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covered the maintenance of law and order. Viewing the secessions as an internal political matter, Hammarskjöld refused to permit UN troops to assist the central
Congolese government in its campaign against them; he argued that doing so would represent a loss of impartiality and breach Congolese sovereignty. Lumumba requested that ONUC personnel stop disarming disorderly Congolese soldiers, saying he would need an armed force if the UN would not help him. With the UN refusing to take action against the secessions, Lumumba decided that his government would have to reintegrate South Kasai and Katanga on its own. South Kasai held important railway junctions needed by the Congolese army for a campaign against Katanga, and therefore became an important objective. It also had important mineral wealth which the Congolese government was anxious to return to its jurisdiction.
97:
1073:" and believed that Lumumba, having given the orders to commence the offensive in an "almost casual manner", had lost all sense of responsibility. He ordered ONUC contingents to intervene to prevent future massacres, but this proved unnecessary as the situation calmed in September. The American press depicted the Prime Minister's regime as a Soviet puppet and dependent on Soviet aid. The British press offered extensive coverage of the atrocities in Bakwanga, which shocked the British public. Western opinion held Lumumba at fault for the killings. The violence and ultimate failure of the anti-secessionist push greatly damaged the government's reputation. The use of Soviet aide led the many figures of the United States government to conclude that the Congo was falling into a communist orbit.
945:
August was marred by large demonstrations from opposition supporters outside the meeting hall. Police fired into the air to disperse the crowd, inciting panic and greatly disturbing the foreign delegations. In his opening speech, Lumumba spoke broadly and appealed to
African unity. Almost all of the delegations recommended that the offensive be halted and that the Congolese government mend its relations with the UN. Lumumba was disappointed by their attitude and realised that he would not be able to secure their military support and that rapprochement with the UN was necessary. Nevertheless, he was not dissuaded from pursuing the South Kasai–Katanga offensive; on 27 August he flew to Stanleyville to rally reinforcements for the campaign. To forestall advances into their own territory, the
927:
in preparation for an advance on
Katanga. When David Odia, the South Kasai Minister of Public Works, protested, soldiers beat him and fatally injured him. Many Baluba first fled the scene in terror, but returned on 29 August with home-made shotguns to resist. Vastly outgunned, many Baluba were killed in the ensuing fighting. ANC soldiers then perpetrated a series of massacres against the local Baluba. One group of civilians sheltering at the St. Jean de Bakwa Church in Nyanguila were shot with machine guns. Both sides committed several atrocities, including the mutilation of corpses, rape, arson, and robbery. The small Tunisian ONUC detachment in Bakwanga were unable to contain the violence and were relegated to guarding a building where the city's European population had taken refuge.
1027:" would run the administration while the politicians sorted out their differences. He also ordered all Soviet military advisers to leave the country. In a subsequent press conference he clarified that Congolese university graduates would be asked to form a government. Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu were both surprised by the coup. On 17 September ANC soldiers from Stanleyville began an attack from Kivu into northern Katanga and occupied some territory after minimal fighting. The following day Mobutu, after discussion with UN officials, agreed to terminate the ANC campaign against Katanga and South Kasai, and on 23 September the troops were withdrawn in ONUC aircraft. ONUC subsequently created a buffer zone between ANC troops and the Katanga border. ANC casualties from the invasion were light.
936:
opened fire on an ANC column, killing three soldiers. When the
Congolese troops began to search the area for the source of the firing, they discovered the sheltering locals and shot many of them. Wounded South Kasaian soldiers were dragged out of the hospital and killed. The survivors fled to Kasengulu, a village 15 kilometres outside of Bakwanga, where many were killed by pursuing ANC forces. Around 3,000 civilians were ultimately killed in South Kasai. The violence of the advance caused an exodus of many thousands of Baluba who fled their homes to escape the fighting; more than 35,000 went to refugee camps in Élisabethville alone. The South Kasian government collapsed as most of its members fled into exile.
966:, a large mining corporation based in Katanga, arguing that South Kasai served as a useful buffer between the ANC and Katanga. Ultimately he secured the support he needed to found an army-in-exile consisting of 240 to 600 men, most of them recruited from Kasaian immigrant workers in Katanga and led by foreign mercenaries. He also encouraged the South Kasian population to resist Congolese central government occupation in radio broadcasts. In light of the success of the ANC in Kasai, Tshombe feared a direct attack on Katanga. Both he and Kalonji reached out to Kasa-Vubu to end the fighting, and in response Kasa-Vubu dispatched an ABAKO delegation to Élisabethville to meet with them.
978:—was shot and killed while observing fighting between the ANC and Baluba militiamen. Around the same time Congolese reinforcements were flown into the region from Stanleyville and ANC troops also began probing the Katangese border. Kalonji ordered his army-in-exile to retake the town of Luputa. Upon reentering South Kasai the Kalonjist forces murdered civilians and looted villages. The ANC ambushed and destroyed the column when it arrived in Luputa. Kalonji's other forces, together with the Katangese Gendarmerie, successfully defeated ANC incursions into Katanga.
124:
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to the campaign without consulting the government. The order led to an argument between
Lumumba and Mobutu in which the prime minister threatened to fire the colonel. Nevertheless, fighting continued. The Tunisian peacekeepers stepped up their efforts to maintain order, convincing some ANC units to stop committing atrocities and disarming some belligerents. They also continued to protect the Europeans, buried corpses, tended to the wounded, and escorted
152:
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471:, the secessionist capital, on 26 August. The ANC then came into conflict with local Baluba civilians. Both sides perpetrated atrocities, with the ANC committing several massacres, resulting in the deaths of about 3,000 civilians. In Katanga, Kalonji organised a new army to retake South Kasai. Their counter-offensive was halted by the ANC, though the Kasaian troops and Katangese forces successfully blunted ANC incursions into Katanga.
721:, which, although it represented the Baluba of Katanga Province, was in favour of centralism. The Kalonjists, who believed themselves to be acting on behalf of all the Luba-Kasai, created an animosity between the Luba-Kasai and the Luba-Katanga but also failed to gain the full support of CONAKAT, much of which had racial prejudice against the Baluba and supported only the "authentic Katangese".
707:. Kalonji refused Lumumba's offer of the Agriculture portfolio. The Kalonjists, who felt rejected and marginalised by the central government, began supporting alternative parties. Among them, the Kalonjists supported Tshombe's CONAKAT party in nearby Katanga which, because of its strongly federalist stance, opposed to Lumumba's conception of a strong central government based in the capital
878:, warned Lumumba and ANC commanders that an invasion of South Kasai and Katanga would not succeed and that the use of Soviet aid would have severe political consequences. Despite their advice, Lumumba carried on with preparations for the offensive and, hoping to rally African support behind his decision, continued arranging for the holding of a Pan-African Conference in LĂ©opoldville.
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division of Kasai in two in order to allow for the creation of a quasi-autonomous MNC-K and Luba-dominated provincial government. Rapidly, however, Kalonji realised that the chaos in the rest of the Congo could be used to secede unilaterally and declare full local independence. On 9 August 1960, Kalonji declared the region of south-eastern Kasai to be the new
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February 1961 Kalonji ordered the execution of several captive former
Congolese officials, including Lumbala, as revenge for the ANC massacres in Bakwanga. South Kasai remained in secession until late 1962 when a central government-sponsored military coup overthrew Kalonji and the ANC occupied the territory, allowing for its re-integration into the Congo.
1014:. Over the next few days little activity was undertaken by Parliament or the Council of Ministers. Lumumba declared himself to still be the legal Prime Minister and continued to exercise his powers and press on with the military campaign against South Kasai. Iléo proclaimed his completed government on 10 September. On 13 September Parliament convened in a
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brought to a head by the discovery of a colonial proposal to move Luba farmers out of Lulua land to the less fertile land on Luba territory. As a result, hostility increased and violent clashes broke out. In August 1959, Luba demonstrations against the plan were violently repressed by the colonial military and police.
