184:
1930:
of the amoebae engulf bacteria and absorb toxins while circulating within the slug, and these amoebae eventually die. They are genetically identical to the other amoebae in the slug; their self-sacrifice to protect the other amoebae from bacteria is similar to the self-sacrifice of phagocytes seen in the immune system of higher vertebrates. This ancient immune function in social amoebae suggests an evolutionarily conserved cellular foraging mechanism that might have been adapted to defense functions well before the diversification of amoebae into higher forms. Phagocytes occur throughout the animal kingdom, from marine sponges to insects and lower and higher vertebrates. The ability of amoebae to distinguish between self and non-self is a pivotal one, and is the root of the immune system of many species of amoeba.
1487:
939:
306:
1866:
888:
830:
33:
484:
759:
346:
394:
338:. The bacterium is then subjected to an overwhelming array of killing mechanisms and is dead a few minutes later. Dendritic cells and macrophages are not so fast, and phagocytosis can take many hours in these cells. Macrophages are slow and untidy eaters; they engulf huge quantities of material and frequently release some undigested back into the tissues. This debris serves as a signal to recruit more phagocytes from the blood. Phagocytes have voracious appetites; scientists have even fed macrophages with
1146:
1059:
696:
322:, and cellular and foreign debris by a cell. It involves a chain of molecular processes. Phagocytosis occurs after the foreign body, a bacterial cell, for example, has bound to molecules called "receptors" that are on the surface of the phagocyte. The phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Phagocytosis of bacteria by human neutrophils takes on average nine minutes. Once inside this phagocyte, the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a
720:, where there are millions of lymphocytes. This enhances immunity because the lymphocytes respond to the antigens presented by the dendritic cells just as they would at the site of the original infection. But dendritic cells can also destroy or pacify lymphocytes if they recognize components of the host body; this is necessary to prevent autoimmune reactions. This process is called tolerance.
1607:
421:, produces reactive oxygen-containing molecules that are anti-microbial. The oxygen compounds are toxic to both the invader and the cell itself, so they are kept in compartments inside the cell. This method of killing invading microbes by using the reactive oxygen-containing molecules is referred to as oxygen-dependent intracellular killing, of which there are two types.
377:. "Complement" is the name given to a complex series of protein molecules found in the blood that destroy cells or mark them for destruction. Scavenger receptors bind to a large range of molecules on the surface of bacterial cells, and Toll-like receptors—so called because of their similarity to well-studied receptors in fruit flies that are encoded by the
1512:; without this response to infection phagocytes cannot respond adequately. Third, some species of bacteria can inhibit the ability of phagocytes to travel to the site of infection by interfering with chemotaxis. Fourth, some bacteria can avoid contact with phagocytes by tricking the immune system into "thinking" that the bacteria are "self".
1809:. Here, activated neutrophils release the contents of their toxic granules into the lung environment. Experiments have shown that a reduction in the number of neutrophils lessens the effects of acute lung injury, but treatment by inhibiting neutrophils is not clinically realistic, as it would leave the host vulnerable to infection. In the
591:
components of the innate immune system can, to a limited extent, control viruses, once a virus is inside a cell the adaptive immune responses, particularly the lymphocytes, are more important for defense. At the sites of viral infections, lymphocytes often vastly outnumber all the other cells of the immune system; this is common in viral
1170:. The activated helper T cells interact with macrophages and B cells to activate them in turn. In addition, dendritic cells can influence the type of immune response produced; when they travel to the lymphoid areas where T cells are held they can activate T cells, which then differentiate into cytotoxic T cells or helper T cells.
1929:
that are resistant to environmental dangers. Before the formation of fruiting bodies, the cells will migrate as a slug-like organism for several days. During this time, exposure to toxins or bacterial pathogens has the potential to compromise survival of the species by limiting spore production. Some
1153:
Dendritic cells are specialized antigen-presenting cells that have long outgrowths called dendrites, that help to engulf microbes and other invaders. Dendritic cells are present in the tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin, the inner lining of the nose, the lungs,
1118:
The intra-cellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein-destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages. Neutrophil secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds
907:
to other cells of the immune system. Monocytes form two groups: a circulating group and a marginal group that remain in other tissues (approximately 70% are in the marginal group). Most monocytes leave the blood stream after 20–40 hours to travel to tissues and organs and in doing so transform into
590:
can reproduce only inside cells, and they can gain entry by using many of the receptors involved in immunity. Once inside the cell, viruses use the cell's biological machinery to their own advantage, forcing the cell to make hundreds of identical copies of themselves. Although phagocytes and other
1770:
Macrophages and neutrophils, in particular, play a central role in the inflammatory process by releasing proteins and small-molecule inflammatory mediators that control infection but can damage host tissue. In general, phagocytes aim to destroy pathogens by engulfing them and subjecting them to a
803:
All phagocytes, and especially macrophages, exist in degrees of readiness. Macrophages are usually relatively dormant in the tissues and proliferate slowly. In this semi-resting state, they clear away dead host cells and other non-infectious debris and rarely take part in antigen presentation.
