(1967). 4108:(2014). 4056:(1976) 4039:(1946). 4028:(1949) 4008:(1965) 3961:(1928) 3903:History 3884:(1944) 3876:excerpt 3874:(2015) 3836:(1938) 3829:(2007). 3816:(2002) 3796:(1959) 3776:(1961) 3626:(1997) 3611:excerpt 3561:(1965) 3551:(1965) 3524:(1961) 3487:(1993). 3283:(1969) 3225:(2000) 3209:(2003) 3180:(2008) 3167:(1996). 2932:excerpt 2792:excerpt 2790:(2015) 2777:(1969). 2698:(1998). 2558:Clark, 2519:Clark, 2454:excerpt 2270:(1999). 2244:(2003). 1882:Kyakhta 1862:Gurkhas 1858:Sichuan 1622:at the 1602:with a 1541:Emperor 1490:author 1422:Prussia 1282:Corsica 1169:Silesia 1143:in 1748 1029:Charles 941:as the 875:Ukraine 628:William 436:Source: 193:Utrecht 164:realist 48:to the 5875:Theory 5833:Treaty 5721:Crisis 5413:Europe 5189:fields 4834:France 4723:Events 4700:France 4695:Papacy 4528:online 4497:online 4453:(2014) 4407:online 4307:review 4287:(1975) 4265:online 4248:online 4200:online 4173:online 4098:204824 4096: 4067:(1969) 4058:online 4048:online 4030:online 4020:online 4010:online 4000:online 3977:online 3973:online 3963:online 3922: 3907:online 3886:online 3866:online 3856:online 3847:(2001) 3838:online 3809:(1990) 3788:online 3778:online 3761:online 3723:online 3657:online 3585:online 3573:online 3563:online 3553:online 3543:online 3534:(1970) 3526:online 3312:(1969) 3285:online 3227:online 3211:online 3182:online 3144:online 3128:online 3106: 3053: 3026: 2996: 2890:online 2874:online 2826: 2806:(1989) 2757: 2733:Wolf, 2671:online 2616:online 2509:online 2435:Wolf, 2393: 2372:online 2255:Europe 2123:online 1978:sepoys 1954:Jizyah 1729:Joseph 1575:. The 1313:, and 1267:Quebec 897:Russia 817:, and 782:Alsace 764:; the 596:Russia 582:, the 574:, the 469:, and 359:France 282:, the 233:, the 197:Vienna 128:: The 114:France 5858:Peace 5813:Power 5808:Peace 5565:BRICS 5449:World 5248:Works 4364:also 4094:JSTOR 3975:also 3944:also 2913:Ogg, 1926:Akbar 1922:Babur 1777:China 1704:Italy 1677:guild 1468:Basel 726:Rhine 658:the 205:Paris 5604:Past 5291:Arts 4995:Wars 4615:Eras 3940:link 3920:ISBN 3617:Maps 3104:ISBN 3051:ISBN 3024:ISBN 2994:ISBN 2824:ISBN 2755:ISBN 2391:ISBN 1969:and 1906:and 1835:The 1800:and 1785:and 1632:Elba 1610:and 1435:The 1280:and 1230:Anne 988:and 923:and 913:tsar 905:and 688:and 676:The 620:and 550:The 536:and 290:and 83:and 5865:War 4086:doi 586:of 5986:: 5487:• 5483:• 4092:. 4082:18 4080:. 3994:. 3936:}} 3932:{{ 3825:. 3805:. 3246:^ 1583:. 1387:. 1309:, 1207:, 813:, 801:. 768:; 594:; 465:, 52:. 5521:e 5514:t 5507:v 5264:: 4593:e 4586:t 4579:v 4100:. 4088:: 4060:. 4032:; 3942:) 3928:. 3898:. 3112:. 3059:. 3032:. 3002:. 2934:. 2832:. 2763:. 2399:. 915:( 20:)

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International relations (1648–1814)

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