1410:
814:
1309:
2047:
1809:
1988:
340:
1726:
international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole". The work of the judges was made more difficult due to the broadness of the crimes listed in the
Nuremberg Charter. The judges did not attempt to define the crime of aggression and did not mention the retroactivity of the charges in the verdict. Despite the lingering doubts of some of the judges, the official interpretation of the IMT held that all of the charges had a solid basis in customary international law and that the trial was procedurally fair. The judges were aware that both the Allies and the Axis had planned or committed acts of aggression, writing the verdict carefully to avoid discrediting either the Allied governments or the tribunal.
1741:. The conspiracy charge caused significant dissent on the bench; Donnedieu de Vabres wanted to scrap it. Through a compromise proposed by the British judges, the charge of conspiracy was narrowed to a conspiracy to wage aggressive war. Only eight defendants were convicted on that charge; all of whom were also found guilty of crimes against peace. All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted. The war crimes and crimes against humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants charged on those grounds being acquitted. The judges determined that crimes against humanity concerning German Jews before 1939 were not under the court's jurisdiction because the prosecution had not proven a connection to aggressive war.
1577:
1824:
542:
2079:, deportation of civilians for forced labor, and violent suppression of anti-colonial uprisings would have been deemed illegal according to the definitions of international crimes in the Nuremberg charter. Another controversy resulted from trying defendants for acts that were not criminal at the time, particularly crimes against peace. Equally novel but less controversial were crimes against humanity, the conspiracy charge, and criminal penalties on individuals for breaches of international law. Besides these criticisms, the trials have been taken to task for the distortion that comes from fitting historical events into legal categories.
837:, absent from the charter, held together the wide array of charges and defendants and was used to charge the top Nazi leaders, as well as bureaucrats who had never killed anyone or perhaps even directly ordered killing. It was also an end run on the charter's limits on charging crimes committed before the beginning of World War II. Conspiracy charges were central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists: the former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of enabling Germany's war effort. The charge, a brainchild of
1980:
1251:
873:
95:
561:
553:
1091:
1566:
1137:. Because of the loose evidentiary rules, photographs, charts, maps, and films played an important role in making incredible crimes believable. After the American prosecution submitted many documents at the beginning of the trial, the judges insisted that all of the evidence be read into the record, which slowed the trial. The structure of the charges also caused delays as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both conspiracy and the other charges.
1508:
1493:
1585:
Some defendants denied involvement in certain crimes or implausibly claimed ignorance of them, especially the Final
Solution. A few defense lawyers inverted the arguments of the prosecution to assert that the Germans' authoritarian mindset and obedience to the state exonerated them from any personal guilt. Most rejected that Germany had deviated from Western civilization, arguing that few Germans could have supported Hitler because Germany was a civilized country.
1713:, Ukraine. During the closing statements, most defendants disappointed the judges by their lies and denial. Speer managed to give the impression of apologizing without assuming personal guilt or naming any victims other than the German people. On 2 September, the court recessed; and the judges retreated into seclusion to decide the verdict and sentences, which had been under discussion since June. The verdict was drafted by British deputy judge
1345:. The British took four days to make their case, with Maxwell Fyfe detailing treaties broken by Germany. In mid-December the Americans switched to presenting the case against the indicted organizations, while in January both the British and Americans presented evidence against individual defendants. Besides the organizations mentioned in the indictment, American, and British prosecutors also mentioned the complicity of the German
628:. The British proposal to define crimes against humanity was largely accepted, with the final wording being "murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population". The final version of the charter limited the tribunal's jurisdiction over crimes against humanity to those committed as part of a war of aggression. Both the United States—concerned that its "
1745:
1183:
1409:
2133:, which stimulated technical advances in translation methods. The Palace of Justice houses a museum on the trial and the courtroom became a tourist attraction, drawing 13,138 visitors in 2005. The IMT is one of the most well-studied trials in history, and it has also been the subject of an abundance of books and scholarly publications, along with motion pictures such as
296:) tried 22 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in the political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite.
1082:(Wehrmacht). The aim was to have these organizations declared criminal, so that their members could be tried expeditiously for membership in a criminal organization. Senior American officials believed that convicting organizations was a good way of showing that not just the top German leaders were responsible for crimes, without condemning the entire German people.
1388:, which he argued was a crime against humanity. Unlike the British and American prosecution strategies, which focused on using German documents to make their cases, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports. Eleven witnesses, including victims of Nazi persecution, were called; resistance fighter and
461:, warning the Nazi leadership of the signatories' intent to "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth...in order that justice may be done". The declaration stated that those high-ranking Nazis who had committed crimes in several countries would be dealt with jointly, while others would be tried where they had committed their crimes.
1604:, trade unions, and other countries that maintained diplomatic relations with Germany. In contrast, most defendants avoided incriminating each other. Most defendants argued their own insignificance within the Nazi system, but Göring took the opposite approach, expecting to be executed but vindicated in the eyes of the German people.
1154:. Jackson maintained that while the United States did "not seek to convict the whole German people of crime", neither did the trial "serve to absolve the whole German people except 21 men in the dock". Nevertheless, defense lawyers (although not most of the defendants) often argued that the prosecution was trying to promote
830:(the Soviet Union). The United States delegation outlined the overall Nazi conspiracy and criminality of Nazi organizations. The British and American delegations decided to work jointly in drafting the charges of conspiracy to wage aggressive war. On 17 September, the various delegations met to discuss the indictment.
1285:, shocked both the defendants and the judges, who adjourned the trial. Indiscriminate selection and disorganized presentation of documentary evidence without tying it to specific defendants hampered the American prosecutors' work on the conspiracy to commit crimes against humanity. The Americans summoned
2005:
Many
Germans at the time of the trials focused on finding food and shelter. Despite this, a majority read press reports about the trial. In a 1946 poll, 78 percent of Germans assessed the trial as fair, but four years later that had fallen to 38 percent, with 30 percent considering it unfair. As time
1772:
efforts. The SA, the Reich
Cabinet, and the General Staff and High Command were not ruled to be criminal organizations. Although the Wehrmacht leadership was not considered an organization within the meaning of the charter, misrepresentation of the verdict as an exoneration was one of the foundations
2001:
In all, 249 journalists were accredited to cover the IMT and 61,854 visitor tickets were issued. In France, the sentence for Rudolf Hess and acquittal of organizations were met with outrage from the media and especially from organizations for deportees and resistance fighters, as they were perceived
1966:
These trials emphasized the crimes committed during the
Holocaust. The trials heard 1,300 witnesses, entered more than 30,000 documents into evidence, and generated 132,855 pages of transcripts, with the judgments totaling 3,828 pages. Of 177 defendants, 142 were convicted and 25 sentenced to death;
2010:
and an imposition of collective guilt, which they rejected—instead considering themselves victims of the war. As the Cold War began, the rapidly changing political environment began to affect the effectiveness of the trials. The educational purpose of the
Nuremberg Military Tribunals was a failure,
1584:
From March to July 1946, the defense presented its counterarguments. Before the prosecution finished, it was clear that their general case was proven, but it remained to determine the individual guilt of each defendant. None of the defendants tried to assert that the Nazis' crimes had not occurred.
2033:
trial, were released in 1958. The German public took the early releases as confirmation of what they saw as the illegitimacy of the trials. The IMT defendants required Soviet permission for release; Speer was not successful in obtaining early release, and Hess remained in prison until his death in
1767:
Four organizations were ruled to be criminal: the
Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD, although some lower ranks and subgroups were excluded. The verdict only allowed for individual criminal responsibility if willing membership and knowledge of the criminal purpose
1420:
On 8 February, the Soviet prosecution opened its case with a speech by
Rudenko that covered all four prosecution charges, highlighting a wide variety of crimes committed by the German occupiers as part of their destructive and unprovoked invasion. Rudenko tried to emphasize common ground with the
1258:
On 21 November, Jackson gave the opening speech for the prosecution. He described the fact that the defeated Nazis received a trial as "one of the most significant tributes that Power has ever paid to Reason". Focusing on aggressive war, which he described as the root of the other crimes, Jackson
857:
in starting World War II. Jackson also separated out an overall conspiracy charge from the other three charges, aiming that the
American prosecution would cover the overall Nazi conspiracy while the other delegations would flesh out the details of Nazi crimes. The division of labor, and the haste
1540:
and was considered even more disturbing than the
American concentration camp film. Soviet witnesses included several survivors of German crimes, including two civilians who lived through the siege of Leningrad, a peasant whose village was destroyed in anti-partisan warfare, a Red Army doctor who
1149:
not guilty. Jackson made it clear that the trial's purpose extended beyond convicting the defendants. Prosecutors wanted to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, establish individual responsibility and the crime of aggression in international law, provide a history lesson to the defeated
1725:
The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgment that because "war is essentially an evil thing", "to initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme
852:
The problem of translating the indictment and evidence into the three official languages of the tribunal—English, French, and Russian—as well as German was severe due to the scale of the task and difficulty of recruiting interpreters, especially in the Soviet Union. Vyshinsky demanded extensive
1793:
to serve their sentences. All three acquittals (Papen, Schacht, and Fritzsche) were based on a deadlock between the judges; these acquittals surprised observers. Despite being accused of the same crimes, Sauckel was sentenced to death, while Speer was given a prison sentence because the judges
1045:
had committed suicide before the start of the trial. Former Nazis were allowed to serve as counsel and by mid-November all defendants had lawyers. The defendants' lawyers jointly appealed to the court, claiming it did not have jurisdiction against the accused; but this motion was rejected. The
1101:
Over the summer, all of the national delegations struggled to gather evidence for the upcoming trial. The American and British prosecutors focused on documentary evidence and affidavits rather than testimony from survivors. This strategy increased the credibility of their case, since survivor
1700:
On 31 August, closing arguments were presented. Over the course of the trial, crimes against humanity and especially against Jews (who were mentioned as victims of Nazi atrocities far more than any other group) came to upstage the aggressive war charge. In contrast to the opening prosecution
1667:
Many defense lawyers complained about various aspects of the trial procedure and attempted to discredit the entire proceedings. In order to appease them, the defendants were allowed a free hand with their witnesses and a great deal of irrelevant testimony was heard. The defendants' witnesses
647:, responsible for breaches. The other three Allies' proposal to limit the definition of the crimes to acts committed by the defeated Axis was rejected by Jackson. Instead, the charter limited the jurisdiction of the court to Germany's actions. Article 7 prevented the defendants from claiming
1376:—criminal intent—of the crimes on trial. The French prosecutors, more than their British or American counterparts, emphasized the complicity of many Germans; they barely mentioned the charge of aggressive war and instead focused on forced labor, economic plunder, and massacres. Prosecutor
1396:
testified about crimes she had witnessed. The French charges of war crimes were accepted by the tribunal, except for the execution of hostages. Due to the narrow definition of crimes against humanity in the charter, the only part of the Germanization charges accepted by the judges was the
1199:
1207:
1757:
1749:
1748:
578:
At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the form that the trial would take. Until the end of the negotiations, it was not clear that any trial would be held at all.
1750:
1233:
687:
In early 1946, there were a thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two thirds were from the United States. Besides legal professionals, there were many social-science researchers, psychologists, translators, and interpreters, and
1185:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1756:
1758:
1365:
From 17 January to 7 February 1946, France presented its charges and supporting evidence. In contrast to the other prosecution teams, the French prosecution delved into Germany's development in the nineteenth century, arguing that it had diverged from the West due to
1219:
1755:
1754:
1680:—bolstered the prosecution's case. Over the course of the trial, Western judges allowed the defendants additional leeway to denounce the Soviet Union, which was ultimately revealed to be a co-conspirator in the outbreak of World War II. In the context of the brewing
1190:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1751:
1226:
1216:
709:
thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes. As the largest delegation, it would take on the bulk of the prosecutorial effort. At Jackson's recommendation, the United States appointed judges
1237:
1232:
1231:
1206:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1230:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1210:
1204:
1196:
1235:
1227:
1224:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1192:
805:; Denmark and Norway also sent a delegation. Although the Polish delegation was not empowered to intervene in the proceedings, it submitted evidence and an indictment, succeeding at drawing some attention to crimes committed against Polish Jews and non-Jews.
1234:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1203:
1197:
1214:
1213:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1220:
1236:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1747:
1238:
782:; the resulting delays hampered the Soviet effort to set the agenda. The influence of the Soviet delegation was also constrained by limited English proficiency, lack of interpreters, and unfamiliarity with diplomacy and international institutions.
1480:. Although Western prosecutors never publicly rejected the Katyn charge for fear of casting doubt on the entire proceedings, they were skeptical. The defense presented evidence of Soviet responsibility, and Katyn was not mentioned in the verdict.
765:
who had represented France at the London Conference. The French government tried to appoint staff who were not tainted by collaboration with the Vichy regime; some appointments, including Champetier de Ribes, were of those who had been in the
2002:
as too lenient. In the United Kingdom, although a variety of responses were reported, it was difficult to sustain interest in a long trial. Where the prosecution was disappointed by some of the verdicts, the defense could take satisfaction.
1187:
1784:
Sentences were debated at length by the judges. Twelve of the defendants were sentenced to death (Göring, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sauckel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, and Bormann). On 16 October,
1320:
The British prosecution covered the charge of crimes against peace, which was largely redundant to the American conspiracy case. On 4 December, Shawcross gave the opening speech, much of which had been written by Cambridge professor
892:—had committed suicide and therefore could not be tried. The prosecutors wanted to try representative leaders of German politics, economy, and military. Most of the defendants had surrendered to the United States or United Kingdom.
821:
The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. The British worked on aggressive war; the other delegations were assigned the task of covering crimes against humanity and war crimes committed on the
1701:
statements, all eight closing statements highlighted the Holocaust; and the French and British prosecutors made this the main charge, as opposed to that of aggression. All prosecutors except the Americans mentioned the concept of
1122:, not including 19 defendants who testified on their own behalf. The prosecution examined 110,000 captured German documents and entered 4,600 into evidence, along with 30 kilometres (19 mi) of film and 25,000 photographs.
2046:
2011:
in part because of the resistance to war crimes trials in German society, but also because of the United States Army's refusal to publish the trial record in German for fear it would undermine the fight against communism.
1433:—as a witness and questioned him about the preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union. Paulus incriminated his former associates, pointing to Keitel, Jodl, and Göring as the defendants most responsible for the war.
1046:
defense lawyers saw themselves as acting on behalf of their clients, but also the German nation. Initially, the Americans had planned to try fourteen organizations and their leaders, but this was narrowed to six: the
1266:
Much of the American case focused on the development of the Nazi conspiracy before the outbreak of war. The American prosecution became derailed during attempts to provide evidence on the first act of aggression,
778:, a show trial prosecutor chosen for his skill as an orator. The Soviet judges and prosecutors were not permitted to make any major decisions without consulting a commission in Moscow led by Soviet politician
1448:, at times they blurred the fate of Jews with that of other Soviet nationalities. Although these aspects had already been covered by the American prosecution, Soviet prosecutors introduced new evidence from
2106:
was much more restricted than Lemkin's original concept and its effectiveness was further limited by Cold War politics. In the 1990s, a revival of international criminal law included the establishment of
496:, which had been devastated by the war. The United States insisted on a trial that would be seen as legitimate as a means of reforming Germany and demonstrating the superiority of the Western system. The
1145:
The International Military Tribunal began trial on 20 November 1945, after postponement requests from the Soviet prosecution, who wanted more time to prepare its case, were rejected. All defendants
1855:
1746:
813:
1633:
repeatedly tried to disclose the secret protocols of the German–Soviet pact; although he was eventually successful, it was legally irrelevant and the judges rejected his attempt to bring up the
1794:
considered that he could reform. Nikichenko released a dissent approved by Moscow that rejected all the acquittals, called for a death sentence for Hess, and convicted all the organizations.