932:
Luebo, was arrested by the ANC in
Bakwanga on a Sûreté warrant. He was freed the following day after Mukenge intervened. Gerard Cravatte, the general manager of the Société minière du Bécéka, was detained for five days before being freed on the request of the Luxembourgish consul, as he was a citizen of Luxembourg.
907:, Léonard Loso, and Clément Somao. A vanguard of ANC troops from Léopoldville were flown into the Kasai region and, reinforced by the Luluabourg garrison, began advancing on South Kasai. Approximately 1,000–2,000 ANC troops participated. They were accompanied by Lumbala and Jacques Omonombe, an officer of the
539:, was annexed into the new state in 1889. By the turn of the century, the violence of Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction had led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did in 1908, creating the
463:, resolved to put down the secessions by force. As South Kasai controlled railway junctions critical for an attack against Katanga, the Congolese forces decided to target South Kasai first. Lumumba ordered the offensive to commence, though who planned it and led it is disputed. On 23 August troops of the
926:
When government troops arrived in
Bakwanga, they released Lulua tribesmen from prison, while Lumbala and Omonombe organised the arrest of South Kasaian political figures. Lacking supplies and adequate transportation, ANC soldiers began requisitioning civilian vehicles and seizing food from the locals
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to support the local Baluba in waging a guerrilla campaign against
Tshombe's government. The units in the latter area would neutralise South Kasai before heading east and attacking Katanga; one ANC detachment would advance from Luluabourg to Bakwanga and secure the city, while another would move down
679:
During the 1950s the
Belgians began to fear that the rise of a powerful Luba elite would become a threat to colonial rule, and the administration began to support Lulua organisations. This further contributed to the growing ethnic polarisation between the two groups. In 1959, Luba-Lulua animosity was
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ethnic minorities. In the aftermath of the ANC invasion, the South Kasaian state was able to provide substantial aid to its refugees, many of whom were resettled in homes and jobs. Nevertheless, the offensive caused considerable disruption to law and order and the local economy; by December 1960 the
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While the operation was underway, Lumumba sought African support for the anti-secessionist campaign and proceeded with the Pan-African Conference in LĂ©opoldville. Representatives from 13 independent countries and four nationalist movements attended. The opening of the conference on the morning of 25
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Meanwhile in the same period of time, Baluba throughout Katanga and Kasai became the subject of violent attacks. Kalonji and his allies made an official call to the Baluba across the Congo to return to their "homeland" in the southern portion of the province on 14 July. Initially, they envisaged the
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to launch a coup and seize control of the central government. On 18 September Mobutu agreed with UN officials to end the fighting, and the ANC withdrew from South Kasai six days later. The territory remained in secession until 1962 when Kalonji was overthrown and the ANC occupied it. No evidence has
969:
Lumbala returned to Léopoldville on 1 September and delivered a report on the campaign to Lumumba, exaggerating his own role in the invasion and the extent of resistance. That day Colonel Mobutu—fearing the ANC would falter due to renewed military opposition and logistical challenges—ordered an end
914:
On the evening of 24 August Kalonji departed for Katanga, pledging to his ministers that he would request aid from Tshombe. ANC troops entered South Kasaian territory that night. They were opposed by 200 South Kasai soldiers and 250 policemen. The soldiers had little training and were equipped with
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The South Kasaian state co-existed with the rest of the Congo for some time. Congolese delegates, as well as ANC and ONUC troops were generally able to move around the territory without conflict with the South Kasaian authorities while their sporadic campaign against Katangese forces continued. In
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split away in July 1959, but failed to induce mass defections by other MNC members. The dissident faction became known as the MNC-Kalonji (MNC-K), while the majority group became the MNC-Lumumba (MNC-L). The split divided the party's support base into those who endured with Lumumba, chiefly in the
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Following the ANC withdrawal, Kalonji returned to Bakwanga and set about reestablishing his government. This was facilitated by ONUC's failure to respond quickly enough to a central government request for the establishment of a neutral zone in South Kasai. Kalonji dispensed patronage to the local
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would form a new government. Shortly thereafter, Lumumba broadcast a message denouncing Kasa-Vubu's action and declaring that he was deposed. The following day ONUC closed all Congolese airports to "civilian"—or non-United Nations—air traffic, with the aim of preventing Lumumba from moving troops
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transport aircraft and their crews (with one additional Ilyushin for Lumumba's personal use) and diverted a number of trucks initially destined for ONUC detachments to the Kasai region. No provision was made for additional supplies for the forces. The amount of Soviet trucks and planes which were
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Though there has been little study of the ANC atrocities in South Kasai, no information has ever been presented to corroborate the notion that Lumumba or other officials intended to eliminate certain populations in accordance to legal definitions of "genocide"; the use of the term "genocide" was
935:
Following the death of Odia and the first clashes in Bakwanga, residents from surrounding villages sought refuge in the environs of the Bakwanga Hospital and the Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Bonzola Cathedral. On 31 August some Kalonjist militiamen hiding in a nearby Société minière du Bécéka building
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When South Kasai seceded, ANC troops were already fighting Katangese troops in the Kasai region. The arrival of the ONUC contingents was initially welcomed by Lumumba and the central government who believed the UN would help suppress the secessionist states. ONUC's initial mandate, however, only
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colonel and army chief of staff. Two days later the Belgian government initiated a unilateral military intervention to protect its citizens and in the following days Belgian troops occupied numerous towns throughout the Congo, particularly in Katanga. On 11 July Tshombe declared that Katanga, in
931:
Representative in the Congo G. C. Senn criticized the UN for its lack of more direct action, arguing that it was too afraid of upsetting political figures. International observers reported the deaths of hundreds of Baluba on 29 and 30 August. On 30 August Joseph Nkongolo, the Catholic Bishop of
845:, the plan was conceived by Colonel Mobutu. Political scientist Catherine Hoskyns wrote that operation was drawn up by both Mobutu and Lundula. Journalist Pierre Davister reported that Mobutu had once boasted to him that he planned the operation by himself. Secretary of State to the Presidency
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concerning the campaign in South Kasai, Lumumba denied that he had ordered any mass killings and blamed the Belgian colonial administration for inflaming the Lulua-Baluba conflict. He also announced that the government had seized several Belgian and French aircraft in Luluabourg carrying arms
1018:
to discuss the political impasse. Lumumba appealed to them to grant him "full powers" to manage the country's crisis but assured that he was ready to seek an understanding with rival political factions. Parliament passed a resolution in accordance with Lumumba's wishes but also established a
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primarily a rhetorical device meant to damage his reputation. Lumumba's image was unpopular in southern Kasai for years after his death, as many Baluba remained mindful that he had ordered the military campaign that resulted in the atrocities against their people. Congolese artist
1022:
On 14 September, Mobutu announced over the radio that he was launching a "peaceful revolution" to break the political impasse and therefore neutralising the President, Lumumba's and Iléo's respective governments, and suspending Parliament until 31 December. He stated that
467:(ANC) began advancing upon South Kasai. They penetrated the border the following day, facing only minimal resistance from the poorly-armed South Kasain army and police—which quickly retreated—and local Baluba militia. Kalonji fled to Katanga, and the ANC seized
864:
aircraft in the Congo were requisitioned by the government for the offensive. As Soviet diplomats had made tentative offers of support Lumumba, he requested the procurement of additional transport for the ANC. In response the Soviet Union loaned Lumumba 16
919:. The ANC occupied Bakwanga largely without incident on 26 August, and took up temporary residence in Forminière's corporate building. South Kasaian troops fled toward the Katangese border. The next day Kalonji announced the surrender of the city from
992:
On the evening of 5 September, Kasa-Vubu declared over radio that Lumumba had "plunged the nation into fratricidal war" and was dismissing him from the premiership. He stated that several other members of the government were dismissed and that
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tribal leaders who had supported his cause while he was absent. He also denounced Lumumba as "a murderer who must be tried and executed". Kalonji's forces reoccupied South Kasai and undertook a campaign of repression against the Basonga and
797:, calling upon Belgium to withdraw its troops and authorising the Secretary-General to send military and technical assistance to the Congo in consultation with the government to restore law and order. This resulted in the establishment of a
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number of diamonds cut by Forminière and the number of people it employed both had fallen by thousands. Food shortages, brought on by disruptions to agriculture, also led to hundreds of deaths from starvation among the refugees.