1082:
and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 50% to 60% of the total circulating white blood cells. One litre of human blood contains about five billion neutrophils, which are about 10 micrometers in diameter and live for only about five days. Once they have received the appropriate
703:
Antigen presentation is a process in which some phagocytes move parts of engulfed materials back to the surface of their cells and "present" them to other cells of the immune system. There are two "professional" antigen-presenting cells: macrophages and dendritic cells. After engulfment, foreign
1382:
and mesenchymal cells. They are called non-professional phagocytes, to emphasize that, in contrast to professional phagocytes, phagocytosis is not their principal function. Fibroblasts, for example, which can phagocytose collagen in the process of remolding scars, will also make some attempt to
1204:
on the surface of bacteria, which are involved in adhesion to tissues. In addition to these functions, mast cells produce cytokines that induce an inflammatory response. This is a vital part of the destruction of microbes because the cytokines attract more phagocytes to the site of infection.
812:
molecules and which prepares them for presenting antigens. In this state, macrophages are good antigen presenters and killers. If they receive a signal directly from an invader, they become "hyperactivated", stop proliferating, and concentrate on killing. Their size and rate of phagocytosis
746:. Some self reactive T cells escape the thymus for a number of reasons, mainly due to the lack of expression of some self antigens in the thymus. Another type of T cell; T regulatory cells can down regulate self reactive T cells in the periphery. When immunological tolerance fails,
820:
In the blood, neutrophils are inactive but are swept along at high speed. When they receive signals from macrophages at the sites of inflammation, they slow down and leave the blood. In the tissues, they are activated by cytokines and arrive at the battle scene ready to kill.
1798:) intensify the damage. This release of substances promotes chemotaxis of more neutrophils to the site of infection, and glomerular cells can be damaged further by the adhesion molecules during the migration of neutrophils. The injury done to the glomerular cells can cause
922:
Mature macrophages do not travel far but stand guard over those areas of the body that are exposed to the outside world. There they act as garbage collectors, antigen presenting cells, or ferocious killers, depending on the signals they receive. They derive from monocytes,
248:, a tiny transparent animal that can be examined directly under a microscope. He discovered that fungal spores that attacked the animal were destroyed by phagocytes. He went on to extend his observations to the white blood cells of mammals and discovered that the bacterium
872:
cell-lined organs to sites of infection, and although this is an important component of fighting infection, the migration itself can result in disease-like symptoms. During an infection, millions of neutrophils are recruited from the blood, but they die after a few days.
1775:. If a phagocyte fails to engulf its target, these toxic agents can be released into the environment (an action referred to as "frustrated phagocytosis"). As these agents are also toxic to host cells, they can cause extensive damage to healthy cells and tissues.
1498:
A pathogen is only successful in infecting an organism if it can get past its defenses. Pathogenic bacteria and protozoa have developed a variety of methods to resist attacks by phagocytes, and many actually survive and replicate within phagocytic cells.
5556:"Cytolysin-dependent escape of the bacterium from the phagosome is required but not sufficient for induction of the Th1 immune response against Listeria monocytogenes infection: distinct role of Listeriolysin O determined by cytolysin gene replacement"
1726:
1844:
is an important chemical that is released by macrophages that causes the blood in small vessels to clot to prevent an infection from spreading. If a bacterial infection spreads to the blood, TNF-α is released into vital organs, which can cause
672:
of jawed vertebrates—the basis of acquired immunity—is highly specialized and can protect against almost any type of invader. The adaptive immune system is not dependent on phagocytes but lymphocytes, which produce protective proteins called
575:, the efficiency of phagocytes is impaired, and recurrent bacterial infections are a problem. In this disease there is an abnormality affecting different elements of oxygen-dependent killing. Other rare congenital abnormalities, such as
1913:, for example, is an amoeba that lives in the soil and feeds on bacteria. Like animal phagocytes, it engulfs bacteria by phagocytosis mainly through Toll-like receptors, and it has other biological functions in common with macrophages.
290:
Although the importance of these discoveries slowly gained acceptance during the early twentieth century, the intricate relationships between phagocytes and all the other components of the immune system were not known until the 1980s.
155:. When phagocytes come into contact with bacteria, the receptors on the phagocyte's surface will bind to them. This binding will lead to the engulfing of the bacteria by the phagocyte. Some phagocytes kill the ingested pathogen with
716:(MHC) glycoproteins, which carry the peptides back to the phagocyte's surface where they can be "presented" to lymphocytes. Mature macrophages do not travel far from the site of infection, but dendritic cells can reach the body's
150:
During an infection, chemical signals attract phagocytes to places where the pathogen has invaded the body. These chemicals may come from bacteria or from other phagocytes already present. The phagocytes move by a method called
504:
Phagocytes can also kill microbes by oxygen-independent methods, but these are not as effective as the oxygen-dependent ones. There are four main types. The first uses electrically charged proteins that damage the bacterium's
1621:. When inside the cell they remain in the cytoplasm and avoid toxic chemicals contained in the phagolysosomes. Some bacteria prevent the fusion of a phagosome and lysosome, to form the phagolysosome. Other pathogens, such as
5657:
Datta V, Myskowski SM, Kwinn LA, Chiem DN, Varki N, Kansal RG, Kotb M, Nizet V (May 2005). "Mutational analysis of the group A streptococcal operon encoding streptolysin S and its virulence role in invasive infection".