1588:
The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trial—more than the top five defendants combined. Other absent and dead men, including Himmler,
797:
in Poland, for an active role in the trial justified by their representation of victims of Nazi crimes were rejected. The Soviet Union invited prosecutors from its allies, including Poland,
7383:
17:
1186:
2075:
The selective prosecution exclusively of the defeated Axis and hypocrisy of all four Allied powers has garnered the most persistent criticism. Such actions as the German–Soviet pact the
1971:
argues that the trials' greatest achievement was "their inestimable contribution to the form and substance of international criminal law", which had been left underdeveloped by the IMT.
8651:
433:
to demand an international court to try the German crimes committed in occupied countries. The United States and United Kingdom refused to endorse this proposal, citing the failure of
2094:
unanimously passed a resolution affirming "the principles of international law recognized by the Charter of the Nuremberg Tribunal and the judgment of the Tribunal". In 1950, the
1263:
view of the Nazi state and its overall criminal conspiracy. The speech was favorably received by the prosecution, the tribunal, the audience, historians, and even the defendants.
1102:
testimony was considered less reliable and more vulnerable to accusations of bias, but reduced public interest in the proceedings. The American prosecution drew on reports of the
590:; regardless, before the charter was adopted there was no law providing for criminal responsibility for aggression. Despite misgivings from other Allies, American negotiator and
8678:
2072:". The trial has met a mixed reception ranging from glorification to condemnation. The reaction was initially predominantly negative, but has become more positive over time.
1729:
The judges ruled that there had been a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order" and "the creation of a
1557:. The Soviet prosecution case was generally well received and presented compelling evidence about the suffering of the Soviet people and the Soviet contributions to victory.
1614:—asking for exoneration on the grounds that the Allies had committed the same crimes with which the defendants were charged. Although defense lawyers repeatedly equated the
963:. While the British were skeptical of prosecuting economic leaders, the French had a strong interest in highlighting German economic imperialism. The military leaders were
599:
1030:
Although the list of defendants was finalized on 29 August, as late as October, Jackson demanded the addition of new names, but this was rejected. Of the 24 men indicted,
636:
not be labeled a crime against humanity—and the Soviet Union wanted to avoid giving an international court jurisdiction over a government's treatment of its own citizens.
6080:
8313:
414:, mostly civilians, which was one seventh of the prewar population. The legal reckoning was premised on the extraordinary nature of Nazi criminality, particularly the
7069:
6452:
6312:
867:
159:
617:. A Soviet proposal for a charge of "crimes against civilians" was renamed "crimes against humanity" at Jackson's suggestion after previous uses of the term in the
6672:
1664:; Dönitz's counsel successfully argued that this meant that it could not be a crime. The judges barred most evidence on Allied misdeeds from being heard in court.
1119:
169:
1737:". Contrary to Jackson's argument that the conspiracy began with the founding of the Nazi Party in 1920, the verdict dated the planning of aggression to the 1937
7104:
1511:
1842:
Initially, it was planned to hold a second international tribunal for German industrialists, but this was never held because of differences between the Allies.
8918:
8703:
8348:
480:, the Soviet Union lobbied most intensely for trying the defeated German leaders for aggression in addition to war crimes. The Soviet Union wanted to hold a
692:, the last to make the many charts used during the trial. Each state appointed a prosecution team and two judges, one being a deputy without voting rights.
8883:
6896:
2014:
The German churches, both Catholic and Protestant, were vocal proponents of amnesty. The pardon of convicted war criminals also had cross-party support in
1464:
throughout eastern Europe. The Soviet prosecution emphasized the racist aspect of policies such as the deportation of millions of civilians to Germany for
858:
with which the indictment was prepared, resulted in duplication, imprecise language, and lack of attribution of specific charges to individual defendants.
602:. However, Jackson conceded on defining crimes against peace; the other three Allies were opposed because it would undermine the freedom of action of the
842:
613:, but these did not apply to a government's treatment of its own citizens. Legal experts sought a way to try crimes against German citizens, such as the
6757:
307:"the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole". Most of the defendants were also charged with
8878:
8479:
7355:
6707:
1436:
More so than other delegations, Soviet prosecutors showed the gruesome details of German atrocities, especially the death by starvation of 3 million
348:
1951:, several generals were tried for executing thousands of hostages and prisoners of war, looting, using forced labor, and deporting civilians in the
1858:
identified 2,500 major war criminals, of whom 177 were tried. Many of the worst offenders were not prosecuted, for logistical or financial reasons.
1308:
42:
7461:
7064:
6803:
2083:
188:
75:
327:
of aggression, the trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law is considered "the true beginning of
8064:
6722:
7094:
2115:
1623:
1437:
323:
were conducted by the United States against lower-level perpetrators, which focused more on the Holocaust. Controversial at the time for their
8824:
8683:
6717:
6305:
276:(the United Kingdom). In mid-1945, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to convene a joint tribunal in
1808:
7466:
7378:
1847:
1325:. Unlike Jackson, Shawcross attempted to minimize the novelty of the aggression charges, elaborating its precursors in the conventions of
476:) which would later be central to the proceedings at Nuremberg. Trainin's ideas were reprinted in the West and widely adopted. Of all the
8898:
8382:
8206:
1890:
1115:
699:
describes as "a versatile politician and a remarkable orator, if not a great legal thinker". The United States prosecution believed that
411:
8343:
7270:
7074:
2119:
1910:
1789:, with Göring killing himself the day before. Seven defendants (Hess, Funk, Raeder, Dönitz, Schirach, Speer, and Neurath) were sent to
1166:
dictatorship, run by society's lunatic fringe, of which the Germans had been the first victims rather than agents, collaborators, and
6961:
5743:
1618:
to legislation found in other countries, Nazi concentration camps to Allied detention facilities, and the deportation of Jews to the
1532:, using footage from Soviet filmmakers as well as shots from German newsreels. The second film included footage of the liberation of
7566:
6185:
Sharples, Caroline (2013). "Holocaust on Trial: Mass Observation and British Media Responses to the Nuremberg Tribunal, 1945–1946".
8417:
7866:
6889:
6298:
794:
8765:
8286:
8014:
7409:
7360:
7178:
2108:
2102:
to codify international criminal law, although the Cold War prevented the adoption of these principles until the 1990s. The 1948
1846:
were convened solely by the United States in the same courtroom that had hosted the International Military Tribunal. Pursuant to
1171:
633:
1282:
445:—without Soviet participation—first met in October 1943 and became bogged down in the scope of its mandate, with Belgian jurist
7590:
1734:
723:
6285:
6252:
6198:
6175:
6143:
6127:
6104:
6066:
6044:
6021:
5966:
5944:
5883:
5861:
5835:
5809:
5782:
1987:
1905:—for using forced labor, looting property from Nazi victims, and funding SS atrocities. Members of the SS were tried in the
7970:
7388:
7228:
6846:
1661:
676:
500:
was drawing up plans for an international tribunal in late 1944 and early 1945. The British government still preferred the
442:
457:
that would include "the crime of war". On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States issued the
8775:
8608:
8253:
7716:
7456:
6882:
6653:
6417:
1421:
other Allies while rejecting any similarity between Nazi and Soviet rule. The next week, the Soviet prosecution produced
1277:
1243:
731:
679:; it had an attached prison where the defendants could be held. On 8 August, the Nuremberg Charter was signed in London.
434:
403:
339:
214:
7804:
6931:
1601:
1326:
1107:
659:. The negotiators decided that the tribunal's permanent seat would be in Berlin, while the trial would be held at the
379:
1576:
7585:
7330:
6422:
6116:
The Crime of Aggression in International Criminal Law: Historical Development, Comparative Analysis and Present State
1445:
383:
371:
7600:
7536:
8893:
8371:
7828:
7605:
7546:
7521:
7310:
7238:
1260:
363:
1520:
Inspired by the films shown by the American prosecution, the Soviet Union commissioned three films for the trial:
8923:
7449:
7444:
6727:
2091:
1393:
900:
603:
497:
2038:
and new revelations of Nazi criminality, including the first trials of Nazi perpetrators in West German courts.
598:
threatened the United States' withdrawal if aggression was not prosecuted because it had been the rationale for
8266:
8079:
7541:
7135:
7079:
1960:
1654:
1449:
1016:
621:
610:
521:
8241:
264:
Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the
8908:
8738:
8578:
7741:
7595:
7576:
7556:
7526:
7419:
6951:
6813:
5725:
1823:
931:(minister for the occupied eastern territories). Also prosecuted were leaders of the German economy, such as
591:
525:
395:
387:
7648:
5876:
In the Shadow of the Holocaust: Poland, the United Nations War Crimes Commission, and the Search for Justice
5794:
Männer von Ehre?: die Wehrmachtgeneralität im Nürnberger Prozess 1945/46 : zur Entstehung einer Legende
541:
8888:
8603:
8166:
7794:
7663:
7638:
7516:
7099:
7084:
6913:
5980:
2123:
2095:
2086:(Tokyo Trial) borrowed many of its ideas from the IMT, including all four charges, and was intended by the
2061:
1546:
1465:
1272:
1268:
1162:. According to Priemel, the conspiracy charge "invited apologetic interpretations: narratives of absolute,
1103:
956:
827:
823:
660:
586:, and war crimes. At the conference, it was debated whether wars of aggression were prohibited in existing
344:
100:
8236:
8785:
8770:
8671:
8517:
8441:
7653:
7610:
7571:
7471:
7305:
7171:
7140:
6921:
6798:
6712:
6412:
6390:
5871:
2130:
2034:
1987. By the late 1950s, the West German consensus on release began to erode, due to greater openness in
1843:
1803:
1778:
1677:
1533:
1298:
849:, was spearheaded by the United States and less popular with the other delegations, particularly France.
798:
750:
587:
415:
320:
184:
7763:
8928:
8903:
8643:
8522:
8492:
8411:
8328:
8161:
7799:
7697:
7658:
7615:
7551:
7424:
7300:
6977:
6905:
6793:
5774:
2069:
1870:
1866:
1334:
1075:
1024:
790:
328:
2122:(ICTR), which were widely viewed as part of the legacy of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. A permanent
8913:
8868:
8863:
8281:
8096:
7643:
7620:
7531:
7393:
7245:
7233:
7220:
7130:
6437:
5959:
Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg: A New History of the International Military Tribunal after World War II
1638:
1150:
Germans, delegitimize the traditional German elite, and allow the Allies to distance themselves from
1111:
754:
430:
399:
375:
367:
227:
38:
1967:
the severity of sentencing was related to the defendant's proximity to mass murder. Legal historian
8760:
8715:
8261:
8041:
7580:
7561:
7508:
7492:
7439:
7434:
7345:
7335:
7325:
7277:
7260:
7250:
7215:
7210:
7205:
1914:
668:
618:
614:
513:
8186:
2018:, which was established in 1949. The Americans satisfied these wishes to bind West Germany to the
1468:, the murder of children, systematic looting of occupied territories, and theft or destruction of
8753:
8743:
8469:
8023:
7751:
7429:
7414:
7340:
7320:
7315:
7295:
7265:
7255:
6988:
6838:
6350:
6076:
5936:
1709:. British prosecutor Shawcross quoted from witness testimony about a murdered Jewish family from
1537:
1398:
1370:
and imperialism. They argued that Nazi ideology, which derived from these earlier ideas, was the
1350:
1342:
1155:
924:
583:
312:
133:
108:
65:
7820:
5895:"« Notre combat pour la paix » : la France et le procès de Nuremberg (1945–1946)"
1596:, and Bormann, were also blamed. To counter claims that conservative defendants had enabled the
8464:
8231:
7710:
7288:
7282:
7164:
7145:
7120:
7013:
6861:
6593:
6505:
6088:
6013:
5798:
Men of honor?: the Wehrmacht generals in the Nuremberg trial 1945/46: the emergence of a legend
2023:
1979:
1851:
916:
912:
908:
904:
854:
735:
477:
246:
7975:
6384:
5801:
1993:
1717:. All eight judges participated in the deliberations, but the deputies could not cast a vote.
742:
675:. The Palace of Justice was relatively intact but needed to be renovated for the trial due to
8873:
8698:
8323:
8276:
7940:
7691:
6853:
6190:
6054:
5976:
5827:
2141:
2135:
2087:
1461:
1302:
1297:, who testified about the murder of 80,000 people by those under his command, and SS general
872:
834:
696:
410:
was accompanied by immense brutality in occupied areas; war losses in the Soviet Union alone
281:
94:
1250:
8661:
8598:
8181:
7965:
7856:
7834:
7729:
7724:
7705:
7089:
6946:
6830:
6808:
6767:
6742:
6608:
6560:
6340:
2099:
2076:
2054:
1926:
1922:
1886:
1786:
1774:
1634:
1619:
1430:
1426:
1346:
1012:
738:), was the nominal president of the tribunal, in practice Biddle exercised more authority.
644:
469:
426:
125:
8527:
8:
8748:
8656:
8502:
8089:
7046:
6993:
6956:
6702:
6583:
6513:
5766:
2103:
2007:
1878:
1738:
1689:
1673:
1496:
1381:
1313:
1126:
1020:
1008:
1000:
853:
corrections to the charges of crimes against peace, especially regarding the role of the
300:
7884:
7874:
5845:
560:
8128:
8123:
7630:
7030:
7025:
6998:
6936:
6747:
6119:
1956:
1650:
1597:
1441:
1322:
1094:
727:
648:
458:
1170:". In contrast, the evidence presented on the Holocaust convinced some observers that
1114:, while the French prosecution presented many documents that it had obtained from the
8733:
8593:
8424:
8338:
8305:
8219:
8036:
8002:
6941:
6762:
6372:
6366:
6335:
6248:
6194:
6171:
6123:
6100:
6062:
6040:
6017:
5962:
5940:
5916:
5879:
5857:
5850:
Postwar Soldiers: Historical Controversies and West German Democratization, 1945–1955
5831:
5805:
5778:
2035:
2022:, beginning early releases of Nuremberg Military Tribunal convicts in 1949. In 1951,
1862:
1685:
1645:; a cover-up prevented the defense from capitalizing on this argument. Fleet Admiral
1608:
1589:
1550:
1469:
1330:
1067:
1035:
767:
762:
719:
672:
640:
625:
595:
505:
501:
407:
324:
273:
6630:
6269:
2068:
The International Military Tribunal, and its charter, "marked the true beginning of
2029:
overturned most of the sentences and the last three prisoners, all convicted at the
1936:
were tried for the murder of more than one million people behind the Eastern Front.
1692:—the trial became a means of condemning not only Germany but also the Soviet Union.
1569:
964:
552:
8710:
8507:
8497:
8226:
8214:
8196:
8133:
7008:
6697:
6613:
6598:
6407:
6221:
6152:
6092:
5992:
5928:
5906:
5819:
5752:
5735:"At the Origins of Crimes Against Humanity: Clues to a Proper Understanding of the
1968:
1882:
1874:
1816:
1522:
The German Fascist Destruction of the Cultural Treasures of the Peoples of the USSR
1472:. The Soviet prosecution also attempted to fabricate German responsibility for the
1422:
1167:
1134:
984:
928:
885:
846:
779:
774:, who had presided over the Moscow trials, but he was made a judge and replaced by
771:
770:. Expecting a show trial, the Soviet Union initially appointed as chief prosecutor
689:
509:
207:
121:
7879:
7841:
6010:
The Nuremberg moment: The international trial, the lawyers and the racial question
5894:
1885:
on the culpability of bureaucrats of German government ministries, especially the
450:
8780:
8620:
8613:
8430:
8333:
8191:
8171:
8084:
7920:
7125:
6926:
6477:
6472:
6282:
A documentary produced in 1950, available online in the National Archives Catalog
5954:
1898:
1835:
1730:
1658:
1628:
1457:
1130:
1041:, as the Allies were unaware of his death; Krupp was too ill to stand trial; and
944:
896:
895:
The defendants, who were largely unrepentant, included former cabinet ministers:
889:
652:
517:
504:
of Nazi leaders, citing the failure of trials after World War I and qualms about
489:
6006:
Le moment Nuremberg: Le procès international, les lawyers et la question raciale
556:
Aerial view of the Palace of Justice in 1945, with the prison attached behind it
8693:
8588:
8487:
8458:
8150:
8114:
8069:
7779:
7686:
6772:
6732:
6692:
6687:
6618:
6588:
6467:
6432:
6427:
6273:
5853:
2026:
1933:
1812:
1790:
1769:
1714:
1706:
1646:
1615:
1593:
1542:
1473:
1338:
1294:
1288:
1271:. On 29 November, the prosecution was unprepared to continue presenting on the
1090:
1047:
1031:
988:
968:
838:
786:
715:
711:
493:
473:
446:
391:
304:
254:
220:
8074:
7894:
6497:
5933:
The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law
1669:
980:
609:
War crimes already existed in international law as criminal violations of the
8857:
8839:
8826:
8583:
8512:
8403:
8271:
8101:
8058:
7904:
7889:
7187:
6874:
6752:
6737:
6603:
6573:
6378:
6096:
6081:"German Participation in the Nuremberg Trials and Its Implications for Today"
6036:
5920:
5897:["Our fight for peace": France and the Nuremberg trial (1945–1946)].