584:. Lumumba became a leading figure and by the end of 1959, the party claimed to have 58,000 members. However, many found the MNC was too moderate. A number of other parties emerged, distinguished by their radicalism, support for
3549:
957:
In Élisabethville, Kalonji took up residence in a cottage near Tshombe's presidential palace and established a new crisis government. He appealed for Katangese assistance. Some Katangese leaders, such as Minister of Interior
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area to be ethnically different from the Baluba and dubbed them the Bena Lulua. The colonists believed the Baluba to be more intelligent, hardworking and open to new ideas than the Bena Lulua who were believed to be more
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Although it was the largest of the African nationalist parties, the MNC had many different factions within it that took differing stances on a number of issues. It was increasingly polarised between moderate
841:, Minister of State Georges Grenfell, and Secretary of State to the Presidency Marcel Lengema. Kanza stated that Colonel Mobutu only made a limited contribution to the discussions. According to biographer
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by invading the declared state's territory. Though initially militarily successful, the attack faltered under intense international and domestic political scrutiny and the Congolese troops were withdrawn.
523:. The Belgian government's ambivalence about the idea led Leopold to eventually create the colony on his own account. With support from a number of Western countries, who viewed Leopold as a useful
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and stupid. As a result, from the 1930s, the state began to treat the two groups differently and applied different policies to each and promoted the Baluba to positions above other ethnicities.
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later stated that these were to form a "temporary security force" that, although acting with the consent of and performing some of the tasks of the government, was completely under UN command.
974:
doctors around the area. They reported that in early September the situation had "somewhat ameliorated and should gradually improve." On 4 September an American journalist—the son of diplomat
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arms left behind by Belgian troops. These quickly retreated, though the ANC faced the opposition of local Baluba militia, most of whom were only armed with handmade single-shot rifles called
777:(UN), stating that peacekeepers were requested to guard the Congo's sovereignty against Belgian aggression and warning that if the request was not speedily fulfilled they would turn to the
852:
According to the plan, troops were to be dispatched to Kivu and northern Kasai. Those in the former region were to head south into northern Katanga under Sendwe and Minister of Justice
3465:
519:, frustrated by his country's lack of international power and prestige, attempted to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexplored
837:, the plan detailing the invasions of South Kasai and Katanga by the ANC was put together in the Prime Minister's office in consultation with General Lundula, Minister of Interior
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564:). The movement was divided into a number of parties and groups which were broadly divided on ethnic and geographical lines and opposed to one another. The largest, the
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962:, regarded the Kasai Baluba as enemies. Tshombe criticised Kalonji for not remaining in Bakwanga to rally support against the invasion. Kalonji then appealed to the
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declared that Lumumba had "plunged the nation into fratricidal war" and dismissed him from the premiership. A political deadlock ensued, leading ANC Chief of Staff
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The central government's assault to retake South Kasai began on 23 August. Sources differ on who commanded the offensive. According political scientist
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One of the major legacies of colonial rule in Kasai was the arbitrary redivision of the population into new ethnic groups. Despite the shared language (
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organisation dedicated to achieving independence "within a reasonable" time. It was created around a charter which was signed by, among others,
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Hofmann, Paul (23 December 1960). "Big Famine Toll Feared In Congo: U.N, Aide Says Thousands in South Kasai Will Die if Help Is Not Speeded".
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459:, a region just north of Katanga, with the aim of creating a Baluba-dominated state. The Congolese central government, led by Prime Minister
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commission to oversee the government's implementation of the powers. However, the authenticity and legality of the vote was questionable.
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801:(generally known by its French acronym of ONUC). Foreign contingents arrived in the capital shortly thereafter. UN Secretary General
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were sent in to provide technical assistance. Ghanaian officials in LĂ©opoldville, particularly Ambassador Andrew Djin and General
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destined for Bakwanga. The Chamber voted to annul both Kasa-Vubu's and Lumumba's declarations of dismissal, and the next day the
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region in the north-east, and those who backed the MNC-K, popular in the south and among Kalonji's own ethnic group, the
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Gilroy, Harry (2 March 1963). "Belgians Explain Kasai Operations: Diamond Miners Held Ready to Account to Congolese".
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749:—mutinied in protest of poor working conditions and lack of material advancement following independence, and
695:, the 1960 elections degenerated into an "anti-Baluba plebiscite" as the Luba MNC-K succeeded in obtaining a
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since they appear to be directed towards the extermination of a specific ethnic group, the Balubas [
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Sources differ on who planned the Congolese offensive. According to Minister-Delegate to the United Nations
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On 7 September the Chamber of Deputies convened to discuss Kasa-Vubu's dismissal order. Responding to an
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since been provided to suggest that the ANC massacres in Bakwanga met the legal definitions of genocide.
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painted a depiction of the fighting between the Baluba and the ANC for his series on Congolese history.
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Map of the factions in the Congo in 1961; South Kasai is coloured yellow and Katanga is coloured green.
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but failed to take control of the provincial government. Instead, Lumumba promoted a Lulua candidate,
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between rival colonial powers, Leopold achieved international recognition for a personal colony, the
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The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis
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actually used by the ANC in Kasai is unknown. About 1,000 Soviet military advisers and three from
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Protestant Missionaries & Humanitarianism in the DRC: The Politics of Aid in Cold War Africa
711:. As part of this, the Kalonjists backed CONAKAT at the expense of their main local rivals, the
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and the more radical mass membership. A radical and federalist faction headed by Ileo and
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The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912
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703:, as provincial president while Kalonji was denied an important ministerial portfolio in
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Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World
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817:). South Kasai's secession was supported by Belgian corporate interests, chiefly the
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opposition to "the arbitrary and neo-communist will of the central government", was
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757:. On 8 July the government implemented several reforms, including the promotion of
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ethnic group became subject to violent attacks. In early August, Muluba politician
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The Congo became independent in June 1960, and the following month the province of
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2433:"Congo-Kinshasa: Le 8 août 1960, Albert Kalonji proclame l'autonomie du Sud-Kasaï"
789:, asking that he monitor the situation in the Congo closely. In New York City the
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691:. Nationally, Kasa-Vubu was proclaimed President, and Lumumba Prime Minister. In
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The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800
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Rebellion in the Kwilu: Case Study in the Analysis of Agrarian Social Movements
1584:"Congo-ZaĂŻre : l'empire du crime permanent : le massacre de Bakwanga"
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on 30 June 1960 in relative peace. On 5 July the LĂ©opoldville garrison of the
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Hammarskjöld found the atrocities in South Kasai to be "a case of incipient
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Nordic Cosmopolitanism: Essays in International Law for Martti Koskenniemi
3850:
3588:
3339:
3116:
1024:
875:
810:
754:
673:
668:
638:
581:
561:
556:
532:
520:
456:
448:
429:
258:
141:
55:
2832:
Peace Operations and Intrastate Conflict: The Sword Or the Olive Branch?