1507:
There are several ways bacteria avoid contact with phagocytes. First, they can grow in sites that phagocytes are not capable of traveling to (e.g., the surface of unbroken skin). Second, bacteria can suppress the
677:, which tag invaders for destruction and prevent viruses from infecting cells. Phagocytes, in particular dendritic cells and macrophages, stimulate lymphocytes to produce antibodies by an important process called
766:
Phagocytes of humans and other jawed vertebrates are divided into "professional" and "non-professional" groups based on the efficiency with which they participate in phagocytosis. The professional phagocytes are
560:, monocytes, other macrophages, or dendritic cells. Nitric oxide is then released from the macrophage and, because of its toxicity, kills microbes near the macrophage. Activated macrophages produce and secrete
309:
Phagocytosis in three steps: 1. Unbound phagocyte surface receptors do not trigger phagocytosis. 2. Binding of receptors causes them to cluster. 3. Phagocytosis is triggered and the particle is taken up by the
640:. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells that possess the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an
1390:—which are antibodies and complement attached to invaders by the immune system. Additionally, most non-professional phagocytes do not produce reactive oxygen-containing molecules in response to phagocytosis.
167:, a process in which a phagocyte moves parts of the ingested material back to its surface. This material is then displayed to other cells of the immune system. Some phagocytes then travel to the body's
143:
on their surfaces that can detect harmful objects, such as bacteria, that are not normally found in the body. Non-professional phagocytes do not have efficient phagocytic receptors, such as those for
1717:, needed for phagocytosis. After a bacterium is ingested, it may kill the phagocyte by releasing toxins that travel through the phagosome or phagolysosome membrane to target other parts of the cell.
668:, which animals, including humans, are born with. Innate immunity is very effective but non-specific in that it does not discriminate between different sorts of invaders. On the other hand, the
1386:
Non-professional phagocytes are more limited than professional phagocytes in the type of particles they can take up. This is due to their lack of efficient phagocytic receptors, in particular
4832:
Segal G, Lee W, Arora PD, McKee M, Downey G, McCulloch CA (January 2001). "Involvement of actin filaments and integrins in the binding step in collagen phagocytosis by human fibroblasts".
1762:
alter the infected macrophage's signalling, repress the production of cytokines and microbicidal molecules—nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species—and compromise antigen presentation.
381:—bind to more specific molecules including foreign DNA and RNA. Binding to Toll-like receptors increases phagocytosis and causes the phagocyte to release a group of hormones that cause
837:
When an infection occurs, a chemical "SOS" signal is given off to attract phagocytes to the site. These chemical signals may include proteins from invading bacteria, clotting system
742:
that bind (via their T cell receptor) to self antigen (presented by dendritic cells on MHC molecules) too strongly are induced to die. The second type of immunological tolerance is
985:. Macrophages are usually only found in tissue and are rarely seen in blood circulation. The life-span of tissue macrophages has been estimated to range from four to fifteen days.
5117:
Valenick LV, Hsia HC, Schwarzbauer JE (September 2005). "Fibronectin fragmentation promotes alpha4beta1 integrin-mediated contraction of a fibrin-fibronectin provisional matrix".
656:
but move through the body interacting with the other phagocytic and non-phagocytic cells of the immune system. They can communicate with other cells by producing chemicals called
1643:, which break down chemicals—such as hydrogen peroxide—produced by phagocytes to kill bacteria. Bacteria may escape from the phagosome before the formation of the phagolysosome:
1131:(NETs). Composed mainly of DNA, NETs cause death by a process called netosis – after the pathogens are trapped in NETs they are killed by oxidative and non-oxidative mechanisms.
1857:. During septic shock, TNF-α release causes a blockage of the small vessels that supply blood to the vital organs, and the organs may fail. Septic shock can lead to death.
1617:
Bacteria have developed ways to survive inside phagocytes, where they continue to evade the immune system. To get safely inside the phagocyte they express proteins called
1243:
1192:
molecules and can participate in antigen presentation; however, the mast cell's role in antigen presentation is not very well understood. Mast cells can consume and kill
2071:
Schmalstieg, FC; AS Goldman (2008). "Ilya Ilich
Metchnikoff (1845–1915) and Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915): the centennial of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine".
147:. Phagocytes are crucial in fighting infections, as well as in maintaining healthy tissues by removing dead and dying cells that have reached the end of their lifespan.
1083:
signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection. They are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with
621:—is a normal healthy function of cells. The body has to rid itself of millions of dead or dying cells every day, and phagocytes play a crucial role in this process.
6521:
1103:
filaments—neutrophils can have 2–5 segments. Neutrophils do not normally exit the bone marrow until maturity but during an infection neutrophil precursors called
3581:
451:
from neutrophil granules. When granules fuse with a phagosome, myeloperoxidase is released into the phagolysosome, and this enzyme uses hydrogen peroxide and
973:), where they silently lie in wait. A macrophage's location can determine its size and appearance. Macrophages cause inflammation through the production of
3769:
Takahashi K, Naito M, Takeya M (July 1996). "Development and heterogeneity of macrophages and their related cells through their differentiation pathways".