5824:
The Memory of Judgment: Making Law and History in the Trials of the Holocaust
1948:
1854:, United States forces arrested almost 100,000 Germans as war criminals. The
1413:
1385:
1367:
1063:
960:
920:
775:
485:
419:
316:
253:
for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries across Europe and
8795:
7945:
7930:
7925:
7899:
7852:
7784:
7746:
7496:
6966:
6550:
6540:
6521:
6442:
5911:
2019:
2015:
1963:, deporting civilians, using slave labor, and looting in the Soviet Union.
1941:
1565:
1380:
grouped together various German policies, such as the German annexation of
1354:
1163:
1004:
976:
952:
948:
932:
881:
758:
746:
545:
465:
360:
268:
alone. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from a
265:
258:
250:
74:"International Military Tribunal" redirects here. For the Tokyo Trial, see
6226:
6209:
6157:
6138:
5996:
5771:
Crimes against Humanity: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Application
5757:
5734:
2649:
1641:, and their lawyers argued that this invasion was undertaken to prevent a
695:
Jackson was appointed the United States' chief prosecutor, whom historian
288:
as its legal instrument. Between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the
8801:
8318:
7935:
7789:
6578:
6545:
5983:[The Nuremberg trial: a look back at seventy years of research].
4028:
4026:
2050:
1944:
1918:
1902:
1894:
1453:
1377:
1151:
1071:
1027:. Observers of the trial found the defendants mediocre and contemptible.
992:
972:
520:
announced the formation of an international military tribunal. On 8 May,
438:
352:
6279:
6187:
Britain and the Holocaust: Remembering and Representing War and Genocide
8790:
8625:
8398:
8176:
6658:
6568:
6345:
5164:
5044:
4888:
1906:
1146:
1051:
1042:
996:
940:
802:
656:
488:, in order to demonstrate the Nazi leaders' guilt and build a case for
481:
454:
269:
129:
116:
4050:
4023:
1861:
One set of trials focused on the actions of German professionals: the
8630:
8436:
7035:
4013:
4011:
2961:
1937:
1831:
1389:
1159:
1079:
705:
664:
655:
was left for the judges to decide. The trial was held under modified
565:
355:"formed the moral core of the Allies' case against the Nazi leaders".
308:
277:
104:
8291:
4236:
2939:
2937:
8156:
7956:
7003:
6290:
6244:
1827:
1702:
1681:
1668:
sometimes managed to exculpate them, but other witnesses—including
1642:
1372:
1106:, an American intelligence agency, and information provided by the
936:
629:
5981:"Le procès de Nuremberg: retour sur soixante-dix ans de recherche"
4008:
3981:
3969:
3945:
3516:
1541:
endured several prisoner-of-war camps and two Holocaust survivors—
508:. The form that retribution would take was left unresolved at the
5470:
5080:
2934:
2586:
1952:
1059:
1055:
582:
The offenses that would be prosecuted were crimes against peace,
7156:
6085:
The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial and its Policy Consequences Today
5068:
4212:
3658:
2301:
2077:
expulsion of millions of Germans from central and eastern Europe
1120:
The prosecution called 37 witnesses compared to the defense's 83
8666:
7020:
5263:
4936:
4912:
4745:
4173:
3400:
2511:
1705:, which had been recently invented by the Polish-Jewish jurist
1526:
Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR
1498:
Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR
700:
5092:
4379:
4377:
3164:
1462:
destroyed thousands of villages and murdered their inhabitants
1444:. Although Soviet prosecutors dealt most extensively with the
8031:
6031:
Musa, Shavana (2016). "The British and the Nuremberg Trial".
5482:
4839:
4837:
4835:
4697:
2598:
2090:
to shore up the IMT's legal legacy. On 11 December 1946, the
1710:
1554:
1553:, who described the murder of tens of thousands of Jews from
5545:
5217:
5215:
5020:
4721:
4586:
4550:
4113:
3441:
3439:
2673:
2637:
2499:
2400:
2340:
817:
Handing over the indictment to the tribunal, 18 October 1945
5523:
5521:
5494:
5299:
5275:
5227:
5188:
4972:
4900:
4864:
4784:
4709:
4685:
4610:
4598:
4562:
4490:
4442:
4430:
4374:
4350:
4338:
4260:
4248:
4185:
3957:
3856:
3820:
3808:
3769:
3745:
3504:
3072:
2898:
2540:
2538:
2477:
2475:
2388:
1477:
624:
and in failed efforts to prosecute the perpetrators of the
5704:
5460:
5458:
5419:
5383:
5311:
5287:
5176:
5152:
4876:
4854:
4852:
4832:
4627:
4625:
4526:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4328:
4326:
4301:
4299:
4224:
4149:
4089:
4079:
4077:
4062:
3998:
3996:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3916:
3786:
3784:
3687:
3685:
3636:
3634:
3547:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3364:
3352:
3325:
3236:
3152:
1305:
was little more than a cover for the mass murder of Jews.
299:
The IMT verdict followed the prosecution in declaring the
7070:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
5656:
5598:
5596:
5569:
5212:
5032:
4774:
4772:
4202:
4200:
3796:
3757:
3436:
3412:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3125:
3123:
2949:
2842:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2523:
2199:
2189:
2187:
2006:
went on, more Germans considered the trials illegitimate
1777:. The trial had nevertheless resulted in the coverage of
1580:
A member of the Soviet delegation addresses the tribunal.
868:
List of defendants at the International Military Tribunal
703:
was the product of a German deviation from the West (the
548:(center, with moustache) speaks at the London Conference.
6059:
The Betrayal: The Nuremberg Trials and German Divergence
5632:
5518:
5443:
4996:
3868:
3463:
3424:
3388:
3342:
3340:
3289:
3267:
3265:
3263:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2871:
2869:
2818:
2750:
2748:
2574:
2550:
2535:
2487:
2472:
2364:
2328:
2247:
2174:
2172:
2159:
2157:
1460:
in Czechoslovakia, adding that the German invaders had
845:, and perhaps inspired by his previous work prosecuting
7105:
International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
5680:
5644:
5608:
5581:
5557:
5533:
5506:
5455:
5407:
5371:
5347:
5335:
5140:
5104:
4948:
4924:
4849:
4808:
4733:
4661:
4649:
4622:
4574:
4538:
4466:
4454:
4418:
4401:
4362:
4323:
4296:
4284:
4272:
4074:
3993:
3928:
3844:
3781:
3733:
3721:
3709:
3697:
3682:
3670:
3631:
3571:
3528:
3487:
3475:
3277:
3212:
3200:
3108:
3036:
3012:
2854:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2627:
2625:
2436:
2274:
2264:
2262:
1254:
Presenting information on German aggression, 4 December
8549:
5692:
5668:
5593:
5431:
5395:
5359:
5323:
5251:
5200:
5128:
5008:
4960:
4820:
4796:
4769:
4673:
4478:
4389:
4311:
4197:
4161:
4137:
4125:
4101:
4038:
3904:
3619:
3607:
3595:
3583:
3559:
3451:
3135:
3120:
3096:
3060:
3048:
3002:
3000:
2922:
2830:
2801:
2789:
2697:
2685:
2318:
2316:
2291:
2289:
2211:
2184:
1947:
for using slave labor and deporting civilians. In the
5620:
5239:
5056:
4514:
4502:
3646:
3337:
3260:
3188:
3176:
3024:
2985:
2973:
2910:
2881:
2866:
2745:
2733:
2709:
2460:
2412:
2352:
2169:
2154:
1452:
reports and interrogations of senior enemy officers.
18:
London Charter of the International Military Tribunal
5116:
4984:
4757:
4637:
3892:
3880:
3832:
3376:
3313:
3248:
3224:
3084:
2772:
2760:
2721:
2661:
2622:
2562:
2448:
2424:
2376:
2259:
995:, Hitler's deputy who had flown to Britain in 1941;
59:
Series of military trials at the end of World War II
3301:
2997:
2610:
2313:
2286:
2235:
2223:
1177:
671:, Nuremberg was a symbolic location as the site of
315:, and the systematic murder of millions of Jews in
7060:International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg Trials)
6033:British Influences on International Law, 1915–2015
2126:(ICC), proposed in 1953, was established in 2002.
749:; he resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by
5899:Revue d'Allemagne et des pays de langue allemande
1913:that oversaw SS economic activity, including the
955:, along with Speer's subordinate and head of the
8855:
7090:Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
7065:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
6804:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
2084:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
189:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
76:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
8324:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
6286:Bibliography of the Holocaust § Primary Sources
1530:The German Fascist Destruction of Soviet Cities
6904:
1797:
8684:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
7172:
6890:
6306:
745:, had just overseen trials of the leaders of
8919:International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg
6280:Nuremberg: Army Television - Release Version
6168:'Crimes Against Peace' and International Law
1983:Press at the International Military Tribunal
1286:
639:The charter upended the traditional view of
8884:Courts and tribunals disestablished in 1946
8383:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
5844:
5269:
5233:
4918:
1446:systematic murder of Jews in eastern Europe
1116:Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation
23:
7179:
7165:
7075:International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
6897:
6883:
6680:
6313:
6299:
6139:"Imperfect Justice at Nuremberg and Tokyo"
6075:
5791:
5221:
4894:
4882:
1911:SS Main Economic and Administrative Office
1672:, the former commandant of Auschwitz, and
1476:, which had in fact been committed by the
1172:Germans must have been aware of this crime
757:, a professor of criminal law, and deputy
24:
7095:Special Panels of the Dili District Court
6225:
6214:Journal of International Criminal Justice
6207:
6156:
5910:
5892:
5765:
5756:
5744:Journal of International Criminal Justice
5732:
5662:
5575:
5488:
5170:
4703:
4056:
4032:
4017:
3987:
3975:
3951:
3522:
3445:
2967:
2943:
2679:
2643:
2604:
2592:
2544:
2505:
2307:
1974:
1959:for plotting wars of aggression, issuing
1281:. The film, compiled from footage of the
682:
420:the systematic murder of millions of Jews
99:Judges' bench during the tribunal at the
8879:Courts and tribunals established in 1945
6184:
6003:
5975:
5710:
5686:
5638:
5182:
4814:
4532:
3664:
3640:
3553:
3481:
2812:
2795:
2655:
2045:
1986:
1978:
1830:prisoners unload cement from trains for
1822:
1807:
1743:
1575:
1564:
1408:
1307:
1249:
1181:
1089:
871:
812:
795:Provisional Government of National Unity
559:
551:
540:
338:
249:against representatives of the defeated
32:This is an accepted version of this page
6165:
6136:
6113:
6053:
5870:
5818:
5698:
5650:
5626:
5614:
5587:
5563:
5551:
5539:
5527:
5512:
5476:
5464:
5449:
5437:
5413:
5377:
5353:
5341:
5305:
5281:
5194:
5146:
5086:
5074:
5026:
4954:
4930:
4906:
4870:
4858:
4790:
4739:
4727:
4715:
4691:
4667:
4655:
4631:
4616:
4592:
4580:
4568:
4556:
4544:
4496:
4484:
4472:
4460:
4448:
4436:
4424:
4412:
4383:
4368:
4356:
4344:
4332:
4317:
4305:
4290:
4278:
4119:
4083:
4044:
4002:
3963:
3939:
3862:
3850:
3826:
3814:
3802:
3790:
3775:
3763:
3751:
3739:
3727:
3715:
3703:
3691:
3676:
3601:
3589:
3577:
3565:
3541:
3510:
3498:
3418:
3406:
3394:
3370:
3358:
3346:
3331:
3295:
3271:
3242:
3194:
3182:
3170:
3158:
3146:
3129:
3102:
3078:
3066:
3054:
2979:
2955:
2928:
2916:
2892:
2875:
2860:
2848:
2836:
2754:
2739:
2715:
2703:
2529:
2517:
2493:
2481:
2466:
2418:
2406:
2382:
2358:
2334:
2268:
2253:
2205:
2193:
2178:
2163:
1637:. Six defendants were charged with the
1622:, the judges rejected their arguments.
1501:, 57 minutes; shown on 19 February 1946
1316:'s crimes is presented, 2 January 1946.
425:In early 1942, representatives of nine
14:
8856:
6234:
5953:
5927:
5674:
5602:
5500:
5425:
5401:
5389:
5365:
5329:
5317:
5293:
5257:
5245:
5206:
5158:
5134:
5122:
5110:
5098:
5062:
5050:
5038:
5014:
5002:
4990:
4978:
4966:
4942:
4843:
4826:
4802:
4778:
4751:
4679:
4604:
4520:
4508:
4395:
4266:
4254:
4242:
4230:
4218:
4206:
4191:
4179:
4167:
4155:
4143:
4131:
4107:
4095:
4068:
3922:
3910:
3652:
3625:
3613:
3469:
3457:
3430:
3382:
3319:
3307:
3283:
3254:
3230:
3218:
3206:
3114:
3090:
3042:
3030:
3018:
3006:
2991:
2904:
2824:
2783:
2766:
2727:
2691:
2667:
2631:
2580:
2568:
2556:
2454:
2442:
2430:
2394:
2370:
2346:
2322:
2295:
2280:
2241:
2229:
2217:
1856:Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes
1283:liberation of Nazi concentration camps
1140:
1017:Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands
724:Attorney General for England and Wales
285:
8548:
8369:
8000:
7491:
7490:
7160:
6878:
6294:
6144:European Journal of International Law
1997:reporting the verdict, 1 October 1946
1404:
1360:
347:, 1944. According to legal historian
7971:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
6320:
6030:
5739:Principle in the Nuremberg Judgment"
4763:
4643:
3898:
3886:
3874:
3838:
2616:
1879:role of the judiciary in Nazi crimes
730:. Although the chief British judge,
536:
453:arguing for a broader definition of
443:United Nations War Crimes Commission
8776:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
6654:Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach
1955:. Other generals were tried in the
1401:and other parts of Western Europe.
1278:Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps
1244:Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps
983:. Also on trial were propagandists
718:. The British chief prosecutor was
522:Germany surrendered unconditionally
512:in February 1945. On 2 May, at the
429:from German-occupied Europe issued
56:
8899:International courts and tribunals
8370:
2658:, pp. 102–103, 114, 120, 135.
1909:, which focused on members of the
1602:Social Democratic Party of Germany
1108:YIVO Institute for Jewish Research
967:—the most infamous surviving Nazi—
482:trial with a predetermined outcome
57:
8940:
7186:
6263:
2129:The trials were the first use of
1891:Also on trial were industrialists
1815:opens for the prosecution in the
880:Some of the most prominent Nazis—
8339:Polish leaders and intellectuals
7829:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
5053:, pp. 3, 4, 92–94, 100–101.