2615:
781:
for assistance. The following day they sent a message to Soviet Premier
3698:
920:
683:
As independence approached, the Belgian government organised Congolese
585:
1927:
1925:
2589:"Hammarskjöld's approach to the United Nations and international law"
952:
713:
634:
554:
developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s, primarily among the
729:
474:
The massacres in Bakwanga provoked international condemnation, with
1922:
1871:
1521:
1070:
1047:
866:
761:
to general and commander of the army and making Secretary of State
708:
483:
468:
2835:(illustrated ed.). Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
2694:
The Tragic State of the Congo: From Decolonization to Dictatorship
2360:
2358:
1888:
1886:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1266:
1264:
3287:
613:
516:
981:
949:
demolished road and rail links between South Kasai and Katanga.
2355:
2319:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2117:
2054:
1883:
1803:
1733:
1300:
1261:
1249:
861:
201:
2626:
Remembering the Present: Painting and Popular History in Zaire
2917:
Kasaï-Oriental : Un nœud gordien dans l'espace congolais
2572:(illustrated ed.). Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
2566:"Dag Hammarskjöld and the Issue of Humanitarian Intervention"
2549:(reprint ed.). Clark, New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange.
2370:
1960:. United Press International. 31 August 1960. pp. 1, 10.
786:
597:
2240:
2733:
The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo
2343:
1645:
1621:
998:
into the capital or sending additional forces into Kasai.
2713:
The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961
2500:
2488:
2283:
2201:
2153:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1752:
1490:
1437:
1153:
1141:
1114:
1112:
2218:
2216:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1611:
1609:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1461:
1052:
911:. The direct attack on Katanga from Kivu was postponed.
2476:
2129:
2105:
2030:"Press Writer Harry Taylor Killed During Congo Battle".
1511:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1377:
1365:
1329:
1131:
1129:
1127:
773:
On 14 July Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu sent a telegram to the
2307:
2042:
1815:
1341:
1237:
1225:
1109:
616:(CONAKAT), a strongly federalist party in the southern
2382:
2331:
2295:
2213:
2189:
2165:
2141:
2093:
2011:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1937:
1776:
1714:
1633:
1606:
1557:
1449:
1189:
503:
482:
commenting that they amounted to "a case of incipient
2876:
The Congo, From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History
2852:
Battleground Africa: Cold War in the Congo, 1960–1965
2228:
2177:
1764:
1502:
1473:
1389:
1353:
1317:
1124:
2754:
Lefever, Ernest W.; Joshua, Wynfred (30 June 1966).
2673:. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago:
2452:
2271:
2259:
2081:
1999:
1910:
1898:
1844:
1545:
1425:
1413:
1401:
1288:
1276:
1165:
2948:(illustrated ed.). Stroud: The History Press.
2757:
United Nations Peacekeeping in the Congo: 1960–1964
1982:
1832:
1669:
1657:
1533:
1213:
1201:
1177:
939:
2898:The Politics of Cultural Sub-nationalism in Africa
2873:
2645:
2464:
2409:
1042:" involve a most flagrant violation of elementary
953:Continued fighting and South Kasaian counterattack
614:Confédération des Associations Tribales du Katanga
443:from the country. As the Congo became engulfed by
2652:(2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan.
4094:
2913:
2868:
2530:(in French). Brussels: Éditions Europe-Afrique.
2364:
2325:
2123:
2060:
1931:
1892:
1877:
1746:
1527:
1311:
1270:
1255:
849:later claimed responsibility for the offensive.
2854:. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
3091:Patrice Lumumba: la crise congolaise revisitée
3172:
2753:
2376:
2253:
1809:
1046:and have the characteristics of the crime of
982:Dismissal of Lumumba and Congolese withdrawal
217:
3186:
2629:. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2542:
2349:
737:The Belgian Congo became independent as the
604:, a more radical party supported among the
3179:
3165:
2894:
2494:
1035:
714:Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga
224:
210:
3043:
2828:
2482:
2048:
1826:
1590:(in French). 23 July 2013. Archived from
1347:
799:large UN multinational peacekeeping force
3347:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas")
3108:
3064:
2981:
2426:
2424:
2337:
2301:
2017:
1639:
1159:
1147:
728:
648:
3473:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale)
3094:(in French). Paris: Éditions Karthala.
3087:
2962:
2901:. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books.
2849:
2805:
2710:
2523:
2400:
2388:
2289:
2222:
2207:
2195:
2183:
2171:
2159:
2147:
2099:
2078:, Chapter 7: We Are The United Nations.
1943:
1797:
1770:
1758:
1727:
1651:
1627:
1615:
1570:
1496:
1443:
1395:
1383:
1359:
1335:
1323:
1135:
4095:
3133:
2786:
2691:
2643:
2622:
2506:
2234:
1916:
1904:
1862:
1539:
1515:
1484:
1467:
1294:
1282:
1243:
1231:
1219:
1207:
1195:
1183:
1171:
1064:, UN Secretary-General, September 1960
486:". On 5 September Congolese President
428:) attempted to crush the secession of
4042:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
3365:United Nations Operation in the Congo
3160:
2941:
2727:
2666:
2586:
2563:
2543:Bowett, D. W.; Barton, G. P. (2008).
2458:
2430:
2421:
2277:
2265:
2135:
2111:
2087:
2075:
2005:
1956:"Battle of Natives Raging in Congo".
1850:
1708:
1675:
1551:
1455:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1371:
1118:
988:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
644:
397:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government
205:
3022:
3003:
2914:Omasombo Tshonda, Jean, ed. (2014).
2880:(3rd ed.). New York: Palgrave.
2793:. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
2735:(expanded ed.). Rochester, VT:
2696:. New York City: Algora Publishing.
2546:United Nations Forces: A Legal Study
2470:
2415:
2313:
1993:
1838:
1711:, Chapter 5: L'Affaire du Sud-KasaĂŻ.
1663:
535:, the largest regional power in the
4074:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961
2923:. Provinces (in French). Tervuren:
2715:. London: Oxford University Press.
886:
857:the rail line and occupy Kaniama.
509:European colonial rule in the Congo
504:Decolonisation of the Belgian Congo
13:
14:
4144:
4113:1960 in the Republic of the Congo
2989:(13th ed.). London: Abacus.
2763:. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.:
1978:. Vol. 37. 1960. p. 18.
176:Unknown number of armed civilians
3466:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
3459:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium)
3452:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)
3315:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC)
3115:(illustrated ed.). London:
940:Contemporaneous political events
903:, the ANC was led by three men:
511:began in the late 19th century.
426:Democratic Republic of the Congo
231:
150:
134:
122:
110:
95:
4108:September 1960 events in Africa
3047:A History of Genocide in Africa
2925:Royal Museum for Central Africa
2527:Qui sont les leaders congolais?
2516:
2394:
2023:
1964:
1949:
1856:
1576:
901:Royal Museum for Central Africa
811:Autonomous State of South Kasai
724:
596:. The MNC's main rival was the
4128:Civil wars of the 20th century
4049:Torture and killing of Lumumba
3044:Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017).
2895:Olorunsola, Victor A. (1972).
2431:Ngapi, Rich (15 August 2008).
2038:. 5 September 1960. p. 1.
753:quickly spread throughout the
656:MNC-K campaign poster for the
402:Torture and killing of Lumumba
1:
3136:Lumumba: Africa's Lost Leader
3088:Willame, Jean-Claude (1990).
3008:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
2829:Mockaitis, Thomas R. (1999).
2814:Northwestern University Press
2809:Congo: Background of Conflict
1102:
964:Union Minière du Haut-Katanga
687:. These resulted in an MNC-L
498:
420:In August 1960 troops of the
46:23 August – 23 September 1960
4103:August 1960 events in Africa
3112:The Assassination of Lumumba
3071:(PhD thesis). Berkeley, CA:
1030:
566:Mouvement National Congolais
7:
2942:Othen, Christopher (2015).
2711:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965).