7110:
845:
products, and cytokines that have been given off by macrophages located in the tissue near the infection site. Another group of chemical attractants are
2052:
3163:
Li MO, Sarkisian MR, Mehal WZ, Rakic P, Flavell RA (November 2003). "Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells".
568:—a class of signaling molecule—kills cancer cells and cells infected by viruses, and helps to activate the other cells of the immune system.
6514:
4241:
2117:
7028:
6641:
2551:
1127:-antibody-coated bacteria. When encountering bacteria, fungi or activated platelets they produce web-like chromatin structures known as
908:
macrophages or dendritic cells depending on the signals they receive. There are about 500 million monocytes in one litre of human blood.
4267:
Guermonprez P, Valladeau J, Zitvogel L, Théry C, Amigorena S (2002). "Antigen presentation and T cell stimulation by dendritic cells".
3537:
Lange C, Dürr M, Doster H, Melms A, Bischof F (2007). "Dendritic cell-regulatory T-cell interactions control self-directed immunity".
852:
To reach the site of infection, phagocytes leave the bloodstream and enter the affected tissues. Signals from the infection cause the
139:). The main difference between professional and non-professional phagocytes is that the professional phagocytes have molecules called
6283:
Hanington PC, Tam J, Katzenback BA, Hitchen SJ, Barreda DR, Belosevic M (April 2009). "Development of macrophages of cyprinid fish".
899:
Monocytes develop in the bone marrow and reach maturity in the blood. Mature monocytes have large, smooth, lobed nuclei and abundant
417:
When a phagocyte ingests bacteria (or any material), its oxygen consumption increases. The increase in oxygen consumption, called a
183:
5468:
Antoine JC, Prina E, Lang T, Courret N (October 1998). "The biogenesis and properties of the parasitophorous vacuoles that harbour
3927:
7103:
6507:
5701:
Iwatsuki K, Yamasaki O, Morizane S, Oono T (June 2006). "Staphylococcal cutaneous infections: invasion, evasion and aggression".
2921:
Schroder K, Hertzog PJ, Ravasi T, Hume DA (February 2004). "Interferon-gamma: an overview of signals, mechanisms and functions".
734:
Dendritic cells also promote immunological tolerance, which stops the body from attacking itself. The first type of tolerance is
1631:
inside the phagocyte, which helps them persist and replicate. Some bacteria are capable of living inside of the phagolysosome.
1595:
195:(1845–1916) first recognized that specialized cells were involved in defense against microbial infections. In 1882, he studied
111:
Phagocytes of humans and other animals are called "professional" or "non-professional" depending on how effective they are at
6433:
6414:
6391:
6372:
6350:
6331:
6182:
4190:"Identification of a novel cell type in peripheral lymphoid organs of mice. I. Morphology, quantitation, tissue distribution"
3939:
2238:
284:
101:
211:
tree into the larvae. After a few hours, he noticed that the motile cells had surrounded the thorns. Mechnikov traveled to
5739:
Denkers EY, Butcher BA (January 2005). "Sabotage and exploitation in macrophages parasitized by intracellular protozoans".
1542:
made of proteins or sugars that coat their cells and interfere with phagocytosis. Some examples are the K5 capsule and O75
1154:
the stomach, and the intestines. Once activated, they mature and migrate to the lymphoid tissues where they interact with
1016:
1 cells can recruit other phagocytes to the site of the infection in several ways. They secrete cytokines that act on the
175:. This process is important in building immunity, and many pathogens have evolved methods to evade attacks by phagocytes.
636:
surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as
613:
and cell death keeps the number of cells relatively constant in adults. There are two different ways a cell can die: by
7096:
1366:
Dying cells and foreign organisms are consumed by cells other than the "professional" phagocytes. These cells include
1188:
and interact with dendritic cells, B cells, and T cells to help mediate adaptive immune functions. Mast cells express
2862:
Meyer KC (September 2004). "Neutrophils, myeloperoxidase, and bronchiectasis in cystic fibrosis: green is not good".
5907:
Moraes TJ, Zurawska JH, Downey GP (January 2006). "Neutrophil granule contents in the pathogenesis of lung injury".
7442:
5252:
capsular serotype 19F is more resistant to C3 deposition and less sensitive to opsonophagocytosis than serotype 6B"
3585:
713:
207:, believing they were important to the animals' immune defenses. To test his idea, he inserted small thorns from a
1590:
to block antibody receptors, which decreases the effectiveness of opsonins. Enteropathogenic species of the genus
6450:
5207:"A crucial role for exopolysaccharide modification in bacterial biofilm formation, immune evasion, and virulence"
4098:"Neutrophil primary granule proteins HBP and HNP1-3 boost bacterial phagocytosis by human and murine macrophages"
1907:
shortly after the divergence of plants, and they share many specific functions with mammalian phagocytic cells.