2112:international criminal tribunals
1643:British invasion of that country
1607:The charter did not recognize a
1506:
1491:
1178:American and British prosecution
600:American entry into World War II
531:
93:
6728:Marie-Claude Vaillant-Couturier
2092:United Nations General Assembly
1834:, presented as evidence at the
1399:deportation of Jews from France
1394:Marie Claude Vaillant-Couturier
1129:of any evidence deemed to have
651:, and the plea of acting under
604:United Nations Security Council
498:United States Department of War
364:invaded many European countries
290:International Military Tribunal
87:International Military Tribunal
8267:Attack on the twentieth convoy
8080:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
7136:International humanitarian law
7080:Special Court for Sierra Leone
6170:. Cambridge University Press.
5878:. Cambridge University Press.
1768:could be proved, complicating
1655:unrestricted submarine warfare
1512:Testimony of Abraham Sutzkever
1450:Extraordinary State Commission
1158:and forcefully countered this
1050:, the Leadership Corps of the
726:, assisted by his predecessor
622:Commission of Responsibilities
319:was significant to the trial.
13:
1:
6208:Tomuschat, Christian (2006).
5726:Nuremberg Trials bibliography
4245:, pp. 233, 236–237, 239.
2148:
1600:, defense lawyers blamed the
1440:and several hundred thousand
861:
808:
569:
8604:Jewish war conspiracy theory
7795:Extermination through labour
7100:Special Tribunal for Lebanon
7085:International Criminal Court
6799:Nuremberg Military Tribunals
6004:Mouralis, Guillaume (2019).
5893:Gemählich, Matthias (2019).
4897:, pp. 405–406, 447–448.
2124:International Criminal Court
2096:International Law Commission
1547:Treblinka extermination camp
1104:Office of Strategic Services
345:Auschwitz concentration camp
7:
8786:Righteous Among the Nations
8001:
7472:Righteous Among the Nations
7141:International speech crimes
6922:Customary international law
6713:Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
6391:Auguste Champetier de Ribes
6077:Safferling, Christoph J. M.
6061:. Oxford University Press.
5961:. Oxford University Press.
2131:simultaneous interpretation
1804:Subsequent Nuremberg trials
1798:Subsequent Nuremberg trials
1301:, who admitted that German
1299:Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
1085:
751:Auguste Champetier de Ribes
588:customary international law
526:an end to the war in Europe
325:retroactive criminalization
185:Subsequent Nuremberg trials
10:
8945:
8523:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
8493:Lithuanian Security Police
8412:Reich Security Main Office
7379:Evidence and documentation
6962:Convention Against Torture
6906:International criminal law
6794:international criminal law
5775:Cambridge University Press
5723:
5719:
2070:international criminal law
2053:, chief prosecutor of the
1932:, in which members of the
1801:
1779:its systematic criminality
1763:Newsreel of the sentencing
1720:
1695:
1560:
1456:presented evidence on the
1335:League of Nations Covenant
1273:invasion of Czechoslovakia
1025:Reich Main Security Office
1023:, the leader of Himmler's
999:, governor-general of the
876:The defendants in the dock
865:
791:World Zionist Organization
516:, United States president
329:international criminal law
257:against their citizens in
170:37 prosecution, 83 defense
73:
63:
8739:Books and other resources
8726:
8642:
8571:
8567:
8544:
8478:
8450:
8391:
8378:
8365:
8304:
8252:
8205:
8142:
8112:
8050:
8022:
8013:
8009:
7996:
7954:
7913:
7865:
7851:
7813:
7772:
7672:
7629:
7507:
7503:
7486:
7402:
7371:
7271:Bulgarian-occupied Greece
7198:
7194:
7131:Joint criminal enterprise
7113:
7044:
6975:
6912:
6822:
6785:
6671:
6646:
6559:
6533:
6493:
6486:
6460:
6451:
6438:Henri Donnedieu de Vabres
6400:
6359:
6328:
6210:"The Legacy of Nuremberg"
6166:Sellars, Kirsten (2013).
6137:Sellars, Kirsten (2010).
5792:Brüggemann, Jens (2018).
5733:Acquaviva, Guido (2011).
5479:, pp. 148, 343, 402.
5089:, pp. 247, 310, 315.
4221:, pp. 180, 202, 233.
2041:
1639:German invasion of Norway
1505:
1490:
1485:
1112:American Jewish Committee
755:Henri Donnedieu de Vabres
753:. The French judges were
468:developed the concept of
334:
199:
194:
180:
175:
165:
155:
147:
139:
115:
92:
85:
8329:People with disabilities
8262:Aid and Rescue Committee
7051:(in order of foundation)
6849:" (1959 television play)
6235:Weinke, Annette (2006).
6114:Sayapin, Sergey (2014).
6097:10.5771/9783845280400-41
5077:, pp. 294–296, 298.
4945:, pp. 387, 390–391.
4754:, pp. 371–372, 387.
4182:, pp. 225–226, 335.
3409:, pp. 83, 106, 133.
2595:, pp. xxx–xxxi, 94.
2520:, pp. 84–85, 88–89.
1915:Nazi concentration camps
1125:The charter allowed the
947:, and economic planners
669:American occupation zone
643:by holding individuals,
514:San Francisco Conference
449:and Czech legal scholar
412:included 27 million dead
39:latest accepted revision
8894:Crimes against humanity
8470:Order Police battalions
6989:Crimes against humanity
6351:Crimes against humanity
6237:Die Nürnberger Prozesse
5985:Critique Internationale
5937:Oxford University Press
5101:, pp. 87, 96, 104.
3173:, pp. 18, 69, 111.
1572:under cross-examination
1538:liberation of Auschwitz
1438:Soviet prisoners of war
1275:, and instead screened
1156:German collective guilt
901:brought Hitler to power
789:, the president of the
741:The French prosecutor,
611:laws and customs of war
584:crimes against humanity
506:retroactive criminality
435:war crimes prosecutions
359:Between 1939 and 1945,
313:crimes against humanity
303:of plotting and waging
134:crimes against humanity
109:Allied-occupied Germany
8924:Nazi war crimes trials
8319:Soviet urban residents
7410:International response
7384:Contemporary knowledge
7146:Universal jurisdiction
7121:Command responsibility
7014:Incitement to genocide
6952:United Nations Charter
6594:Joachim von Ribbentrop
6506:Konstantin von Neurath
6055:Priemel, Kim Christian
6014:Presses de Sciences Po
5912:10.4000/allemagne.2053
2349:, pp. 31, 36, 54.
2065:
1998:
1984:
1975:Contemporary reactions
1852:Allied Control Council
1844:Twelve military trials
1839:
1820:
1764:
1684:—for example, in 1947
1581:
1573:
1442:residents of Leningrad
1417:
1416:opens the Soviet case.
1317:
1287:
1255:
1247:
1174:while it was ongoing.
1098:
913:Konstantin von Neurath
905:Joachim von Ribbentrop
877:
818:
736:Lord Justice of Appeal
683:Judges and prosecutors
575:
557:
549:
356:
272:(the Soviet Union) to
8840:49.45444°N 11.04833°E
8766:Memorials and museums
8704:Reparations Agreement
8699:Holocaust restitution
8277:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
7800:Human experimentation
7639:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
6854:Judgment at Nuremberg
6847:Judgment at Nuremberg
6272:and other documents (
6191:Palgrave Macmillan UK
5997:10.3917/crii.073.0159
5828:Yale University Press
5724:Further information:
2409:, pp. 67, 74–75.
2397:, pp. 26–27, 31.
2142:The Memory of Justice
2136:Judgment at Nuremberg
2088:Truman Administration
2049:
1990:
1982:
1934:mobile killing squads
1867:human experimentation
1826:
1811:
1781:in the German press.
1762:
1735:the frontiers of 1914
1579:
1568:
1412:
1384:, under the label of
1311:
1303:anti-partisan warfare
1253:
1241:
1093:
935:(of the conglomerate
875:
816:
732:Sir Geoffrey Lawrence
697:Kim Christian Priemel
563:
555:
544:
484:similar to the 1930s
416:perceived singularity
342:
321:Twelve further trials
8909:History of Nuremberg
7966:Jewish Ghetto Police
7835:Politische Abteilung
7730:Risiera di San Sabba
7591:Natzweiler-Struthof
7047:International courts
6947:Nuremberg principles
6831:That Justice Be Done
6809:Nuremberg principles
6768:Seweryna Szmaglewska
6743:Friedrich von Paulus
6609:Arthur Seyss-Inquart
6341:Crimes against peace
6241:The Nuremberg trials
6039:. pp. 367–386.
5767:Bassiouni, M. Cherif
5554:, pp. 402, 417.
5503:, pp. 205, 348.
5173:, paragraphs 27, 34.
5029:, pp. 273, 308.
4981:, pp. 353, 400.
4730:, pp. 109, 144.
4607:, pp. 370, 372.
4595:, pp. 138, 141.
4559:, pp. 119, 150.
4269:, pp. 240, 242.
4257:, pp. 237, 239.
4194:, pp. 247, 329.
4122:, pp. 116, 118.
3081:, pp. 209, 220.
2907:, p. 53, 73–74.
2607:, pp. xxxi, 33.
2100:Nuremberg principles
1923:Nazi racial policies
1775:clean Wehrmacht myth
1635:Treaty of Versailles
1620:expulsion of Germans
1431:Battle of Stalingrad
1097:clerks with evidence
1013:Arthur Seyss-Inquart
957:forced labor program
470:crimes against peace
427:governments-in-exile
126:crimes against peace
8889:Crime of aggression
8836: /
8744:Days of remembrance
8657:Holocaust survivors
8652:Depopulated shtetls
8503:Rollkommando Hamann
8349:Jehovah's Witnesses
8167:Kamianets-Podilskyi
7229:Bohemia and Moravia
6994:Crime of aggression
6957:Genocide Convention
6703:Walter Schellenberg
6584:Ernst Kaltenbrunner
6514:Baldur von Schirach
6385:François de Menthon
6243:] (in German).
6227:10.1093/jicj/mql051
6158:10.1093/ejil/chq070
6012:] (in French).
5977:Mouralis, Guillaume
5802:Ferdinand Schöningh
5800:] (in German).
5758:10.1093/jicj/mqr010
5491:, pp. 833–834.
5428:, pp. 111–112.
5392:, pp. 366–367.
5320:, pp. 105–107.
5308:, pp. 356–357.
5296:, pp. 372–373.
5284:, pp. 353–354.
5272:, pp. 172–173.
5197:, pp. 146–147.
5161:, pp. 400–401.
4921:, pp. 163–164.
4909:, pp. 147–148.
4873:, pp. 143–144.
4846:, pp. 383–384.
4793:, pp. 150–151.
4718:, pp. 164–165.
4706:, pp. 840–841.
4694:, pp. 142–143.
4619:, pp. 160–161.
4571:, pp. 62, 120.
4499:, pp. 129–130.
4451:, pp. 131–132.
4439:, pp. 149–150.
4386:, pp. 133–134.
4359:, pp. 130–131.
4347:, pp. 127–128.
4233:, pp. 231–232.
4158:, pp. 230–231.
4098:, pp. 221–222.
4071:, pp. 216–218.
4059:, paragraphs 17–18.
4035:, paragraphs 20–21.
3966:, pp. 110–111.
3925:, pp. 199–200.
3877:, pp. 380–381.
3865:, pp. 121–122.
3829:, pp. 89, 108.
3817:, pp. 118–119.
3778:, pp. 104–105.
3754:, pp. 107–108.
3513:, pp. 116–117.
3373:, pp. 121–122.
3361:, pp. 82, 127.
3334:, pp. 82, 139.
3245:, pp. 100–101.
3161:, pp. 112–113.
2970:, paragraphs 11–12.
2682:, pp. 839–840.
2646:, pp. 884–885.
2508:, pp. 832–833.
2208:, pp. 151–159.
2104:Genocide Convention
1994:Süddeutsche Zeitung
1739:Hossbach Memorandum
1690:Iron Curtain speech
1674:Hans Bernd Gisevius
1649:testified that the
1429:captured after the
1343:Kellogg–Briand Pact
1314:Ernst Kaltenbrunner
1141:Course of the trial
1021:Ernst Kaltenbrunner
1009:Baldur von Schirach
1001:General Governorate
743:François de Menthon
441:. The London-based
228:Donnedieu de Vabres
29:Page version status
8845:49.45444; 11.04833
8727:History and memory
8631:Forced euthanasia
8579:Nazi racial policy
8282:Danish underground
8129:Operation Reinhard
8124:Wannsee Conference
6999:Crime of apartheid
6937:Geneva Conventions
6842:(1947 documentary)
6748:Erich Buschenhagen
6413:Alexander Volchkov
6193:. pp. 31–50.
6120:T.M.C. Asser Press
6091:. pp. 41–54.
5041:, pp. 85, 89.
2958:, pp. 75, 89.
2851:, pp. 71, 90.
2827:, pp. 2, 112.
2583:, pp. 68, 73.
2559:, pp. 30, 34.
2532:, pp. 98–100.
2373:, pp. 4, 107.
2256:, pp. 32, 64.
2066:
1999:
1985:
1957:High Command Trial
1871:euthanasia murders
1840:
1821:
1765:
1676:, a member of the
1651:United States Navy
1598:Nazi rise to power
1582:
1574:
1514:, 27 February 1946
1418:
1405:Soviet prosecution
1361:French prosecution
1323:Hersch Lauterpacht
1318:
1256:
1248:
1099:
1095:United States Army
878:
855:German–Soviet pact
819:
728:David Maxwell Fyfe
649:sovereign immunity
645:rather than states
634:racial segregation
576:
558:
550:
459:Moscow Declaration
357:
274:summary executions
64:For the film, see
35:
8929:Trials in Germany
8904:Ex post facto law
8819:
8818:
8815:
8814:
8811:
8810:
8662:Sh'erit ha-Pletah
8609:Jewish emigration
8599:Hitler's prophecy
8594:Haavara Agreement
8540:
8539:
8536:
8535:
8528:Ypatingasis būrys
8425:Sicherheitsdienst
8361:
8360:
8357:
8356:
8300:
8299:
8220:Bielski partisans
7992:
7991:
7988:
7987:
7984:
7983:
7823:Totenkopfverbände
7482:
7481:
7154:
7153:
6980:international law
6942:Nuremberg Charter
6932:Hague Conventions
6872:
6871:
6865:(2000 miniseries)
6781:
6780:
6763:Abraham Sutzkever
6667:
6666:
6642:
6641:
6635:
6627:
6526:
6518:
6510:
6502:
6418:Geoffrey Lawrence
6373:Hartley Shawcross
6367:Robert H. Jackson
6360:Chief prosecutors
6336:Nuremberg Charter
6254:978-3-406-53604-5
6200:978-1-137-35077-0
6177:978-1-107-02884-5
6129:978-90-6704-927-6
6106:978-3-8487-3688-1
6068:978-0-19-256374-3
6046:978-90-04-28417-3
6023:978-2-7246-2422-9
5968:978-0-19-937795-4
5946:978-0-19-923233-8
5929:Heller, Kevin Jon
5885:978-1-009-11660-2
5863:978-1-78920-558-9
5846:Echternkamp, Jörg
5837:978-0-300-10984-9
5820:Douglas, Lawrence
5811:978-3-506-79259-4
5784:978-1-139-49893-7
5713:, pp. 31–32.
5185:, pp. 46–47.
5005:, pp. 11–12.
4535:, pp. 23–24.
3805:, pp. 69–70.
3766:, pp. 20–21.
3472:, pp. 24–26.
3433:, pp. 27–28.
3421:, pp. 92–93.
3397:, pp. 83–84.
3298:, pp. 81–82.
3286:, pp. 28–29.
3221:, pp. 84–86.
3209:, pp. 82–83.
3117:, pp. 80–81.
3045:, pp. 88–89.
3021:, pp. 9, 78.
2496:, pp. 87–88.
2484:, pp. 85–86.
2445:, pp. 45–46.
2337:, pp. 49–50.
2283:, pp. 30–31.
2220:, pp. 27–28.
2062:Palace of Justice
2036:political culture
2024:High Commissioner
1819:, 6 January 1948.