2675:University of Chicago Press
1010:delivered the government a
881:
592:and affiliation to certain
560:class (the urbanised black
10:
4149:
2967:. New York: Nova Science.
2692:Haskin, Jeanne M. (2005).
2036:United Press International
985:
923:, the capital of Katanga.
824:
815:État autonome du Sud-Kasaï
743:Armée Nationale Congolaise
465:Armée Nationale Congolaise
455:declared the secession of
4065:
4056:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
4033:
3821:
3785:
3690:
3644:
3612:
3573:
3566:
3434:
3416:
3356:
3324:
3304:
3195:
2963:Packham, Eric S. (1996).
2870:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges
2806:Merriam, Alan P. (1961).
2623:Fabian, Johannes (1996).
2377:Lefever & Joshua 1966
2254:Lefever & Joshua 1966
1810:Lefever & Joshua 1966
1089:
972:World Health Organization
717:(BALUBAKAT) party led by
407:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld
241:
195:
182:
163:
88:
38:
30:
25:
18:Congolese military action
4081:Decolonisation of Africa
3734:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian
3407:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt
3073:University of California
3029:. Boydell & Brewer.
3004:Reid, Stuart A. (2023).
2667:Gibbs, David N. (1991).
2596:Estudios Internacionales
2524:Artigue, Pierre (1961).
2350:Bowett & Barton 2008
1976:East Africa and Rhodesia
3832:Force Publique mutinies
3801:William "Rip" Robertson
3557:Cuban Exile Naval Force
3211:Egide Bocheley-Davidson
3109:de Witte, Ludo (2002).
3065:Traugott, Mark (1976).
1036:Political ramifications
246:Force Publique mutinies
196:~3,000 civilians killed
26:Invasion of South Kasai
3947:Port Francqui incident
2850:Namikas, Lise (2013).
2787:McKown, Robin (1969).
1097:Tshibumba Kanda-Matulu
1058:
905:Joseph-Damien Tshatshi
734:
660:
331:Port Francqui incident
78:Status quo ante bellum
4024:Stanleyville mutinies
3653:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur
3550:211th Makasi Squadron
3333:Katangese Gendarmerie
3023:Rich, Jeremy (2020).
2765:Brookings Institution
2644:Freund, Bill (1998).
2365:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007
2326:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
2124:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
2061:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
1932:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
1893:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
1878:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
1747:Omasombo Tshonda 2014
1528:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007
1312:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007
1271:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007
1256:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007
1040:
986:Further information:
947:Katangese Gendarmerie
739:Republic of the Congo
732:
685:elections in May 1960
652:
422:Republic of the Congo
183:Casualties and losses
102:Republic of the Congo
4005:Violettes Imperiales
3628:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
3582:Conor Cruise O'Brien
3480:5 Mechanised Brigade
3267:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
3134:Zeilig, Leo (2008).
2790:Lumumba: A Biography
1654:, pp. 190, 193.
1630:, pp. 190, 194.
763:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
705:Lumumba's government
598:Alliance des Bakongo
552:nationalist movement
492:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
375:Violettes Imperiales
66:Congolese withdrawal
3681:Frédéric Vandewalle
2965:Freedom and Anarchy
2587:Bring, Ove (2011).
2564:Bring, Ove (2003).
2509:, pp. 103–104.
2316:, pp. 282–283.
2292:, pp. 195–196.
2210:, pp. 205–206.
2162:, pp. 400–401.
2138:, pp. 294–295.
2114:, pp. 292–293.
2032:The Cleveland Press
1972:"Bakwanga Occupied"
1934:, pp. 201–202.
1880:, pp. 188–189.
1761:, pp. 193–194.
1594:on 11 February 2021
1530:, pp. 105–106.
1499:, pp. 136–138.
1470:, pp. 110–111.
1446:, pp. 132–133.
1374:, pp. 192–194.
1162:, pp. 588–589.
1150:, pp. 253–255.
1121:, pp. 511–512.
893:Jean-Claude Willame
795:UNSC Resolution 143
791:UN Security Council
745:(ANC)—formerly the
4034:Other major events
3867:Congo-Stanleyville
3340:South Kasai forces
2782:on April 23, 2017.
2403:The New York Times
2034:. No. 26008.
1958:The New York Times
1865:The New York Times
1012:vote of confidence
735:
701:Barthélemy Mukenge
661:
645:Situation in Kasai
608:in the north, and
478:Secretary General
391:Other major events
271:Congo-Stanleyville
169:1,000–2,000 troops
4118:Conflicts in 1960
4090:
4089:
3822:Main operations /
3817:
3816:
3445:White mercenaries
3307:government forces
3225:Christophe Gbenye
3196:Political leaders
3145:978-1-905791-02-6
3126:978-1-85984-410-6
2996:978-0-349-10449-2
2955:978-0-7509-6580-4
2934:978-9-4916-1524-5
2887:978-1-84277-053-5
2861:978-0-8047-8486-3
2842:978-0-275-96173-2
2746:978-0-87073-901-9
2684:978-0-226-29071-3
2659:978-0-333-69872-3
1812:, p. P-4, 5.
1458:, pp. 88–89.
1386:, pp. 96–98.
1338:, pp. 88–90.
1246:, pp. 83–85.
1234:, pp. 82–83.
1198:, pp. 64–65.
960:Godefroid Munongo
839:Christophe Gbenye
783:Nikita Khrushchev
689:relative majority
546:An anti-colonial
447:, members of the
415:
414:
250:Secession crisis
200:
199:
84:
83:
4140:
4083:
4076:
4058:
4051:
4044:
4026:
4017:
4008:
3999:
3990:
3981:
3972:
3965:
3958:
3949:
3942:
3935:
3924:
3917:
3908:
3901:
3899:Battle of Kabalo
3894:
3887:
3878:
3869:
3860:
3853:
3846:
3839:
3838:Secession crisis
3834:
3810:
3803:
3796:
3778:
3771:
3764:
3757:
3750:
3748:Siegfried MĂĽller
3743:
3736:
3729:
3722:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3683:
3676:
3669:
3662:
3660:Jules Crèvecoeur
3655:
3637:
3630:
3623:
3605:
3598:
3596:Dewan Prem Chand
3591:
3584:
3571:
3570:
3559:
3552:
3545:
3538:
3531:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3503:
3496:
3489:
3482:
3475:
3468:
3461:
3454:
3447:
3427:
3409:
3402:
3395:
3388:
3381:
3374:
3367:
3349:
3342:
3335:
3317:
3297:
3290:
3283:
3281:Gaston Soumialot
3276:
3269:
3262:
3255:
3248:
3246:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
3241:
3234:
3232:Dag Hammarskjöld
3227:
3220:
3213:
3206:
3181:
3174:
3167:
3158:
3157:
3149:
3138:. London: Haus.
3130:
3105:
3084:
3061:
3040:
3019:
3006:The Lumumba Plot
3000:
2983:Pakenham, Thomas
2978:
2959:
2938:
2922:
2910:
2891:
2879:
2865:
2846:
2825:
2812:. Evanston, IL:
2802:
2783:
2781:
2775:. Archived from
2762:
2750:
2729:Kanza, Thomas R.
2724:
2707:
2688:
2663:
2651:
2640:
2619:
2602:(170): 159–172.
2593:
2583:
2560:
2539:
2510:
2504:
2498:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2468:
2462:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2428:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2398:
2392:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2238:
2232:
2226:
2220:
2211:
2205:
2199:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2109:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2040:
2039:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1980:
1979:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1896:
1890:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1731:
1725:
1712:
1706:
1679:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1604:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1580:
1574:
1568:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1193:
1187:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1122:
1116:
1065:
1062:Dag Hammarskjöld
909:Sûreté Nationale
887:Early operations
821:mining company.
803:Dag Hammarskjöld
770:from the Congo.