358:
3471:
2416:
2040:
576:
7437:
1128:
868:
is the process by which phagocytes follow the cytokine "scent" to the infected spot. Neutrophils travel across
7380:
572:
401:
The killing of microbes is a critical function of phagocytes that is performed either within the phagocyte (
6911:
6719:
1870:
216:
108:
behave like macrophage phagocytes, which suggests that phagocytes appeared early in the evolution of life.
36:
2253:
Fang FC (October 2004). "Antimicrobial reactive oxygen and nitrogen species: concepts and controversies".
938:
85:. Phagocytes are important throughout the animal kingdom and are highly developed within vertebrates. One
2044:
1841:
982:
887:
517:, which are present in neutrophil granules and remove essential iron from bacteria. The fourth type uses
5380:
Sansonetti P (December 2001). "Phagocytosis of bacterial pathogens: implications in the host response".
7266:
5037:
1865:
1658:
1558:
17:
5511:: correlating production of catalase and superoxide dismutase with levels of inflammatory cytokines".
3996:"Passive deformability of mature, immature, and active neutrophils in healthy and septicemic neonates"
5421:
invasin protein enhances integrin-mediated uptake into mammalian cells and promotes self-association"
4585:"Mast cells process bacterial Ags through a phagocytic route for class I MHC presentation to T cells"
1573:
864:
loosen the junctions connecting endothelial cells, allowing the phagocytes to pass through the wall.
595:. Virus-infected cells that have been killed by lymphocytes are cleared from the body by phagocytes.
7088:
6474:
5154:"Loss of resistance to ingestion and phagocytic killing by O(-) and K(-) mutants of a uropathogenic
4584:
2587:
353:
A phagocyte has many types of receptors on its surface that are used to bind material. They include
6973:
6488:
1909:
1564:
1029:
617:
or by apoptosis. In contrast to necrosis, which often results from disease or trauma, apoptosis—or
7446:
7204:
7075:
6994:
6863:
1598:
to receptors of phagocytes from which they influence the cells capability to exert phagocytosis.
1486:
1239:
729:
156:
140:
6464:
4477:
Malaviya R, Abraham SN (February 2001). "Mast cell modulation of immune responses to bacteria".
4245:
7546:
7468:
7186:
7122:
2991:
Lipu HN, Ahmed TA, Ali S, Ahmed D, Waqar MA (September 2008). "Chronic granulomatous disease".
1875:
1813:, damage by neutrophils can contribute to dysfunction and injury in response to the release of
1714:
1645:
1577:
1201:
1193:
1091:, and damaged cells or cellular debris. Neutrophils do not return to the blood; they turn into
669:
561:
331:
40:
1613:
are small bacteria—here stained red—that grow in the cytoplasm of non-professional phagocytes.
7415:
7271:
7249:
4867:
Rabinovitch M (March 1995). "Professional and non-professional phagocytes: an introduction".
4280:
4145:
Papayannopoulos V (February 2018). "Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease".
4049:"Neutrophil secretion products regulate anti-bacterial activity in monocytes and macrophages"
2552:"A single assay for measuring the rates of phagocytosis and bacterial killing by neutrophils"
1582:
1509:
1024:
that are responsible for the migration of monocytes and neutrophils out of the bloodstream. T
641:
618:
496:
192:
5826:
Heinzelmann M, Mercer-Jones MA, Passmore JC (August 1999). "Neutrophils and renal failure".
5774:
Gregory DJ, Olivier M (2005). "Subversion of host cell signalling by the protozoan parasite
7432:
7365:
7276:
7200:
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6057:
6002:
4537:
3265:
2191:
1783:
1640:
1569:
1420:
1120:
743:
690:
665:
632:, on their cell surface to attract phagocytes. Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the
437:
164:
77:, "to eat" or "devour", and "-cyte", the suffix in biology denoting "cell", from the Greek
1790:
cells, affecting their ability to filter blood and causing changes in shape. In addition,
1162:
to initiate and orchestrate the adaptive immune response. Mature dendritic cells activate
8:
7551:
7541:
7492:
7427:
7410:
7244:
7162:
6858:
6833:
5345:
Fällman M, Deleuil F, McGee K (February 2002). "Resistance to phagocytosis by
Yersinia".
1822:
1009:
362:
6231:
6061:
6046:"Porcine innate and adaptative immune responses to influenza and coronavirus infections"
6006:
4541:
3269:
2195:
1040:
destruction by producing TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma, nitric oxide, reactive oxygen compounds,
996:
cells), a sub-group of lymphocytes, are responsible for the activation of macrophages. T
258:. Mechnikov proposed that phagocytes were a primary defense against invading organisms.
90:
7312:
7004:
6403:
6248:
6215:
6196:
6161:
Bozzaro S, Bucci C, Steinert M (2008). "Phagocytosis and host-pathogen interactions in
6088:
6026:
6014:
5975:
5963:
5932:
5920:
5886:
5799:
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5634:
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3632:
3562:
3387:
3362:
3343:
3289:
3188:
3043:
2946:
2757:
Dahlgren, C; A Karlsson (December 17, 1999). "Respiratory burst in human neutrophils".