1760:
1686:Winston Churchill
1678:German resistance
1590:Reinhard Heydrich
1551:Abraham Sutzkever
1518:
1517:
1470:cultural heritage
1239:
1168:fellow travellers
1133:value, including
925:interior minister
843:Murray C. Bernays
826:(France) and the
793:, as well as the
768:French resistance
763:Cour de Cassation
761:, a judge of the
720:Hartley Shawcross
690:graphic designers
667:. Located in the
661:Palace of Justice
641:international law
626:Armenian genocide
596:Robert H. Jackson
537:Nuremberg charter
502:summary execution
343:Jews arriving at
286:Nuremberg Charter
245:were held by the
239:
238:
215:Geoffrey Lawrence
101:Palace of Justice
26:
16:(Redirected from
8936:
8914:Holocaust trials
8869:1940s in Germany
8864:Nuremberg trials
8851:
8850:
8848:
8847:
8846:
8841:
8837:
8834:
8833:
8832:
8829:
8711:Holocaust denial
8689:Nuremberg trials
8679:Postwar violence
8634:
8569:
8568:
8546:
8545:
8508:Special Brigades
8498:Nederlandsche SS
8465:Police Regiments
8389:
8388:
8367:
8366:
8227:Ghetto uprisings
8215:Jewish partisans
8162:Harvest Festival
8134:Holocaust trains
8020:
8019:
8011:
8010:
7998:
7997:
7863:
7862:
7759:
7737:
7719:
7700:
7682:
7505:
7504:
7488:
7487:
7196:
7195:
7181:
7174:
7167:
7158:
7157:
7114:Related concepts
7052:
7009:Genocidal intent
6899:
6892:
6885:
6876:
6875:
6839:Nuremberg Trials
6758:Eugene Kivelisha
6698:Dieter Wisliceny
6678:
6677:
6633:
6621:
6614:Julius Streicher
6599:Alfred Rosenberg
6524:
6516:
6508:
6500:
6491:
6490:
6458:
6457:
6408:Iona Nikitchenko
6375:(United Kingdom)
6322:Nuremberg trials
6315:
6308:
6301:
6292:
6291:
6258:
6231:
6229:
6204:
6181:
6162:
6160:
6151:(4): 1085–1102.
6133:
6110:
6072:
6050:
6027:
6000:
5972:
5955:Hirsch, Francine
5950:
5924:
5914:
5889:
5872:Fleming, Michael
5867:
5841:
5815:
5788:
5762:
5760:
5714:
5708:
5702:
5696:
5690:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5660:
5654:
5648:
5642:
5636:
5630:
5624:
5618:
5612:
5606:
5600:
5591:
5585:
5579:
5573:
5567:
5561:
5555:
5549:
5543:
5537:
5531:
5525:
5516:
5510:
5504:
5498:
5492:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5468:
5462:
5453:
5447:
5441:
5435:
5429:
5423:
5417:
5411:
5405:
5399:
5393:
5387:
5381:
5375:
5369:
5363:
5357:
5351:
5345:
5339:
5333:
5327:
5321:
5315:
5309:
5303:
5297:
5291:
5285:
5279:
5273:
5270:Echternkamp 2020
5267:
5261:
5255:
5249:
5243:
5237:
5234:Echternkamp 2020
5231:
5225:
5219:
5210:
5204:
5198:
5192:
5186:
5180:
5174:
5168:
5162:
5156:
5150:
5144:
5138:
5132:
5126:
5120:
5114:
5113:, pp. 1, 4.
5108:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5084:
5078:
5072:
5066:
5060:
5054:
5048:
5042:
5036:
5030:
5024:
5018:
5012:
5006:
5000:
4994:
4988:
4982:
4976:
4970:
4964:
4958:
4952:
4946:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4922:
4919:Echternkamp 2020
4916:
4910:
4904:
4898:
4892:
4886:
4880:
4874:
4868:
4862:
4856:
4847:
4841:
4830:
4824:
4818:
4812:
4806:
4800:
4794:
4788:
4782:
4776:
4767:
4761:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4731:
4725:
4719:
4713:
4707:
4701:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4665:
4659:
4653:
4647:
4641:
4635:
4629:
4620:
4614:
4608:
4602:
4596:
4590:
4584:
4578:
4572:
4566:
4560:
4554:
4548:
4542:
4536:
4530:
4524:
4518:
4512:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4488:
4482:
4476:
4470:
4464:
4458:
4452:
4446:
4440:
4434:
4428:
4422:
4416:
4410:
4399:
4393:
4387:
4381:
4372:
4366:
4360:
4354:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4321:
4315:
4309:
4303:
4294:
4288:
4282:
4276:
4270:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4246:
4240:
4234:
4228:
4222:
4216:
4210:
4204:
4195:
4189:
4183:
4177:
4171:
4165:
4159:
4153:
4147:
4141:
4135:
4129:
4123:
4117:
4111:
4105:
4099:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4072:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4048:
4042:
4036:
4030:
4021:
4015:
4006:
4000:
3991:
3985:
3979:
3973:
3967:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3943:
3937:
3926:
3920:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3896:
3890:
3884:
3878:
3872:
3866:
3860:
3854:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3800:
3794:
3788:
3779:
3773:
3767:
3761:
3755:
3749:
3743:
3737:
3731:
3725:
3719:
3713:
3707:
3701:
3695:
3689:
3680:
3674:
3668:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3611:
3605:
3599:
3593:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3539:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3485:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3461:
3455:
3449:
3443:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3416:
3410:
3404:
3398:
3392:
3386:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3350:
3344:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3317:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3168:
3162:
3156:
3150:
3144:
3133:
3127:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3100:
3094:
3088:
3082:
3076:
3070:
3064:
3058:
3052:
3046:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3022:
3016:
3010:
3004:
2995:
2989:
2983:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2932:
2926:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2879:
2873:
2864:
2863:, pp. 3, 6.
2858:
2852:
2846:
2840:
2834:
2828:
2822:
2816:
2810:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2781:
2770:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2694:, pp. 9–10.
2689:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2647:
2641:
2635:
2629:
2620:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2533:
2527:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2470:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2422:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2392:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2284:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2257:
2251:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2182:
2176:
2167:
2161:
2051:Benjamin Ferencz
2008:victor's justice
1969:Kevin Jon Heller
1883:Ministries trial
1817:Ministries trial
1761:
1632:
1545:, a survivor of
1510:
1509:
1495:
1494:
1483:
1482:
1423:Friedrich Paulus
1292:
1240:
985:Julius Streicher
929:Alfred Rosenberg
917:foreign minister
909:foreign minister
886:Heinrich Himmler
847:securities fraud
780:Andrei Vyshinsky
772:Iona Nikitchenko
619:post-World War I
574:
571:
510:Yalta Conference
282:occupied Germany
243:Nuremberg trials
231:
211:
208:Iona Nikitchenko
195:Court membership
143:20 November 1945
97:
88:
83:
82:
67:Nuremberg Trials
21:
8944:
8943:
8939:
8938:
8937:
8935:
8934:
8933:
8854:
8853:
8844:
8842:
8838:
8835:
8830:
8827:
8825:
8823:
8822:
8820:
8807:
8722:
8638:
8632:
8621:Madagascar Plan
8614:Kindertransport
8563:
8562:
8532:
8474:
8446:
8431:Ordnungspolizei
8387:
8374:
8353:
8296:
8248:
8201:
8172:Maly Trostenets
8143:Mass executions
8138:
8108:
8046:
8005:
7980:
7950:
7909:
7847:
7809:
7768:
7757:
7735:
7717:
7698:
7680:
7668:
7625:
7499:
7478:
7398:
7389:Hidden children
7367:
7225:Czechoslovakia
7190:
7185:
7155:
7150:
7126:Superior orders
7109:
7053:
7050:
7049:
7040:
6982:
6979:
6971:
6927:Peremptory norm
6908:
6903:
6873:
6868:
6818:
6777:
6708:Alois Hollriege
6663:
6638:
6555:
6529:
6482:
6478:Hjalmar Schacht
6473:Franz von Papen
6447:
6396:
6369:(United States)
6355:
6324:
6319:
6266:
6261:
6255:
6201:
6178:
6130:
6107:
6069:
6047:
6024:
5969:
5947:
5886:
5864:
5838:
5812:
5785:
5728:
5722:
5717:
5709:
5705:
5697:
5693:
5685:
5681:
5673:
5669:
5661:
5657:
5649:
5645:
5637:
5633:
5625:
5621:
5613:
5609:
5601:
5594:
5586:
5582:
5574:
5570:
5562:
5558:
5550:
5546:
5538:
5534:
5530:, p. 1089.
5526:
5519:
5511:
5507:
5499:
5495:
5487:
5483:
5475:
5471:
5463:
5456:
5452:, p. 1091.
5448:
5444:
5436:
5432:
5424:
5420:
5412:
5408:
5400:
5396:
5388:
5384:
5376:
5372:
5364:
5360:
5352:
5348:
5340:
5336:
5328:
5324:
5316:
5312:
5304:
5300:
5292:
5288:
5280:
5276:
5268:
5264:
5256:
5252:
5244:
5240:
5232:
5228:
5222:Safferling 2020
5220:
5213:
5205:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5181:
5177:
5169:
5165:
5157:
5153:
5145:
5141:
5137:, pp. 1–2.
5133:
5129:
5121:
5117:
5109:
5105:
5097:
5093:
5085:
5081:
5073:
5069:
5061:
5057:
5049:
5045:
5037:
5033:
5025:
5021:
5013:
5009:
5001:
4997:
4989:
4985:
4977:
4973:
4965:
4961:
4953:
4949:
4941:
4937:
4929:
4925:
4917:
4913:
4905:
4901:
4895:Brüggemann 2018
4893:
4889:
4883:Brüggemann 2018
4881:
4877:
4869:
4865:
4857:
4850:
4842:
4833:
4825:
4821:
4813:
4809:
4801:
4797:
4789:
4785:
4777:
4770:
4762:
4758:
4750:
4746:
4738:
4734:
4726:
4722:
4714:
4710:
4702:
4698:
4690:
4686:
4678:
4674:
4666:
4662:
4654:
4650:
4642:
4638:
4630:
4623:
4615:
4611:
4603:
4599:
4591:
4587:
4579:
4575:
4567:
4563:
4555:
4551:
4543:
4539:
4531:
4527:
4519:
4515:
4507:
4503:
4495:
4491:
4483:
4479:
4471:
4467:
4459:
4455:
4447:
4443:
4435:
4431:
4423:
4419:
4411:
4402:
4394:
4390:
4382:
4375:
4367:
4363:
4355:
4351:
4343:
4339:
4331:
4324:
4316:
4312:
4304:
4297:
4289:
4285:
4277:
4273:
4265:
4261:
4253:
4249:
4241:
4237:
4229:
4225:
4217:
4213:
4205:
4198:
4190:
4186:
4178:
4174:
4166:
4162:
4154:
4150:
4142:
4138:
4130:
4126:
4118:
4114:
4106:
4102:
4094:
4090:
4082:
4075:
4067:
4063:
4055:
4051:
4043:
4039:
4031:
4024:
4020:, paragraph 18.
4016:
4009:
4001:
3994:
3990:, paragraph 17.
3986:
3982:
3978:, paragraph 16.
3974:
3970:
3962:
3958:
3954:, paragraph 15.
3950:
3946:
3938:
3929:
3921:
3917:
3909:
3905:
3897:
3893:
3885:
3881:
3873:
3869:
3861:
3857:
3849:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3825:
3821:
3813:
3809:
3801:
3797:
3789:
3782:
3774:
3770:
3762:
3758:
3750:
3746:
3738:
3734:
3726:
3722:
3714:
3710:
3702:
3698:
3690:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3663:
3659:
3651:
3647:
3639:
3632:
3624:
3620:
3612:
3608:
3600:
3596:
3588:
3584:
3576:
3572:
3564:
3560:
3552:
3548:
3540:
3529:
3525:, paragraph 19.
3521:
3517:
3509:
3505:
3497:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3468:
3464:
3456:
3452:
3444:
3437:
3429:
3425:
3417:
3413:
3405:
3401:
3393:
3389:
3381:
3377:
3369:
3365:
3357:
3353:
3345:
3338:
3330:
3326:
3318:
3314:
3306:
3302:
3294:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3270:
3261:
3253:
3249:
3241:
3237:
3229:
3225:
3217:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3193:
3189:
3181:
3177:
3169:
3165:
3157:
3153:
3145:
3136:
3128:
3121:
3113:
3109:
3101:
3097:
3089:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3065:
3061:
3053:
3049:
3041:
3037:
3029:
3025:
3017:
3013:
3005:
2998:
2990:
2986:
2978:
2974:
2966:
2962:
2954:
2950:
2946:, paragraph 10.
2942:
2935:
2927:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2891:
2882:
2874:
2867:
2859:
2855:
2847:
2843:
2835:
2831:
2823:
2819:
2811:
2802:
2794:
2790:
2782:
2773:
2765:
2761:
2753:
2746:
2738:
2734:
2726:
2722:
2714:
2710:
2702:
2698:
2690:
2686:
2678:
2674:
2666:
2662:
2654:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2630:
2623:
2615:
2611:
2603:
2599:
2591:
2587:
2579:
2575:
2567:
2563:
2555:
2551:
2543:
2536:
2528:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2504:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2480:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2429:
2425:
2417:
2413:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2369:
2365:
2357:
2353:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2329:
2321:
2314:
2306:
2302:
2294:
2287:
2279:
2275:
2267:
2260:
2252:
2248:
2240:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2216:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2196:, p. 1092.