618:Katanga Province
602:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
594:ethnic groupings
529:Congo Free State
488:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
480:Dag Hammarskjöld
295:Battle of Kabalo
236:
226:
219:
212:
203:
202:
156:
154:
153:
140:
138:
137:
127:
126:
116:
114:
113:
100:
99:
40:
39:
23:
22:
4148:
4147:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4093:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4079:
4072:
4061:
4054:
4047:
4040:
4029:
4022:
4011:
4002:
3993:
3984:
3975:
3970:Simba rebellion
3968:
3963:Kwilu rebellion
3961:
3956:Kanyarwanda War
3954:
3945:
3938:
3929:
3920:
3911:
3904:
3897:
3890:
3881:
3876:UN intervention
3874:
3865:
3856:
3849:
3842:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3813:
3806:
3799:
3792:
3781:
3774:
3769:Roger Trinquier
3767:
3760:
3753:
3746:
3739:
3732:
3725:
3718:
3713:Charles Gardien
3711:
3704:
3697:
3686:
3679:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3651:
3640:
3633:
3626:
3619:
3608:
3601:
3594:
3587:
3580:
3562:
3555:
3548:
3541:
3534:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3506:
3499:
3492:
3485:
3478:
3471:
3464:
3457:
3450:
3443:
3437:mercenary units
3436:
3430:
3423:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3391:
3384:
3377:
3370:
3363:
3352:
3345:
3338:
3331:
3320:
3313:
3306:
3300:
3293:
3286:
3279:
3272:
3265:
3260:Patrice Lumumba
3258:
3251:
3244:
3237:
3230:
3223:
3216:
3209:
3202:
3191:
3185:
3154:
3152:
3146:
3127:
3102:
3058:
3037:
3016:
2997:
2975:
2956:
2935:
2920:
2888:
2862:
2843:
2779:
2760:
2747:
2737:Schenkman Books
2704:
2685:
2660:
2637:
2591:
2580:
2557:
2519:
2514:
2513:
2505:
2501:
2495:Olorunsola 1972
2493:
2489:
2481:
2477:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2441:
2429:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2399:
2395:
2387:
2383:
2379:, p. P-11.
2375:
2371:
2363:
2356:
2348:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2300:
2296:
2288:
2284:
2276:
2272:
2264:
2260:
2252:
2241:
2233:
2229:
2221:
2214:
2206:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2142:
2134:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2110:
2106:
2098:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2074:
2067:
2059:
2055:
2047:
2043:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1983:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1938:
1930:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1891:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1861:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1825:
1816:
1808:
1804:
1796:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1745:
1734:
1726:
1715:
1707:
1682:
1674:
1670:
1662:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1622:
1614:
1607:
1597:
1595:
1582:
1581:
1577:
1569:
1558:
1550:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1526:
1522:
1514:
1503:
1495:
1491:
1483:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1450:
1442:
1438:
1430:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1406:
1402:
1394:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1330:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1269:
1262:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1218:
1214:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1190:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1134:
1125:
1117:
1110:
1105:
1092:
1067:
1060:
1038:
1033:
990:
984:
976:Henry J. Taylor
955:
942:
899:. According to
889:
884:
847:Jacques Lumbala
827:
727:
647:
600:(ABAKO) led by
574:Patrice Lumumba
531:, in 1885. The
513:King Leopold II
506:
501:
461:Patrice Lumumba
418:
417:
416:
411:
348:Simba rebellion
343:Kwilu rebellion
338:Kanyarwanda War
278:UN intervention
237:
232:
230:
177:
175:
173:
151:
149:
148:
144:
135:
133:
121:
120:
111:
109:
108:
104:
94:
72:
58:
19:
12:
11:
5:
4146:
4136:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4084:
4077:
4069:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4060:
4059:
4052:
4045:
4037:
4035:
4031:
4030:
4028:
4027:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4009:
4000:
3991:
3982:
3966:
3959:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3943:
3940:Kindu atrocity
3936:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3909:
3902:
3895:
3888:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3847:
3835:
3827:
3825:
3819:
3818:
3815:
3814:
3812:
3811:
3804:
3797:
3789:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3779:
3776:Hugh van Oppen
3772:
3765:
3758:
3751:
3744:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3716:
3709:
3706:Roger Faulques
3702:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3677:
3670:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3577:
3575:
3574:United Nations
3568:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3553:
3546:
3539:
3532:
3525:
3518:
3511:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3483:
3476:
3469:
3462:
3455:
3448:
3440:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3429:
3428:
3420:
3418:
3417:Other entities
3414:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3382:
3375:
3368:
3360:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3343:
3336:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3310:
3308:
3302:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3291:
3284:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3249:
3242:
3239:Albert Kalonji
3235:
3228:
3221:
3218:Gaston Eyskens
3214:
3207:
3204:Cyrille Adoula
3199:
3197:
3193:
3192:
3184:
3183:
3176:
3169:
3161:
3151:
3150:
3144:
3131:
3125:
3106:
3100:
3085:
3062:
3056:
3041:
3035:
3020:
3014:
3001:
2995:
2979:
2973:
2960:
2954:
2939:
2933:
2911:
2892:
2886:
2866:
2860:
2847:
2841:
2826:
2803:
2784:
2751:
2745:
2725:
2708:
2702:
2689:
2683:
2664:
2658:
2641:
2635:
2620:
2598:. Documentos.
2584:
2578:
2561:
2555:
2540:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2511:
2499:
2497:, p. 260.
2487:
2483:Stapleton 2017
2475:
2463:
2461:, p. 325.
2451:
2420:
2408:
2393:
2391:, p. 286.
2381:
2369:
2367:, p. 106.
2354:
2352:, p. 162.
2342:
2330:
2328:, p. 202.
2318:
2306:
2294:
2282:
2280:, p. 169.
2270:
2268:, p. 160.
2258:
2256:, p. P-3.
2239:
2237:, p. 117.
2227:
2225:, p. 214.
2212:
2200:
2198:, p. 210.
2188:
2176:
2174:, p. 406.
2164:
2152:
2150:, p. 400.
2140:
2128:
2126:, p. 190.
2116:
2104:
2102:, p. 254.
2092:
2090:, p. 286.
2080:
2065:
2063:, p. 192.
2053:
2049:Mockaitis 1999
2041:
2022:
2010:
2008:, p. 281.
1998:
1996:, p. 281.
1981:
1963:
1948:
1946:, p. 191.
1936:
1921:
1909:
1897:
1895:, p. 189.
1882:
1870:
1855:
1853:, p. 511.
1843:
1841:, p. 280.
1831:
1827:Mockaitis 1999
1814:
1802:
1800:, p. 194.
1775:
1763:
1751:
1749:, p. 188.
1732:
1730:, p. 191.
1713:
1680:
1668:
1666:, p. 284.
1656:
1644:
1632:
1620:
1618:, p. 265.
1605:
1575:
1573:, p. 190.
1556:
1554:, p. 274.
1544:
1532:
1520:
1518:, p. 145.
1501:
1489:
1487:, p. 116.
1472:
1460:
1448:
1436:
1434:, p. 208.
1424:
1422:, p. 207.
1412:
1410:, p. 206.
1400:
1388:
1376:
1364:
1352:
1348:Mockaitis 1999
1340:
1328:
1316:
1314:, p. 105.
1299:
1287:
1275:
1273:, p. 104.
1260:
1258:, p. 103.
1248:
1236:
1224:
1212:
1200:
1188:
1176:
1174:, p. 199.
1164:
1152:
1140:
1138:, p. 253.