2739:
2685:
2658:
2579:
2524:
2499:
2398:
2344:
2317:
2278:
2215:
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1514:
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1079:
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to stimulate the production of monocytes and neutrophils, and they secrete some of the
966:
747:
629:
522:
467:
pigment, which accounts for the green color of secretions rich in neutrophils, such as
250:
82:
44:
6484:
6174:
5839:
5485:
5095:
4880:
4490:
3699:
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bacteria: the large, stringy capsules protect the organisms from attack by phagocytes.
536:—which was once called macrophage activating factor—stimulates macrophages to produce
428:, which is an oxygen-rich bacteria-killing substance. The superoxide is converted to
89:
of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes. They were discovered in 1882 by
7360:
7126:
6868:
6429:
6410:
6387:
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4219:
4162:
4127:
4078:
4064:
4017:
4012:
3995:
3935:
3851:
3786:
3703:
3624:
3554:
3392:
3335:
3281:
3230:
3180:
3096:
3035:
3000:
2938:
2879:
2844:
2809:
2774:
2731:
2690:
2571:
2529:
2390:
2349:
2270:
2207:
2088:
1830:
1806:
1748:
1742:
1553:
1539:
1271:
1088:
903:
that contains granules. Monocytes ingest foreign or dangerous substances and present
842:
735:
441:
429:
418:
374:
365:. Opsonin receptors increase the phagocytosis of bacteria that have been coated with
6030:
5936:
5890:
5803:
5687:
5540:
5173:
4506:
4174:
3812:
Krombach F, Münzing S, Allmeling AM, Gerlach JT, Behr J, Dörger M (September 1997).
3636:
3566:
3363:"Phagosome maturation during the removal of apoptotic cells: receptors lead the way"
3347:
3293:
3192:
3091:
3074:
3047:
2950:
2583:
2402:
2282:
2219:
2100:
1782:, the contents of the granule (reactive oxygen compounds and proteases) degrade the
957:. Macrophages are found throughout the body in almost all tissues and organs (e.g.,
712:
inside dendritic cells and macrophages. These peptides are then bound to the cell's
7480:
7420:
7392:
7387:
7355:
7342:
7332:
6945:
6848:
6663:
6292:
6243:
6235:
6200:
6170:
6135:
6083:
6075:
6065:
6010:
5979:
5959:
5916:
5870:
5835:
5783:
5748:
5714:
5710:
5667:
5629:
5619:
5575:
5567:
5520:
5481:
5440:
5432:
5389:
5354:
5311:
5271:
5263:
5218:
5177:
5169:
5126:
5091:
5049:
5014:
4976:
4966:
4925:
4915:
4876:
4841:
4804:
4796:
4751:
4695:
4685:
4646:
4616:
4596:
4555:
4545:
4486:
4446:
4438:
4390:
4337:
4327:
4276:
4209:
4201:
4154:
4117:
4109:
4068:
4060:
4007:
3841:
3825:
3798:
3778:
3695:
3616:
3546:
3382:
3374:
3325:
3317:
3273:
3249:
3220:
3172:
3086:
3027:
2930:
2871:
2836:
2801:
2766:
2721:
2680:
2670:
2563:
2519:
2511:
2380:
2339:
2329:
2262:
2199:
2080:
1568:
produces several types of capsule that provide different levels of protection, and
1548:
1465:
1371:
1303:
1167:
1033:
805:
699:
A schematic diagram of the presentation of foreign peptides by MHC 1 molecules
533:
366:
116:
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Lee WL, Downey GP (February 2001). "Neutrophil activation and acute lung injury".
4779:
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cells and die. Mature neutrophils are smaller than monocytes and have a segmented
988:
Macrophages can be activated to perform functions that a resting monocyte cannot.
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6683:
6615:
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Some survival strategies often involve disrupting cytokines and other methods of
1709:, which cause neutrophils' granules to rupture and release toxic substances, and
1654:
1650:
1445:
1367:
1352:
1316:
958:
653:
448:
81:, "hollow vessel". They are essential for fighting infections and for subsequent
5130:
4600:
4520:
Connell I, Agace W, Klemm P, Schembri M, Mărild S, Svanborg C (September 1996).