2192:
2185:
2177:
2170:
2162:
2155:
2151:
2064:courtroom, 2012
2044:
1977:
1961:criminal orders
1899:IG Farben trial
1850:adopted by the
1836:IG Farben trial
1806:
1800:
1787:ten were hanged
1744:
1731:Greater Germany
1723:
1698:
1626:
1563:
1507:
1492:
1486:External videos
1458:Lidice massacre
1407:
1382:Alsace–Lorraine
1363:
1312:Evidence about
1269:against Austria
1182:
1180:
1143:
1088:
1080:German military
945:Hjalmar Schacht
897:Franz von Papen
890:Joseph Goebbels
870:
864:
811:
685:
653:superior orders
572:
539:
534:
518:Harry S. Truman
492:to rebuild the
490:war reparations
380:the Netherlands
349:Kirsten Sellars
337:
234:
226:
206:
187:
181:Related actions
111:
86:
79:
72:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8942:
8932:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8906:
8901:
8896:
8891:
8886:
8881:
8876:
8871:
8866:
8817:
8816:
8813:
8812:
8809:
8808:
8806:
8805:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8783:
8778:
8773:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8757:
8756:
8746:
8741:
8736:
8730:
8728:
8724:
8723:
8721:
8720:
8719:
8718:
8716:trivialization
8708:
8707:
8706:
8696:
8694:Eichmann trial
8691:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8675:
8674:
8669:
8664:
8654:
8648:
8646:
8640:
8639:
8637:
8636:
8628:
8623:
8618:
8617:
8616:
8606:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8589:Nuremberg Laws
8586:
8581:
8575:
8573:
8572:Early elements
8565:
8564:
8561:
8560:
8557:
8554:
8553:Early elements
8550:
8542:
8541:
8538:
8537:
8534:
8533:
8531:
8530:
8525:
8520:
8515:
8510:
8505:
8500:
8495:
8490:
8488:Arajs Kommando
8484:
8482:
8476:
8475:
8473:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8459:Einsatzgruppen
8454:
8452:
8448:
8447:
8445:
8444:
8439:
8434:
8428:
8422:
8421:
8420:
8409:
8401:
8395:
8393:
8386:
8385:
8379:
8376:
8375:
8372:Responsibility
8363:
8362:
8359:
8358:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8351:
8346:
8341:
8336:
8331:
8326:
8321:
8316:
8310:
8308:
8302:
8301:
8298:
8297:
8295:
8294:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8264:
8258:
8256:
8250:
8249:
8247:
8246:
8245:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8224:
8223:
8222:
8211:
8209:
8203:
8202:
8200:
8199:
8194:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8164:
8159:
8154:
8151:Einsatzgruppen
8146:
8144:
8140:
8139:
8137:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8120:
8118:
8115:Final Solution
8110:
8109:
8107:
8106:
8105:
8104:
8094:
8093:
8092:
8087:
8077:
8072:
8067:
8062:
8054:
8052:
8048:
8047:
8045:
8044:
8039:
8034:
8028:
8026:
8017:
8007:
8006:
7994:
7993:
7990:
7989:
7986:
7985:
7982:
7981:
7979:
7978:
7976:Ústredňa Židov
7973:
7968:
7962:
7960:
7952:
7951:
7949:
7948:
7943:
7941:Theresienstadt
7938:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7917:
7915:
7911:
7910:
7908:
7907:
7902:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7871:
7869:
7860:
7849:
7848:
7846:
7845:
7838:
7831:
7826:
7817:
7815:
7811:
7810:
7808:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7782:
7780:Einsatzgruppen
7776:
7774:
7770:
7769:
7767:
7766:
7761:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7739:
7732:
7727:
7722:
7713:
7708:
7703:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7676:
7674:
7670:
7669:
7667:
7666:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7635:
7633:
7627:
7626:
7624:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7593:
7588:
7586:Mittelbau-Dora
7583:
7574:
7569:
7567:Kraków-Płaszów
7564:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7513:
7511:
7501:
7500:
7484:
7483:
7480:
7479:
7477:
7476:
7475:
7474:
7469:
7464:
7457:Rescue of Jews
7454:
7453:
7452:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7406:
7404:
7400:
7399:
7397:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7375:
7373:
7369:
7368:
7366:
7365:
7364:
7363:
7358:
7350:
7349:
7348:
7343:
7338:
7328:
7323:
7318:
7313:
7308:
7303:
7298:
7293:
7292:
7291:
7280:
7275:
7274:
7273:
7263:
7258:
7253:
7248:
7243:
7242:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7223:
7218:
7213:
7208:
7202:
7200:
7192:
7191:
7184:
7183:
7176:
7169:
7161:
7152:
7151:
7149:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7117:
7115:
7111:
7110:
7108:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7077:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7056:
7054:
7045:
7042:
7041:
7039:
7038:
7033:
7028:
7023:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7011:
7001:
6996:
6991:
6985:
6983:
6978:Crimes against
6976:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6918:
6916:
6910:
6909:
6902:
6901:
6894:
6887:
6879:
6870:
6869:
6867:
6866:
6858:
6850:
6843:
6835:
6826:
6824:
6820:
6819:
6817:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6801:
6796:
6789:
6787:
6783:
6782:
6779:
6778:
6776:
6775:
6773:Samuel Rajzman
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6733:Francisco Boix
6730:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6693:Otto Ohlendorf
6690:
6688:Erwin Lahousen
6684:
6682:
6675:
6669:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6662:
6661:
6656:
6650:
6648:
6644:
6643:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6636:
6631:Hermann Göring
6628:
6619:Martin Bormann
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6589:Wilhelm Keitel
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6565:
6563:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6537:
6535:
6531:
6530:
6528:
6527:
6519:
6511:
6503:
6494:
6488:
6484:
6483:
6481:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6468:Hans Fritzsche
6464:
6462:
6455:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6433:John J. Parker
6430:
6428:Francis Biddle
6425:
6423:Norman Birkett
6420:
6415:
6410:
6404:
6402:
6398:
6397:
6395:
6394:
6388:
6382:
6381:(Soviet Union)
6376:
6370:
6363:
6361:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6348:
6343:
6338:
6332:
6330:
6326:
6325:
6318:
6317:
6310:
6303:
6295:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6277:
6274:Avalon Project
6265:
6264:External links
6262:
6260:
6259:
6253:
6232:
6220:(4): 830–844.
6205:
6199:
6182:
6176:
6163:
6134:
6128:
6111:
6105:
6073:
6067:
6051:
6045:
6028:
6022:
6001:
5973:
5967:
5951:
5945:
5925:
5905:(2): 507–525.
5890:
5884:
5868:
5862:
5854:Berghahn Books
5842:
5836:
5816:
5810:
5789:
5783:
5763:
5751:(4): 881–903.
5729:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5715:
5703:
5691:
5679:
5677:, p. 114.
5667:
5665:, p. 896.
5663:Acquaviva 2011
5655:
5653:, p. 290.
5643:
5641:, p. 207.
5631:
5619:
5617:, p. 411.
5607:
5605:, p. 117.
5592:
5590:, p. 175.
5580:
5578:, p. 837.
5576:Tomuschat 2006
5568:
5566:, p. 412.
5556:
5544:
5542:, p. 137.
5532:
5517:
5515:, p. 343.
5505:
5493:
5489:Tomuschat 2006
5481:
5469:
5467:, p. 172.
5454:
5442:
5430:
5418:
5416:, p. 368.
5406:
5404:, p. 360.
5394:
5382:
5380:, p. 367.
5370:
5368:, p. 351.
5358:
5356:, p. 366.
5346:
5344:, p. 365.
5334:
5332:, p. 105.
5322:
5310:
5298:
5286:
5274:
5262:
5260:, p. 100.
5250:
5238:
5236:, p. 167.
5226:
5211:
5209:, p. 149.
5199:
5187:
5175:
5171:Gemählich 2019
5163:
5151:
5149:, p. 306.
5139:
5127:
5115:
5103:
5091:
5079:
5067:
5055:
5043:
5031:
5019:
5017:, p. 370.
5007:
4995:
4983:
4971:
4969:, p. 380.
4959:
4957:, p. 146.
4947:
4935:
4933:, p. 145.
4923:
4911:
4899:
4887:
4885:, p. 405.
4875:
4863:
4861:, p. 147.
4848:
4831:
4829:, p. 383.
4819:
4807:
4805:, p. 386.
4795:
4783:
4781:, p. 387.
4768:
4766:, p. 378.
4756:
4744:
4742:, p. 144.
4732:
4720:
4708:
4704:Tomuschat 2006
4696:
4684:
4682:, p. 371.
4672:
4670:, p. 142.
4660:
4658:, p. 161.
4648:
4646:, p. 375.
4636:
4634:, p. 150.
4621:
4609:
4597:
4585:
4583:, p. 120.
4573:
4561:
4549:
4547:, p. 171.
4537:
4525:
4513:
4501:
4489:
4477:
4475:, p. 144.
4465:
4463:, p. 178.
4453:
4441:
4429:
4427:, p. 148.
4417:
4415:, p. 131.
4400:
4398:, p. 287.
4388:
4373:
4371:, p. 135.
4361:
4349:
4337:
4335:, p. 132.
4322:
4310:
4308:, p. 126.
4295:
4293:, p. 125.
4283:
4281:, p. 121.
4271:
4259:
4247:
4235:
4223:
4211:
4209:, p. 372.
4196:
4184:
4172:
4170:, p. 232.
4160:
4148:
4146:, p. 230.
4136:
4134:, p. 225.
4124:
4112:
4110:, p. 223.
4100:
4088:
4086:, p. 109.
4073:
4061:
4057:Gemählich 2019
4049:
4037:
4033:Gemählich 2019
4022:
4018:Gemählich 2019
4007:
4005:, p. 115.
3992:
3988:Gemählich 2019
3980:
3976:Gemählich 2019
3968:
3956:
3952:Gemählich 2019
3944:
3942:, p. 119.
3927:
3915:
3913:, p. 185.
3903:
3901:, p. 383.
3891:
3889:, p. 382.
3879:
3867:
3855:
3853:, p. 108.
3843:
3841:, p. 384.
3831:
3819:
3807:
3795:
3793:, p. 116.
3780:
3768:
3756:
3744:
3742:, p. 107.
3732:
3730:, p. 106.
3720:
3718:, p. 150.
3708:
3706:, p. 149.
3696:
3694:, p. 133.
3681:
3679:, p. 159.
3669:
3667:, paragraph 3.
3657:
3645:
3630:
3628:, p. 124.
3618:
3616:, p. 138.
3606:
3594:
3582:
3580:, p. 104.
3570:
3558:
3546:
3544:, p. 148.
3527:
3523:Gemählich 2019
3515:
3503:
3501:, p. 105.
3486:
3474:
3462:
3460:, p. 205.
3450:
3448:, p. 841.
3446:Tomuschat 2006
3435:
3423:
3411:
3399:
3387:
3375:
3363:
3351:
3336:
3324:
3312:
3300:
3288:
3276:
3259:
3247:
3235:
3223:
3211:
3199:
3187:
3175:
3163:
3151:
3149:, p. 111.
3134:
3132:, p. 102.
3119:
3107:
3105:, p. 101.
3095:
3083:
3071:
3069:, p. 209.
3059:
3057:, p. 117.
3047:
3035:
3033:, p. 217.
3023:
3011:
2996:
2994:, p. 204.
2984:
2972:
2968:Gemählich 2019
2960:
2948:
2944:Gemählich 2019
2933:
2931:, p. 115.
2921:
2909:
2897:
2880:
2865:
2853:
2841:
2839:, p. 100.
2829:
2817:
2800:
2788:
2771:
2759:
2744:
2732:
2720:
2708:
2706:, p. 101.
2696:
2684:
2680:Tomuschat 2006
2672:
2660:
2648:
2644:Acquaviva 2011
2636:
2621:
2619:, p. 373.
2609:
2605:Bassiouni 2011
2597:
2593:Bassiouni 2011
2585:
2573:
2561:
2549:
2547:, p. 834.
2545:Tomuschat 2006
2534:
2522:
2510:
2506:Tomuschat 2006
2498:
2486:
2471:
2459:
2447:
2435:
2423:
2411:
2399:
2387:
2375:
2363:
2351:
2339:
2327:
2312:
2310:, paragraph 4.
2308:Gemählich 2019
2300:
2285:
2273:
2258:
2246:
2234:
2222:
2210:
2198:
2183:
2181:, p. 148.
2168:
2166:, p. 165.
2152:
2150:
2147:
2056:Einsatzgruppen
2043:
2040:
2031:Einsatzgruppen
2027:John J. McCloy
1976:
1973:
1928:Einsatzgruppen
1887:Foreign Office
1863:Doctors' trial
1813:Telford Taylor
1802:Main article:
1799:
1796:
1791:Spandau Prison
1770:denazification
1722:
1719:
1715:Norman Birkett
1707:Raphael Lemkin
1697:
1694:
1688:delivered the
1662:in the Pacific
1653:had also used
1647:Chester Nimitz
1616:Nuremberg Laws
1594:Adolf Eichmann
1570:Hermann Göring
1562:
1559:
1543:Samuel Rajzman
1516:
1515:
1503:
1502:
1488:
1487:
1474:Katyn massacre
1406:
1403:
1362:
1359:
1347:Foreign Office
1339:Locarno Treaty
1295:Otto Ohlendorf
1289:Einsatzgruppen
1261:intentionalist
1179:
1176:
1142:
1139:
1087:
1084:
1032:Martin Bormann
989:Hans Fritzsche
969:Wilhelm Keitel
965:Hermann Göring
866:Main article:
863:
860:
839:War Department
833:The charge of
810:
807:
799:Czechoslovakia
787:Chaim Weizmann
712:Francis Biddle
684:
681:
538:
535:
533:
530:
494:Soviet economy
474:aggressive war
464:Soviet jurist
447:Marcel de Baer
336:
333:
305:aggressive war
237:
236:
233:
232:
224:
221:Francis Biddle
218:
212:
210:(Soviet Union)
203:
201:
200:Judges sitting
197:
196:
192:
191:
182:
178:
177:
173:
172:
167:
163:
162:
157:
153:
152:
151:1 October 1946
149:
145:
144:
141:
137:
136:
119:
113:
112:
98:
90:
89:
58:
47:1 October 2024
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8941:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8905:
8902:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8882:
8880:
8877:
8875:
8872:
8870:
8867:
8865:
8862:
8861:
8859:
8852:
8849:
8803:
8799:
8797:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8759:
8755:
8752:
8751:
8750:
8747:
8745:
8742:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8732:
8731:
8729:
8725:
8717:
8714:
8713:
8712:
8709:
8705:
8702:
8701:
8700:
8697:
8695:
8692:
8690:
8687:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8673:
8670:
8668:
8665:
8663:
8660:
8659:
8658:
8655:
8653:
8650:
8649:
8647:
8645:
8641:
8635:
8629:
8627:
8624:
8622:
8619:
8615:
8612:
8611:
8610:
8607:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8585:
8584:Nazi eugenics
8582:
8580:
8577:
8576:
8574:
8570:
8566:
8558:
8555:
8552:
8551:
8547:
8543:
8529:
8526:
8524:
8521:
8519:
8516:
8514:
8513:Topf and Sons
8511:
8509:
8506:
8504:
8501:
8499:
8496:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8486:
8485:
8483:
8481:
8480:Collaborators
8477:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8460:
8456:
8455:
8453:
8449:
8443:
8440:
8438:
8435:
8432:
8429:
8426:
8423:
8419:
8418:Referat IV B4
8416:
8415:
8414: (RSHA)
8413:
8410:
8408:
8406:
8405:Schutzstaffel
8402:
8400:
8397:
8396:
8394:
8392:Organizations
8390:
8384:
8381:
8380:
8377:
8373:
8368:
8364:
8350:
8347:
8345:
8342:
8340:
8337:
8335:
8334:Romani people
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8311:
8309:
8307:
8303:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8287:Working Group
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8272:Kastner train
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8259:
8257:
8255:
8251:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8230:
8229:
8228:
8225:
8221:
8218:
8217:
8216:
8213:
8212:
8210:
8208:
8204:
8198:
8195:
8193:
8190:
8188:
8185:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8175:
8173:
8170:
8168:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8158:
8155:
8153:
8152:
8148:
8147:
8145:
8141:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8121:
8119:
8116:
8111:
8103:
8100:
8099:
8098:
8095:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8082:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8061:
8060:
8059:Kristallnacht
8056:
8055:
8053:
8049:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8030:
8029:
8027:
8025:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8012:
8008:
8004:
7999:
7995:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7969:
7967:
7964:
7963:
7961:
7959:
7958:
7953:
7947:
7944:
7942:
7939:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7929:
7927:
7924:
7922:
7919:
7918:
7916:
7912:
7906:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7876:
7873:
7872:
7870:
7868:
7864:
7861:
7858:
7854:
7850:
7844:
7843:
7842:Sanitätswesen
7839:
7837:
7836:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7824:
7819:
7818:
7816:
7812:
7806:
7805:Death marches
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7781:
7778:
7777:
7775:
7771:
7765:
7762:
7760:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7733:
7731:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7720:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7707:
7704:
7702:
7701:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7678:
7677:
7675:
7671:
7665:
7662:
7660:
7657:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7636:
7634:
7632:
7631:Extermination
7628:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7607:
7606:Sachsenhausen
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7589:
7587:
7584:
7582:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7558:
7555:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7547:Herzogenbusch
7545:
7543:
7540:
7538:
7535:
7533:
7530:
7528:
7525:
7523:
7522:Bergen-Belsen
7520:
7518:
7515:
7514:
7512:
7510:
7509:Concentration
7506:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7489:
7485:
7473:
7470:
7468:
7465:
7463:
7460:
7459:
7458:
7455:
7451:
7448:
7446:
7445:United States
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7405:
7401:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7376:
7374:
7370:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7353:
7351:
7347:
7344:
7342:
7339:
7337:
7334:
7333:
7332:
7329:
7327:
7324:
7322:
7319:
7317:
7314:
7312:
7309:
7307:
7304:
7302:
7299:
7297:
7294:
7290:
7287:
7286:
7285:and colonies
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7252:
7249:
7247:
7244:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7226:
7224:
7222:
7219:
7217:
7214:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7197:
7193:
7189:
7188:The Holocaust
7182:
7177:
7175:
7170:
7168:
7163:
7162:
7159:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7116:
7112:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7066:
7063:
7061:
7058:
7057:
7055:
7048:
7043:
7037:
7034:
7032:
7029:
7027:
7026:Slave trading
7024:
7022:
7019:
7015:
7012:
7010:
7007:
7006:
7005:
7002:
7000:
6997:
6995:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6974:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6919:
6917:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6900:
6895:
6893:
6888:
6886:
6881:
6880:
6877:
6864:
6863:
6859:
6856:
6855:
6851:
6848:
6844:
6841:
6840:
6836:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6827:
6825:
6821:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:Invention of
6791:
6790:
6788:
6784:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6753:Joseph Orbeli
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6738:Hans Cappelen
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6723:Maurice Lampe
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6670:
6660:
6657:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6649:
6645:
6632:
6629:
6625:
6620:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6604:Fritz Sauckel
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6574:Wilhelm Frick
6572:
6570:
6567:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6558:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6532:
6523:
6520:
6515:
6512:
6507:
6504:
6499:
6496:
6495:
6492:
6489:
6485:
6479:
6476:
6474:
6471:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6463:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6450:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6405:
6403:
6399:
6392:
6389:
6386:
6383:
6380:
6379:Roman Rudenko
6377:
6374:
6371:
6368:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6358:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6333:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6316:
6311:
6309:
6304:
6302:
6297:
6296:
6293:
6287:
6284:
6281:
6278:
6275:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6256:
6250:
6246:
6242:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6206:
6202:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6183:
6179:
6173:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6150:
6146:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6131:
6125:
6121:
6117:
6112:
6108:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6042:
6038:
6037:Brill Nijhoff
6034:
6029:
6025:
6019:
6015:
6011:
6007:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5987:(in French).