1123:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1091:
1088:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1003:interpellation
983:
980:
954:
951:
941:
938:
921:Élisabethville
888:
885:
883:
880:
872:Czechoslovakia
826:
823:
779:Bandung Powers
775:United Nations
759:Victor Lundula
747:Force Publique
726:
723:
693:Kasai Province
658:1960 elections
654:Albert Kalonji
646:
643:
630:Albert Kalonji
578:Cyrille Adoula
505:
502:
500:
497:
476:United Nations
453:Albert Kalonji
413:
412:
410:
409:
404:
399:
388:
387:
386:
385:
378:
371:
364:
357:
345:
340:
335:
334:
333:
328:
326:Kindu atrocity
323:
316:
315:
314:
302:
297:
292:
287:
275:
274:
273:
268:
267:
266:
256:
248:
242:
239:
238:
229:
228:
221:
214:
206:
198:
197:
193:
192:
189:
185:
184:
180:
179:
170:
166:
165:
161:
160:
131:
129:Czechoslovakia
91:
90:
86:
85:
82:
81:
74:
68:
67:
64:
60:
59:
54:
52:
48:
47:
44:
36:
35:
28:
27:
21:
20:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4145:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4082:
4078:
4075:
4071:
4070:
4068:
4064:
4057:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4043:
4039:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4015:
4010:
4007:
4006:
4001:
3998:
3997:
3992:
3989:
3988:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3948:
3944:
3941:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3907:
3903:
3900:
3896:
3893:
3892:Niemba ambush
3889:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3879:
3877:
3873:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3848:
3845:
3841:
3840:
3836:
3833:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3820:
3809:
3805:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3791:
3790:
3788:
3784:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3749:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3735:
3731:
3728:
3724:
3721:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3707:
3703:
3700:
3696:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3674:Jean Schramme
3671:
3668:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3572:
3569:
3565:
3558:
3554:
3551:
3547:
3544:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3509:
3505:
3502:
3498:
3495:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3467:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3433:
3426:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3397:
3394:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3357:UN contingent
3355:
3348:
3344:
3341:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3303:
3296:
3295:MoĂŻse Tshombe
3292:
3289:
3285:
3282:
3278:
3275:
3274:Pierre Mulele
3271:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3182:
3177:
3175:
3170:
3168:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3155:
3147:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3113:
3107:
3103:
3101:9782865372706
3097:
3093:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3063:
3059:
3057:9781440830525
3053:
3049:
3048:
3042:
3038:
3036:9781847012586
3032:
3028:
3027:
3021:
3017:
3015:9781524748814
3011:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2974:1-56072-232-0
2970:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2951:
2947:
2946:
2940:
2936:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2918:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2893:
2889:
2883:
2878:
2877:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2853:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2834:
2833:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2810:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2785:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2759:
2758:
2752:
2748:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2703:0-87586-416-3
2699:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2671:
2665:
2661:
2655:
2650:
2649:
2642:
2638:
2636:9780520917323
2632:
2628:
2627:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2579:9789004136168
2575:
2571:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2556:9781584777151
2552:
2548:
2547:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2508:
2503:
2496:
2491:
2485:, p. 92.
2484:
2479:
2473:, p. 71.
2472:
2467:
2460:
2455:
2440:
2439:
2434:
2427:
2425:
2418:, p. 63.
2417:
2412:
2404:
2397:
2390:
2385:
2378:
2373:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2351:
2346:
2340:, p. 84.
2339:
2338:de Witte 2002
2334:
2327:
2322:
2315:
2310:
2304:, p. 89.
2303:
2302:Traugott 1976
2298:
2291:
2286:
2279:
2274:
2267:
2262:
2255:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2236:
2231:
2224:
2219:
2217:
2209:
2204:
2197:
2192:
2186:, p. 98.
2185:
2180:
2173:
2168:
2161:
2156:
2149:
2144:
2137:
2132:
2125:
2120:
2113:
2108:
2101:
2096:
2089:
2084:
2077:
2072:
2070:
2062:
2057:
2051:, p. 18.
2050:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2020:, p. 16.
2019:
2018:de Witte 2002
2014:
2007:
2002:
1995:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1940:
1933:
1928:
1926:
1919:, p. 33.
1918:
1913:
1907:, p. 26.
1906:
1901:
1894:
1889:
1887:
1879:
1874:
1866:
1859:
1852:
1847:
1840:
1835:
1829:, p. 19.
1828:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1811:
1806:
1799:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1773:, p. 54.
1772:
1767:
1760:
1755:
1748:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1729:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1710:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1678:, p. 94.
1677:
1672:
1665:
1660:
1653:
1648:
1642:, p. 15.
1641:
1640:de Witte 2002
1636:
1629:
1624:
1617:
1612:
1610:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1553:
1548:
1541:
1536:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1498:
1493:
1486:
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1469:
1464:
1457:
1452:
1445:
1440:
1433:
1428:
1421:
1416:
1409:
1404:
1398:, p. 99.
1397:
1392:
1385:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1362:, p. 91.
1361:
1356:
1350:, p. 12.
1349:
1344:
1337:
1332:
1326:, p. 87.
1325:
1320:
1313:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1297:, p. 91.
1296:
1291:
1285:, p. 87.
1284:
1279:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1257:
1252:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1228:
1222:, p. 74.
1221:
1216:
1210:, p. 76.
1209:
1204:
1197:
1192:
1186:, p. 64.
1185:
1180:
1173:
1168:
1161:
1160:Pakenham 1992
1156:
1149:
1148:Pakenham 1992
1144:
1137:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1120:
1115:
1113:
1108:
1100:
1098:
1087:
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1080:
1074:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1057:
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1054:
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1045:
1028:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1016:joint session
1013:
1009:
1004:
999:
996:
989:
979:
977:
973:
967:
965:
961:
950:
948:
937:
933:
930:
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922:
918:
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848:
844:
840:
836:
831:
822:
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731:
722:
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710:
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677:
675:
670:
666:
659:
655:
651:
642:
640:
636:
631:
627:
621:
619:
615:
611:
610:Moise Tshombe
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
568:(MNC), was a
567:
563:
559:
558:
553:
549:
544:
542:
541:Belgian Congo
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
496:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
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317:
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303:
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296:
293:
291:
290:Niemba ambush
288:
286:
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281:
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276:
272:
269:
265:
262:
261:
260:
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208:
207:
204:
194:
190:
187:
186:
181:
174:250 policemen
171:
168:
167:
162:
159:
147:
146:Supported by:
143:
132:
130:
125:
119:
107:
106:Supported by:
103:
98:
93:
92:
87:
80:
79:
75:
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69:
65:
62:
61:
57:
53:
50:
49:
45:
42:
41:
37:
34:
29:
24:
16:
4133:Congo Crisis
4013:
4004:
3995:
3986:
3978:Dragon Rouge
3977:
3931:
3922:Camp Massart
3913:
3883:
3857:
3794:Larry Devlin
3741:Jack Malloch
3720:Hans Germani
3667:Marc Goosens
3635:Norbert Moke
3621:Louis Bobozo
3325:Rebel forces
3253:Théo Lefèvre
3188:Congo Crisis
3153:
3135:
3111:
3090:
3067:
3050:. ABC-CLIO.
3046:
3025:
3005:
2986:
2964:
2944:
2916:
2897:
2875:
2851:
2831:
2808:
2789:
2777:the original
2756:
2732:
2712:
2693:
2669:
2647:
2625:
2599:
2595:
2569:
2545:
2526:
2517:Bibliography
2502:
2490:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2442:. Retrieved
2438:Le Potentiel
2436:
2411:
2405:. p. 3.
2402:
2396:
2389:Hoskyns 1965
2384:
2372:
2345:
2333:
2321:
2309:
2297:
2290:Hoskyns 1965
2285:
2273:
2261:
2230:
2223:Hoskyns 1965
2208:Hoskyns 1965
2203:
2196:Hoskyns 1965
2191:
2184:Namikas 2013
2179:
2172:Willame 1990
2167:
2160:Willame 1990
2155:
2148:Willame 1990
2143:
2131:
2119:
2107:
2100:Merriam 1961
2095:
2083:
2056:
2044:
2031:
2025:
2013:
2001:
1975:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1944:Hoskyns 1965
1939:
1912:
1900:
1873:
1867:. p. 3.