660:, which recruit other phagocytes to the site of infections or stimulate dormant
7402:
7347:
7288:
7208:
7181:
6960:
6940:
6889:
6733:
6678:
6658:
6653:
6575:
6539:
6469:
4650:
4378:
2840:
1799:
1737:
1140:
784:
433:
262:
136:
67:
55:
32:
6494:
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1758:
infect macrophages, and each has a unique way of taming them. Some species of
314:
Phagocytosis is the process of taking in particles such as bacteria, invasive
305:
163:. After phagocytosis, macrophages and dendritic cells can also participate in
7535:
7370:
7259:
7040:
6950:
6595:
6045:
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610:
545:
541:
506:
406:
402:
335:
6239:
6070:
5358:
5053:
4550:
3321:
3277:
3176:
2203:
2084:
7337:
7322:
7317:
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6548:
6531:
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5323:
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5232:
5223:
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5191:
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5103:
5061:
4990:
4939:
4888:
4853:
4818:
4765:
4709:
4658:
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4351:
4288:
4205:
4166:
4131:
4082:
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3707:
3628:
3558:
3550:
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3339:
3285:
3234:
3184:
3100:
3039:
3004:
2942:
2883:
2848:
2778:
2735:
2694:
2533:
2353:
2274:
2092:
1918:
1880:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1795:
1740:
to prevent the phagocyte's responding to invasion. The protozoan parasites
1287:
1189:
1112:
1096:
1071:
1063:
892:
809:
537:
483:
456:
382:
349:
Macrophages have special receptors that enhance phagocytosis (not to scale)
339:
300:
280:
255:
160:
112:
6079:
6022:
5493:
4845:
4608:
4569:
4223:
4021:
3855:
3790:
2813:
2675:
2575:
2394:
2211:
1697:
Bacteria have developed several ways of killing phagocytes. These include
463:. Hypochlorite is extremely toxic to bacteria. Myeloperoxidase contains a
397:
Simplified diagram of the phagocytosis and destruction of a bacterial cell
6742:
6625:
6357:
5571:
5267:
4637:
Taylor ML, Metcalfe DD (2001). "Mast cells in allergy and host defense".
4583:
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1523:
1431:
1053:
1017:
1005:
924:
917:
861:
853:
780:
776:
695:
514:
509:. The second type uses lysozymes; these enzymes break down the bacterial
378:
172:
5315:
4756:
4739:
4047:
Soehnlein O, Kenne E, Rotzius P, Eriksson EE, Lindbom L (January 2008).
2934:
2266:
1725:
1606:
7460:
7213:
7119:
6853:
6843:
6823:
6815:
6777:
6760:
6750:
6688:
6580:
3925:
3837:
3620:
2500:"It takes a village: Phagocytes play a central role in fungal immunity"
1884:
1834:
1787:
1754:
1706:
1686:
1678:
1668:
1664:
1623:
1610:
1455:
1379:
1375:
1276:
1253:
1197:
932:
869:
865:
717:
661:
637:
592:
525:; these enzymes are used to digest the proteins of destroyed bacteria.
488:
425:
370:
239:
168:
152:
128:
120:
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4395:
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1526:, which is produced naturally by the body and plays a crucial role in
235:, meaning "hollow vessel") for the cells that Mechnikov had observed.
7518:
7223:
7118:
6906:
6838:
6789:
6755:
6620:
6600:
6590:
4442:
4113:
3479:
2659:"RNA Modifications Modulate Activation of Innate Toll-Like Receptors"
1892:
1814:
1805:
Neutrophils also play a key role in the development of most forms of
1710:
1698:
1673:
1587:
1580:
to block engulfment. Some proteins hinder opsonin-related ingestion;
1543:
1435:
1298:
self-replicating macrophages, monocytes, mast cells, dendritic cells
1220:
1179:
1108:
1100:
1067:
1001:
900:
882:
846:
829:
788:
772:
768:
657:
633:
625:
604:
518:
510:
323:
319:
254:
could be engulfed and killed by phagocytes, a process that he called
208:
132:
63:
6384:
3994:
Linderkamp O, Ruef P, Brenner B, Gulbins E, Lang F (December 1998).
3829:
3330:
579:, are also associated with defective killing of ingested microbes.
7508:
7293:
7281:
7239:
7193:
7157:
7033:
6927:
6806:
6794:
6770:
6765:
6553:
5606:
Parker HA, Forrester L, Kaldor CD, Dickerhof N, Hampton MB (2021).
1900:
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1021:
954:
904:
857:
838:
814:
674:
614:
565:
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266:
204:
196:
124:
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94:
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1200:), and process their antigens. They specialize in processing the
1159:
1155:
1145:
946:
860:, which neutrophils stick to on passing by. Other signals called
709:
705:
678:
553:
549:
354:
270:
244:
144:
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This type of phagocyte does not have granules but contains many
804:
But, during an infection, they receive chemical signals—usually
758:
393:
342:
and then used a small magnet to separate them from other cells.
7485:
7473:
7218:
7169:
7023:
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6563:
5825:
3814:"Cell size of alveolar macrophages: an interspecies comparison"
3811:
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1926:
1896:
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Chemicals released by macrophages can also damage host tissue.
1818:
1779:
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460:
440:. Superoxides also react with the hydrogen peroxide to produce
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5605:
5302:
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1355:, other dendritic cells, conventional macrophages, mast cells
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279:, "a dressing or relish". Mechnikov was awarded (jointly with
58:
that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles,
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4952:
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792:
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315:
275:
229:
221:
200:
97:
86:
71:
5700:
5608:"Antimicrobial Activity of Neutrophils Against Mycobacteria"
3993:
2794:
931:
of pre-existing macrophages. Human macrophages are about 21
609:
In an animal, cells are constantly dying. A balance between
4095:
1649:
can make a hole in the phagosome wall using enzymes called
856:
cells that line the blood vessels to make a protein called
464:
5553:
4955:"Cell-in-Cell Structures in the Liver: A Tale of Four E's"
4582:
1917:
is social; it aggregates when starved to form a migrating
1308:
free and fixed macrophages and monocytes, dendritic cells
1032:
of CD4 T cells once they have responded to antigen in the
345:
104:
for his discovery. Phagocytes occur in many species; some
4674:"The role of mast cells in the defence against pathogens"
4519:
3926:
Stvrtinová, Viera; Ján
Jakubovský and Ivan Hulín (1995).