5986:
5982:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5964:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5904:
5901:(in French).
5900:
5896:
5891:
5887:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5790:
5786:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5745:
5740:
5738:
5737:Nullum Crimen
5731:
5730:
5727:
5712:
5711:Sharples 2013
5707:
5701:, p. 16.
5700:
5695:
5689:, p. 31.
5688:
5687:Sharples 2013
5683:
5676:
5671:
5664:
5659:
5652:
5647:
5640:
5639:Mouralis 2019
5635:
5628:
5623:
5616:
5611:
5604:
5599:
5597:
5589:
5584:
5577:
5572:
5565:
5560:
5553:
5548:
5541:
5536:
5529:
5524:
5522:
5514:
5509:
5502:
5497:
5490:
5485:
5478:
5473:
5466:
5461:
5459:
5451:
5446:
5440:, p. vi.
5439:
5434:
5427:
5422:
5415:
5410:
5403:
5398:
5391:
5386:
5379:
5374:
5367:
5362:
5355:
5350:
5343:
5338:
5331:
5326:
5319:
5314:
5307:
5302:
5295:
5290:
5283:
5278:
5271:
5266:
5259:
5254:
5248:, p. 99.
5247:
5242:
5235:
5230:
5224:, p. 42.
5223:
5218:
5216:
5208:
5203:
5196:
5191:
5184:
5183:Sharples 2013
5179:
5172:
5167:
5160:
5155:
5148:
5143:
5136:
5131:
5124:
5119:
5112:
5107:
5100:
5095:
5088:
5083:
5076:
5071:
5065:, p. 90.
5064:
5059:
5052:
5047:
5040:
5035:
5028:
5023:
5016:
5011:
5004:
4999:
4992:
4987:
4980:
4975:
4968:
4963:
4956:
4951:
4944:
4939:
4932:
4927:
4920:
4915:
4908:
4903:
4896:
4891:
4884:
4879:
4872:
4867:
4860:
4855:
4853:
4845:
4840:
4838:
4836:
4828:
4823:
4817:, p. 25.
4816:
4815:Mouralis 2019
4811:
4804:
4799:
4792:
4787:
4780:
4775:
4773:
4765:
4760:
4753:
4748:
4741:
4736:
4729:
4724:
4717:
4712:
4705:
4700:
4693:
4688:
4681:
4676:
4669:
4664:
4657:
4652:
4645:
4640:
4633:
4628:
4626:
4618:
4613:
4606:
4601:
4594:
4589:
4582:
4577:
4570:
4565:
4558:
4553:
4546:
4541:
4534:
4533:Mouralis 2019
4529:
4523:, p. 14.
4522:
4517:
4511:, p. 10.
4510:
4505:
4498:
4493:
4487:, p. 15.
4486:
4481:
4474:
4469:
4462:
4457:
4450:
4445:
4438:
4433:
4426:
4421:
4414:
4409:
4407:
4405:
4397:
4392:
4385:
4380:
4378:
4370:
4365:
4358:
4353:
4346:
4341:
4334:
4329:
4327:
4320:, p. 20.
4319:
4314:
4307:
4302:
4300:
4292:
4287:
4280:
4275:
4268:
4263:
4256:
4251:
4244:
4239:
4232:
4227:
4220:
4215:
4208:
4203:
4201:
4193:
4188:
4181:
4176:
4169:
4164:
4157:
4152:
4145:
4140:
4133:
4128:
4121:
4116:
4109:
4104:
4097:
4092:
4085:
4080:
4078:
4070:
4065:
4058:
4053:
4047:, p. 70.
4046:
4041:
4034:
4029:
4027:
4019:
4014:
4012:
4004:
3999:
3997:
3989:
3984:
3977:
3972:
3965:
3960:
3953:
3948:
3941:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3924:
3919:
3912:
3907:
3900:
3895:
3888:
3883:
3876:
3871:
3864:
3859:
3852:
3847:
3840:
3835:
3828:
3823:
3816:
3811:
3804:
3799:
3792:
3787:
3785:
3777:
3772:
3765:
3760:
3753:
3748:
3741:
3736:
3729:
3724:
3717:
3712:
3705:
3700:
3693:
3688:
3686:
3678:
3673:
3666:
3665:Mouralis 2016
3661:
3655:, p. 40.
3654:
3649:
3643:, p. 23.
3642:
3641:Mouralis 2019
3637:
3635:
3627:
3622:
3615:
3610:
3604:, p. 16.
3603:
3598:
3592:, p. 18.
3591:
3586:
3579:
3574:
3568:, p. 30.
3567:
3562:
3555:
3554:Mouralis 2016
3550:
3543:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3524:
3519:
3512:
3507:
3500:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3484:, p. 39.
3483:
3482:Sharples 2013
3478:
3471:
3466:
3459:
3454:
3447:
3442:
3440:
3432:
3427:
3420:
3415:
3408:
3403:
3396:
3391:
3385:, p. 29.
3384:
3379:
3372:
3367:
3360:
3355:
3349:, p. 82.
3348:
3343:
3341:
3333:
3328:
3322:, p. 76.
3321:
3316:
3309:
3304:
3297:
3292:
3285:
3280:
3274:, p. 81.
3273:
3268:
3266:
3264:
3257:, p. 27.
3256:
3251:
3244:
3239:
3233:, p. 87.
3232:
3227:
3220:
3215:
3208:
3203:
3197:, p. 99.
3196:
3191:
3185:, p. 69.
3184:
3179:
3172:
3167:
3160:
3155:
3148:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3131:
3126:
3124:
3116:
3111:
3104:
3099:
3093:, p. 80.
3092:
3087:
3080:
3075:
3068:
3063:
3056:
3051:
3044:
3039:
3032:
3027:
3020:
3015:
3008:
3003:
3001:
2993:
2988:
2982:, p. 87.
2981:
2976:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2952:
2945:
2940:
2938:
2930:
2925:
2919:, p. 88.
2918:
2913:
2906:
2901:
2895:, p. 90.
2894:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2878:, p. 91.
2877:
2872:
2870:
2862:
2857:
2850:
2845:
2838:
2833:
2826:
2821:
2815:, p. 22.
2814:
2813:Mouralis 2019
2809:
2807:
2805:
2798:, p. 21.
2797:
2796:Mouralis 2019
2792:
2786:, p. 74.
2785:
2780:
2778:
2776:
2769:, p. 31.
2768:
2763:
2757:, p. 76.
2756:
2751:
2749:
2742:, p. 85.
2741:
2736:
2730:, p. 11.
2729:
2724:
2718:, p. 87.
2717:
2712:
2705:
2700:
2693:
2688:
2681:
2676:
2670:, p. 70.
2669:
2664:
2657:
2656:Mouralis 2019
2652:
2645:
2640:
2634:, p. 73.
2633:
2628:
2626:
2618:
2613:
2606:
2601:
2594:
2589:
2582:
2577:
2571:, p. 34.
2570:
2565:
2558:
2553:
2546:
2541:
2539:
2531:
2526:
2519:
2514:
2507:
2502:
2495:
2490:
2483:
2478:
2476:
2469:, p. 84.
2468:
2463:
2457:, p. 10.
2456:
2451:
2444:
2439:
2433:, p. 40.
2432:
2427:
2421:, p. 70.
2420:
2415:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2391:
2384:
2379:
2372:
2367:
2361:, p. 63.
2360:
2355:
2348:
2343:
2336:
2331:
2324:
2319:
2317:
2309:
2304:
2297:
2292:
2290:
2282:
2277:
2271:, p. 64.
2270:
2265:
2263:
2255:
2250:
2244:, p. 22.
2243:
2238:
2232:, p. 56.
2231:
2226:
2219:
2214:
2207:
2202:
2195:
2190:
2188:
2180:
2175:
2173:
2165:
2160:
2158:
2153:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2111:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2080:
2078:
2073:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2009:
2003:
1996:
1995:
1991:Germans read
1989:
1981:
1972:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1949:Hostages case
1946:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1875:Judges' trial
1872:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1578:
1571:
1567:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1513:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1489:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1427:field marshal
1424:
1415:
1414:Roman Rudenko
1411:
1402:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1386:Germanization
1383:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1368:pan-Germanism
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1290:
1284:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1262:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1148:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1127:admissibility
1123:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1096:
1092:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1072:General Staff
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1048:Reich Cabinet
1044:
1040:
1039:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
961:Fritz Sauckel
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
921:Wilhelm Frick
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
893:
891:
887:
883:
874:
869:
859:
856:
850:
848:
844:
840:
836:
831:
829:
828:Eastern Front
825:
824:Western Front
815:
806:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
783:
781:
777:
776:Roman Rudenko
773:
769:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
708:
707:
702:
698:
693:
691:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
635:
631:
627:
623:
620:
616:
612:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
592:Supreme Court
589:
585:
580:
567:
562:
554:
547:
543:
532:Establishment
529:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
486:Moscow trials
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
451:Bohuslav Ečer
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:a declaration
428:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
362:
354:
350:
346:
341:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
317:the Holocaust
314:
310:
306:
302:
297:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
229:
225:
222:
219:
216:
213:
209:
205:
204:
202:
198:
193:
190:
186:
183:
179:
174:
171:
168:
164:
161:
160:24 (see list)
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
96:
91:
84:
81:
77:
70:
68:
62:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
8874:1940s in law
8821:
8796:Yizkor books
8688:
8457:
8404:
8149:
8097:in Lithuania
8057:
7955:
7840:
7833:
7822:
7756:
7734:
7715:
7696:
7679:
7462:by Catholics
7331:Soviet Union
7199:By territory
7059:
6967:Rome Statute
6860:
6852:
6837:
6829:
6814:Bibliography
6623:
6551:Erich Raeder
6541:Walther Funk
6522:Albert Speer
6443:Robert Falco
6321:
6240:
6236:
6217:
6213:
6186:
6167:
6148:
6142:
6115:
6084:
6058:
6032:
6009:
6005:
5988:
5984:
5958:
5932:
5902:
5898:
5875:
5849:
5823:
5797:
5793:
5770:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5706:
5699:Priemel 2016
5694:
5682:
5670:
5658:
5651:Sellars 2013
5646:
5634:
5629:, p. 7.
5627:Priemel 2016
5622:
5615:Priemel 2016
5610:
5588:Sellars 2013
5583:
5571:
5564:Priemel 2016
5559:
5552:Priemel 2016
5547:
5540:Sellars 2013
5535:
5528:Sellars 2010
5513:Priemel 2016
5508:
5496:
5484:
5477:Priemel 2016
5472:
5465:Sellars 2013
5450:Sellars 2010
5445:
5438:Priemel 2016
5433:
5421:
5414:Priemel 2016
5409:
5397:
5385:
5378:Priemel 2016
5373:
5361:
5354:Priemel 2016
5349:
5342:Priemel 2016
5337:
5325:
5313:
5306:Priemel 2016
5301:
5289:
5282:Priemel 2016
5277:
5265:
5253:
5241:
5229:
5202:
5195:Priemel 2016
5190:
5178:
5166:
5154:
5147:Priemel 2016
5142:
5130:
5125:, p. 4.
5118:
5106:
5094:
5087:Priemel 2016
5082:
5075:Priemel 2016
5070:
5058:
5046:
5034:
5027:Priemel 2016
5022:
5010:
4998:
4993:, p. 1.
4986:
4974:
4962:
4955:Priemel 2016
4950:
4938:
4931:Priemel 2016
4926:
4914:
4907:Priemel 2016
4902:
4890:
4878:
4871:Priemel 2016
4866:
4859:Priemel 2016
4822:
4810:
4798:
4791:Sayapin 2014
4786:
4759:
4747:
4740:Priemel 2016
4735:
4728:Priemel 2016
4723:
4716:Sellars 2013
4711:
4699:
4692:Priemel 2016
4687:
4675:
4668:Priemel 2016
4663:
4656:Sellars 2013
4651:
4639:
4632:Sayapin 2014
4617:Sellars 2013
4612:
4600:
4593:Priemel 2016
4588:
4581:Priemel 2016
4576:
4569:Priemel 2016
4564:
4557:Priemel 2016
4552:
4545:Sellars 2013
4540:
4528:
4516:
4504:
4497:Priemel 2016
4492:
4485:Douglas 2001
4480:
4473:Sellars 2013
4468:
4461:Sellars 2013
4456:
4449:Priemel 2016
4444:
4437:Sellars 2013
4432:
4425:Sellars 2013
4420:
4413:Priemel 2016
4391:
4384:Priemel 2016
4369:Priemel 2016
4364:
4357:Priemel 2016
4352:
4345:Priemel 2016
4340:
4333:Priemel 2016
4318:Douglas 2001
4313:
4306:Priemel 2016
4291:Priemel 2016
4286:
4279:Priemel 2016
4274:
4262:
4250:
4238:
4226:
4214:
4187:
4175:
4163:
4151:
4139:
4127:
4120:Priemel 2016
4115:
4103:
4091:
4084:Priemel 2016
4064:
4052:
4045:Douglas 2001
4040:
4003:Priemel 2016
3983:
3971:
3964:Priemel 2016
3959:
3947:
3940:Priemel 2016
3918:
3906:
3894:
3882:
3870:
3863:Sellars 2013
3858:
3851:Priemel 2016
3846:
3834:
3827:Priemel 2016
3822:
3815:Priemel 2016
3810:
3803:Douglas 2001
3798:
3791:Priemel 2016
3776:Priemel 2016
3771:
3764:Douglas 2001
3759:
3752:Priemel 2016
3747:
3740:Priemel 2016
3735:
3728:Priemel 2016
3723:
3716:Priemel 2016
3711:
3704:Priemel 2016
3699:
3692:Priemel 2016
3677:Sellars 2013
3672:
3660:
3648:
3621:
3609:
3602:Douglas 2001
3597:
3590:Douglas 2001
3585:
3578:Priemel 2016
3573:
3566:Douglas 2001
3561:
3549:
3542:Priemel 2016
3518:
3511:Priemel 2016
3506:
3499:Priemel 2016
3477:
3465:
3453:
3426:
3419:Priemel 2016
3414:
3407:Priemel 2016
3402:
3395:Priemel 2016
3390:
3378:
3371:Priemel 2016
3366:
3359:Priemel 2016
3354:
3347:Priemel 2016
3332:Priemel 2016
3327:
3315:
3310:, p. 5.