1864:
1858:
1846:
1834:
1805:
1798:Hoskyns 1965
1771:Packham 1996
1766:
1759:Hoskyns 1965
1754:
1728:Willame 1990
1671:
1659:
1652:Hoskyns 1965
1647:
1635:
1628:Hoskyns 1965
1623:
1616:Artigue 1961
1596:. Retrieved
1592:the original
1587:
1578:
1571:Hoskyns 1965
1547:
1542:, p. 5.
1535:
1523:
1497:Hoskyns 1965
1492:
1463:
1451:
1444:Hoskyns 1965
1439:
1427:
1415:
1403:
1396:Hoskyns 1965
1391:
1384:Hoskyns 1965
1379:
1367:
1360:Hoskyns 1965
1355:
1343:
1336:Hoskyns 1965
1331:
1324:Hoskyns 1965
1319:
1290:
1278:
1251:
1239:
1227:
1215:
1203:
1191:
1179:
1167:
1155:
1143:
1136:Merriam 1961
1093:
1084:
1075:
1068:
1059:
1051:
1044:human rights
1041:
1021:
1000:
991:
968:
956:
943:
934:
925:
916:
913:
890:
859:
851:
843:Robin McKown
835:Thomas Kanza
832:
828:
814:
807:
772:
736:
725:Congo Crisis
719:Jason Sendwe
712:
709:LĂ©opoldville
682:
678:
662:
635:Stanleyville
625:
622:
606:Kongo people
570:united front
555:
545:
537:Kasai region
507:
473:
435:
419:
390:
389:
381:
374:
367:
360:
354:Dragon Rouge
353:
319:
312:Camp Massart
305:
283:
263:
234:Congo Crisis
172:200 soldiers
145:
118:Soviet Union
105:
89:Belligerents
76:
33:Congo Crisis
31:Part of the
15:
3996:White Giant
3987:Dragon Noir
3851:South Kasai
3808:Che Guevara
3762:Jerry Puren
3755:John Peters
3603:Pat Quinlan
3589:K.A.S. Raja
3543:15 Commando
3536:14 Commando
3529:13 Commando
3522:12 Commando
3515:11 Commando
3190:(1960–1965)
2507:Fabian 1996
2444:25 November
2235:Zeilig 2008
1917:Haskin 2005
1905:Haskin 2005
1540:Haskin 2005
1516:McKown 1969
1485:Zeilig 2008
1468:Zeilig 2008
1295:Zeilig 2008
1283:Zeilig 2008
1244:Zeilig 2008
1232:Zeilig 2008
1220:Zeilig 2008
1208:Zeilig 2008
1196:Zeilig 2008
1184:Zeilig 2008
1172:Freund 1998
1025:technicians
995:Joseph Iléo
876:Stephen Otu
854:RĂ©my Mwamba
755:Lower Congo
674:reactionary
669:Lulua river
582:Joseph Ileo
562:bourgeoisie
548:Pan-African
533:Luba Empire
521:Congo Basin
457:South Kasai
430:South Kasai
424:(presently
368:White Giant
361:Dragon Noir
259:South Kasai
142:South Kasai
71:Territorial
56:South Kasai
4097:Categories
3906:Jadotville
3727:Mike Hoare
3699:Bob Denard
3567:Commanders
3508:9 Commando
3501:6 Commando
3494:5 Commando
3487:4 Commando
2459:Kanza 1994
2278:Bring 2011
2266:Bring 2011
2136:Kanza 1994
2112:Kanza 1994
2088:Kanza 1994
2076:Othen 2015
2006:Kanza 1994
1851:Bring 2003
1709:Othen 2015
1676:Gibbs 1991
1552:Kanza 1994
1456:Gibbs 1991
1432:Kanza 1994
1420:Kanza 1994
1408:Kanza 1994
1372:Kanza 1994
1119:Bring 2003
1103:References
819:Forminière
751:the revolt
590:centralism
586:federalism
499:Background
300:Jadotville
178:240 exiles
4123:Invasions
3932:Grandslam
3884:Rum Punch
3691:Mercenary
3613:Congolese
3435:Belgian /
3305:Congolese
3081:949648336
2907:915692187
2799:977145530
2773:631685344
2608:0716-0240
2536:716980193
2471:Rich 2020
2416:Rich 2020
2314:Reid 2023
1994:Reid 2023
1839:Reid 2023
1664:Reid 2023
1031:Aftermath
929:Red Cross
897:Thysville
697:plurality
320:Grandslam
284:Rum Punch
3858:Invasion
3400:Ethiopia
2985:(1992).
2872:(2007).
2731:(1994).
2616:41969371
1598:26 April
1588:Le Phare
1071:genocide
1056:]."
1048:genocide
882:Invasion
867:Ilyushin
793:adopted
768:seceding
665:Tshiluba
484:genocide
469:Bakwanga
264:Invasion
164:Strength
51:Location
4066:Related
3844:Katanga
3824:battles
3645:Belgian
3379:Ireland
3288:U Thant
825:Prelude
626:évolués
517:Belgium
441:seceded
438:Katanga
254:Katanga
191:Unknown
158:Katanga
73:changes
3914:UNOKAT
3386:Sweden
3372:Canada
3142:
3123:
3098:
3079:
3054:
3033:
3012:
2993:
2971:
2952:
2931:
2905:
2884:
2858:
2839:
2822:424186
2820:
2797:
2771:
2743:
2721:414961
2719:
2700:
2681:
2656:
2633:
2614:
2606:
2576:
2553:
2534:
1090:Legacy
1079:Kanyok
1008:Senate
917:nkonga
862:Sabena
639:Baluba
557:évolué
525:buffer
445:crisis
306:UNOKAT
155:
139:
115:
63:Result
4014:South
3786:Other
3393:India
3117:Verso
2921:(PDF)
2780:(PDF)
2761:(PDF)
2612:JSTOR
2592:(PDF)
787:Kindu
785:from
382:South
188:Light
3140:ISBN
3121:ISBN
3096:ISBN
3077:OCLC
3052:ISBN
3031:ISBN
3010:ISBN
2991:ISBN
2969:ISBN
2950:ISBN
2929:ISBN
2903:OCLC
2882:ISBN
2856:ISBN
2837:ISBN
2818:OCLC
2795:OCLC
2769:OCLC
2741:ISBN
2717:OCLC
2698:ISBN
2679:ISBN
2654:ISBN
2631:ISBN
2604:ISSN
2574:ISBN
2551:ISBN
2532:OCLC
2446:2014
1600:2020
860:All
580:and
550:and
449:Luba
43:Date
3425:CIA
1053:sic
612:'s
588:or
515:of
4099::
3119:.
3075:.
2927:.
2816:.
2767:.
2739:.
2677:.
2610:.
2600:44
2594:.
2568:.
2435:.
2423:^
2357:^
2242:^
2215:^
2068:^
1984:^
1974:.
1924:^
1885:^
1817:^
1778:^
1735:^
1716:^
1683:^
1608:^
1586:.
1559:^
1504:^
1475:^
1302:^
1263:^
1126:^
1111:^
641:.
620:.
576:,
543:.
3180:e
3173:t
3166:v
3148:.
3129:.
3104:.
3083:.
3060:.
3039:.
3018:.
2999:.
2977:.
2958:.
2937:.
2909:.
2890:.
2864:.
2845:.
2824:.
2801:.
2749:.
2723:.
2706:.
2687:.
2662:.
2639:.
2618:.
2582:.
2559:.
2538:.
2448:.
1602:.
1023:"
813:(
225:e
218:t
211:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