3303:
3296:Priemel 2016
3291:
3279:
3272:Priemel 2016
3250:
3243:Priemel 2016
3238:
3226:
3214:
3202:
3195:Priemel 2016
3190:
3183:Sellars 2013
3178:
3171:Priemel 2016
3166:
3159:Priemel 2016
3154:
3147:Priemel 2016
3130:Priemel 2016
3110:
3103:Priemel 2016
3098:
3086:
3079:Fleming 2022
3074:
3067:Fleming 2022
3062:
3055:Priemel 2016
3050:
3038:
3026:
3014:
3009:, p. 9.
2987:
2980:Priemel 2016
2975:
2963:
2956:Priemel 2016
2951:
2929:Sellars 2013
2924:
2917:Priemel 2016
2912:
2900:
2893:Priemel 2016
2876:Priemel 2016
2861:Priemel 2016
2856:
2849:Priemel 2016
2844:
2837:Priemel 2016
2832:
2820:
2791:
2762:
2755:Priemel 2016
2740:Sellars 2013
2735:
2723:
2716:Sellars 2013
2711:
2704:Sellars 2013
2699:
2687:
2675:
2663:
2651:
2639:
2612:
2600:
2588:
2576:
2564:
2552:
2530:Sellars 2013
2525:
2518:Sellars 2013
2513:
2501:
2494:Sellars 2013
2489:
2482:Sellars 2013
2467:Sellars 2013
2462:
2450:
2438:
2426:
2419:Priemel 2016
2414:
2407:Sellars 2013
2402:
2390:
2385:, p. 3.
2383:Priemel 2016
2378:
2366:
2359:Priemel 2016
2354:
2342:
2335:Sellars 2013
2330:
2325:, p. 8.
2303:
2298:, p. 9.
2276:
2269:Priemel 2016
2254:Priemel 2016
2249:
2237:
2225:
2213:
2206:Sayapin 2014
2201:
2194:Sellars 2010
2179:Sayapin 2014
2164:Sellars 2013
2140:
2134:
2128:
2109:
2098:drafted the
2081:
2074:
2067:
2055:
2030:
2020:Western Bloc
2016:West Germany
2013:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1965:
1942:Erhard Milch
1927:
1860:
1841:
1783:
1766:
1728:
1724:
1699:
1666:
1624:Alfred Seidl
1609:
1606:
1587:
1583:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1519:
1497:
1466:forced labor
1435:
1419:
1371:
1364:
1319:
1276:
1265:
1259:promoted an
1257:
1242:
1164:totalitarian
1144:
1124:
1100:
1076:High Command
1037:
1029:
1005:Hitler Youth
977:Erich Raeder
953:Walther Funk
949:Albert Speer
933:Gustav Krupp
894:
882:Adolf Hitler
879:
851:
832:
820:
785:Requests by
784:
759:Robert Falco
747:Vichy France
740:
704:
694:
686:
673:Nazi rallies
638:
632:" system of
608:
581:
577:
546:Aron Trainin
466:Aron Trainin
463:
424:
404:Soviet Union
366:, including
361:Nazi Germany
358:
298:
293:
289:
266:Soviet Union
263:
259:World War II
251:Nazi Germany
242:
240:
235:and deputies
176:Case history
80:
66:
61:
46:
37:This is the
31:
8843: /
8802:Never again
8633:(Action T4)
8559:Remembrance
8344:Homosexuals
8314:Soviet POWs
8242:Częstochowa
7790:Gas chamber
7601:Ravensbrück
7542:Gross-Rosen
7537:Flossenbürg
7420:Philippines
7352:Yugoslavia
7311:Netherlands
7239:Sudetenland
6857:(1961 film)
6834:(1945 film)
6718:Franz Blaha
6681:Prosecution
6647:No decision
6624:in absentia
6579:Alfred Jodl
6546:Rudolf Hess
6498:Karl Dönitz
6329:Legal basis
5675:Hirsch 2020
5603:Weinke 2006
5501:Hirsch 2020
5426:Weinke 2006
5402:Heller 2011
5390:Heller 2011
5366:Heller 2011
5330:Weinke 2006
5318:Weinke 2006
5294:Heller 2011
5258:Weinke 2006
5246:Weinke 2006
5207:Hirsch 2020
5159:Heller 2011
5135:Heller 2011
5123:Heller 2011
5111:Heller 2011
5099:Heller 2011
5063:Heller 2011
5051:Heller 2011
5039:Heller 2011
5015:Heller 2011
5003:Heller 2011
4991:Heller 2011
4979:Hirsch 2020
4967:Hirsch 2020
4943:Hirsch 2020
4844:Hirsch 2020
4827:Hirsch 2020
4803:Hirsch 2020
4779:Hirsch 2020
4752:Hirsch 2020
4680:Hirsch 2020
4605:Hirsch 2020
4521:Hirsch 2020
4509:Hirsch 2020
4396:Hirsch 2020
4267:Hirsch 2020
4255:Hirsch 2020
4243:Hirsch 2020
4231:Hirsch 2020
4219:Hirsch 2020
4207:Hirsch 2020
4192:Hirsch 2020
4180:Hirsch 2020
4168:Hirsch 2020
4156:Hirsch 2020
4144:Hirsch 2020
4132:Hirsch 2020
4108:Hirsch 2020
4096:Hirsch 2020
4069:Hirsch 2020
3923:Hirsch 2020
3911:Hirsch 2020
3653:Weinke 2006
3626:Hirsch 2020
3614:Hirsch 2020
3470:Weinke 2006
3458:Hirsch 2020
3431:Weinke 2006
3383:Weinke 2006
3320:Hirsch 2020
3308:Hirsch 2020
3284:Weinke 2006
3255:Weinke 2006
3231:Hirsch 2020
3219:Hirsch 2020
3207:Hirsch 2020
3115:Hirsch 2020
3091:Hirsch 2020
3043:Hirsch 2020
3031:Hirsch 2020
3019:Hirsch 2020
3007:Hirsch 2020
2992:Hirsch 2020
2905:Hirsch 2020
2825:Hirsch 2020
2784:Hirsch 2020
2767:Weinke 2006
2728:Heller 2011
2692:Hirsch 2020
2668:Hirsch 2020
2632:Hirsch 2020
2581:Hirsch 2020
2569:Hirsch 2020
2557:Hirsch 2020
2455:Heller 2011
2443:Hirsch 2020
2431:Hirsch 2020
2395:Hirsch 2020
2371:Hirsch 2020
2347:Hirsch 2020
2323:Hirsch 2020
2296:Heller 2011
2281:Hirsch 2020
2242:Hirsch 2020
2230:Hirsch 2020
2218:Hirsch 2020
2139:(1961) and
2118:(ICTY) and
1919:RuSHA trial
1903:Krupp trial
1895:Flick trial
1865:focused on
1670:Rudolf Höss
1627: [
1549:, and poet
1454:Lev Smirnov
1378:Edgar Faure
1152:appeasement
1135:depositions
1038:in absentia
1003:of Poland;
993:Rudolf Hess
981:Karl Dönitz
973:Alfred Jodl
716:John Parker
677:bomb damage
615:German Jews
573: 1945
524:, bringing
439:World War I
353:death camps
284:, with the
8858:Categories
8831:11°02′54″E
8828:49°27′16″N
8791:Yad Vashem
8771:Uniqueness
8626:Nisko Plan
8399:Nazi Party
8207:Resistance
8177:Ninth Fort
8042:Vel' d'Hiv
7814:Nazi units
7752:Westerbork
7742:Amersfoort
7596:Neuengamme
7577:Mauthausen
7557:Kaiserwald
7527:Buchenwald
7306:Luxembourg
7031:Starvation
6659:Robert Ley
6569:Hans Frank
6525:(20 years)
6517:(20 years)
6509:(15 years)
6501:(10 years)
6453:Defendants
6346:War crimes
6270:Transcript
5991:(4): 159.
2149:References
2116:Yugoslavia
1925:; and the
1907:Pohl trial
1901:, and the
1881:, and the
1848:Law No. 10
1425:—a German
1341:, and the
1293:commander
1070:, and the
1052:Nazi Party
1043:Robert Ley
997:Hans Frank
943:president
941:Reichsbank
939:), former
862:Defendants
835:conspiracy
809:Indictment
803:Yugoslavia
657:common law
455:war crimes
408:aggression
402:, and the
396:Yugoslavia
388:Luxembourg
309:war crimes
270:show trial
255:atrocities
156:Defendants
130:war crimes
122:Conspiracy
117:Indictment
8749:Education
8644:Aftermath
8556:Aftermath
8518:Trawnikis
8442:Wehrmacht
8437:Waffen-SS
8237:Białystok
8065:Bucharest
8037:Marseille
7914:Elsewhere
7875:Białystok
7687:Breendonk
7664:Treblinka
7517:Auschwitz
7301:Lithuania
7036:War crime
6862:Nuremberg
6786:Aftermath
6673:Witnesses
6634:(suicide)
6487:Sentenced
6461:Acquitted
5921:0035-0974
4764:Musa 2016
4644:Musa 2016
3899:Musa 2016
3887:Musa 2016
3875:Musa 2016
3839:Musa 2016
2617:Musa 2016
2060:, in the
1945:was tried
1938:Luftwaffe
1832:IG Farben
1610:tu quoque
1392:survivor
1390:Auschwitz
1131:probative
899:(who had
706:Sonderweg
665:Nuremberg
566:Nuremberg
564:Ruins of
406:. German
278:Nuremberg
166:Witnesses
105:Nuremberg
8734:Academia
8187:Piaśnica
8157:Babi Yar
8085:Jedwabne
8024:Roundups
7957:Judenrat
7921:Budapest
7692:Mechelen
7654:Majdanek
7611:Stutthof
7572:Majdanek
7467:by Poles
7425:Portugal
7403:Response
7394:Timeline
7372:Overview
7234:Slovakia
7221:Bulgaria
7004:Genocide
6393:(France)
6387:(France)
6245:C.H.Beck
6079:(2020).
6057:(2016).
5979:(2016).
5957:(2020).
5931:(2011).
5874:(2022).
5848:(2020).
5822:(2001).
5769:(2011).
3556:, fn 82.
2145:(1976).
1940:general
1893:—in the
1828:Monowitz
1703:genocide
1682:Cold War
1657:against
1536:and the
1534:Majdanek
1373:mens rea
1160:strawman
1110:and the
1086:Evidence
1066:and the
937:Krupp AG
630:Jim Crow
594:justice
472:(waging
230:(France)
43:reviewed
8761:Lessons
8197:Rumbula
8070:Dorohoi
8051:Pogroms
8003:Victims
7853:Ghettos
7785:Gas van
7773:Methods
7747:Schoorl
7725:Bolzano
7673:Transit
7659:Sobibor
7649:Chełmno
7616:Vaivara
7552:Hinzert
7497:ghettos
7450:Vatican
7356:Croatia
7346:Ukraine
7336:Belarus
7326:Romania
7278:Hungary
7261:Germany
7251:Estonia
7246:Denmark
7216:Belgium
7211:Austria
7206:Albania
6914:Sources
5720:Sources
1953:Balkans
1877:on the
1773:of the
1733:beyond
1721:Verdict
1696:Closing
1612:defense
1561:Defense
1147:pleaded
1078:of the
1056:Gestapo
1007:leader
927:), and
841:lawyer
384:Belgium
372:Denmark
148:Decided
140:Started
8667:Bricha
8433:(Orpo)
8306:Others
8292:Żegota
8254:Rescue
8232:Warsaw
8192:Ponary
8102:Kaunas
7905:Warsaw
7890:Lublin
7880:Kraków
7867:Poland
7711:Drancy
7644:Belzec
7621:Warsaw
7532:Dachau
7440:Turkey
7435:Sweden
7361:Serbia
7341:Russia
7321:Poland
7316:Norway
7296:Latvia
7266:Greece
7256:France
7021:Piracy
6401:Judges
6251:
6197:
6174:
6126:
6103:
6065:
6043:
6020:
5965:
5943:
5919:
5882:
5860:
5834:
5808:
5781:
2120:Rwanda
2110:ad hoc
2042:Legacy
1917:; the
1897:, the
1873:, the
1528:, and
1353:, and
1337:, the
1333:, the
1331:Geneva
1062:, the
1058:, the
1054:, the
1036:tried
1019:; and
979:, and
888:, and
801:, and
701:Nazism
478:Allies
437:after
400:Greece
392:France
376:Norway
368:Poland
351:, the
335:Origin
247:Allies
69:(film)
8781:Humor
8754:Films
8451:Units
8182:Odesa
8032:Izieu
7946:Vilna
7931:Minsk
7926:Kovno
7900:Radom
7764:Sereď
7581:Gusen
7562:Kauen
7493:Camps
7430:Spain
7415:Japan
7289:Libya
7283:Italy
6823:Films
6561:Death
6239:[
6089:Nomos
6008:[
5796:[
2058:trial
1930:trial
1711:Dubno
1659:Japan
1631:]
1555:Vilna
1327:Hague
301:crime
8672:List
8427:(SD)
8407:(SS)
8090:Lviv
8075:Iași
8015:Jews
7936:Riga
7895:Lwów
7885:Łódź
7857:list
7706:Gurs
7579:and
7495:and
6534:Life
6249:ISBN
6195:ISBN
6172:ISBN
6124:ISBN
6101:ISBN
6063:ISBN
6041:ISBN
6018:ISBN
5963:ISBN
5941:ISBN
5917:ISSN
5880:ISBN
5858:ISBN
5832:ISBN
5806:ISBN
5779:ISBN
2114:for
2082:The
1869:and
1478:NKVD
1355:navy
1351:army
1329:and
1074:and
1034:was
987:and
951:and
919:).
714:and
418:of
311:and
241:The
223:(US)
217:(UK)
7821:SS-
6222:doi
6153:doi
6093:doi
5993:doi
5907:doi
5753:doi
1921:of
911:),
903:);
663:in
386:,
331:".
294:IMT
103:in
45:on
8860::
7758:sk
7736:nl
7718:it
7699:fr
7681:be
6247:.
6216:.
6212:.
6189:.
6149:21
6147:.
6141:.
6122:.
6118:.
6099:.
6087:.
6083:.
6035:.
6016:.
5989:73
5939:.
5935:.
5915:.
5903:51
5856:.
5852:.
5830:.
5826:.
5804:.
5777:.
5773:.
5747:.
5741:.
5595:^
5520:^
5457:^
5214:^
4851:^
4834:^
4771:^
4624:^
4403:^
4376:^
4325:^
4298:^
4199:^
4076:^
4025:^
4010:^
3995:^
3930:^
3783:^
3684:^
3633:^
3530:^
3489:^
3438:^
3339:^
3262:^
3137:^
3122:^
2999:^
2936:^
2883:^
2868:^
2803:^
2774:^
2747:^
2624:^
2537:^
2474:^
2315:^
2288:^
2261:^
2186:^
2171:^
2156:^
1889:.
1629:de
1592:,
1524:,
1357:.
1349:,
1118:.
1068:SD
1064:SS
1060:SA
1015:,
1011:;
991:;
975:,
971:,
959:,
884:,
722:,
606:.
570:c.
568:,
528:.
422:.
398:,
394:,
390:,
382:,
378:,
374:,
370:,
280:,
261:.
132:,
128:,
124:,
107:,
41:,
8804:"
8800:"
8117:"
8113:"
7859:)
7855:(
7180:e
7173:t
7166:v
6898:e
6891:t
6884:v
6845:"
6626:)
6622:(
6314:e
6307:t
6300:v
6276:)
6257:.
6230:.
6224::
6218:4
6203:.
6180:.
6161:.
6155::
6132:.
6109:.
6095::
6071:.
6049:.
6026:.
5999:.
5995::
5971:.
5949:.
5923:.
5909::
5888:.
5866:.
5840:.
5814:.
5787:.
5761:.
5755::
5749:9
1838:.
923:(
915:(
907:(
734:(
292:(
78:.
71:.
49:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.