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2656:
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1320:
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491:
468:
219:
who suggested the name "phagocyte" (from the Greek words
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Hampton MB, Vissers MC, Winterbourn CC (February 1994).
1921:. This multicellular organism eventually will produce a
1333:
free and fixed macrophages, monocytes, sinusoidal cells
833:
Neutrophils move from the blood to the site of infection
265:
discovered that phagocytosis was reinforced by specific
6381:
5467:
5036:
Alexander J, Satoskar AR, Russell DG (September 1999).
4953:
Davies SP, Terry LV, Wilkinson AL, Stamataki Z (2020).
4740:"Innate apoptotic immunity: the calming touch of death"
4725:
4034:
1778:
When neutrophils release their granule contents in the
1119:
involved in intracellular killing. Secretions from the
849:
that recruit neutrophils and monocytes from the blood.
424:
The first type is the oxygen-dependent production of a
326:. Within one minute the phagosome merges with either a
6382:
Paoletti, R.; Notario, A.; Ricevuti, G., eds. (1997).
6321:
6270:
4096:
Soehnlein O, Kai-Larsen Y, Frithiof R (October 2008).
3966:
3913:
3901:
3877:
3744:
3673:
3524:
3500:
3457:
3445:
2963:
2908:
2608:
2455:
2437:
2298:
2009:
1997:
1982:
1891:
Phagocytosis is common and probably appeared early in
1701:, which form pores in the phagocyte's cell membranes,
949:
caused by bacteria—pus contains millions of phagocytes
813:
increases—some become large enough to engulf invading
795:
of human blood contains about six billion phagocytes.
6547:
6216:"Immune-like phagocyte activity in the social amoeba"
3254:
phosphatidylserine receptor through CED-5 and CED-12"
3162:
3017:
2070:
171:
and display the material to white blood cells called
6343:
Phagocytosis of
Bacteria and Bacterial Pathogenicity
6160:
5906:
5204:
4313:
3768:
3536:
3307:
3206:
1099:
with several sections; each section is connected by
762:
Phagocytes derive from stem cells in the bone marrow
115:. The professional phagocytes include many types of
6362:
6326:(11th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
6044:Charley B, Riffault S, Van Reeth K (October 2006).
5344:
5245:
4301:
3732:
2896:
2028:
1948:
1522:—hides from phagocytes by coating its surface with
652:Phagocytes are usually not bound to any particular
500:
bacteria inside phagocytes and their relative sizes
478:
6529:
6428:(6th ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
6402:
6213:
6167:International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology
4831:
3928:"Neutrophils, central cells in acute inflammation"
3075:"Laboratorial diagnosis of lymphocytic meningitis"
2756:
2497:
1481:
1062:Neutrophils with a segmented nuclei surrounded by
5205:Vuong C, Kocianova S, Voyich JM (December 2004).
4379:"The immunoglobulin E-Toll-like receptor network"
2990:
2974:
2972:
1066:, the intra-cellular granules are visible in the
412:
7533:
6121:
6119:
5902:
5900:
5734:
5732:
5601:
5599:
5297:
5295:
4424:
4383:International Archives of Allergy and Immunology
3207:Nagata S, Sakuragi T, Segawa K (December 2019).
2792:Shatwell, KP; AW Segal (1996). "NADPH oxidase".
2791:
2051:, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.
1601:
647:
444:, which assist in killing the invading microbe.
27:Cells that ingest harmful matter within the body
6400:
4476:
4376:
4144:
2449:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2248:
2246:
2177:
2175:
2147:
1720:
1036:. Activated macrophages play a potent role in
1000:1 cells activate macrophages by signaling with
447:The second type involves the use of the enzyme
6401:Robinson, J. P.; Babcock, G. F., eds. (1998).
6386:. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.
5773:
5738:
5506:
4636:
3298:(Free registration required for online access)
3197:(Free registration required for online access)
2969:
2707:
2545:
2543:
2409:
1732:amastigotes (arrows) in a macrophage from skin
1361:
238:A year later, Mechnikov studied a fresh water
7104:
6515:
6340:
6276:
6207:
6154:
6125:
6116:
6037:
5943:
5897:
5854:
5819:
5767:
5729:
5694:
5650:
5596:
5547:
5500:
5408:
5373:
5347:International Journal of Medical Microbiology
5338:
5292:
5239:
5198:
5145:
5110:
5075:
4946:
4895:
4860:
4772:
4731:
3889:
3530:
2485:
2473:
2461:
2166:
2151:
2132:
2112:
2110:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2018:
1895:, evolving first in unicellular eukaryotes.
1123:of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of
624:Dying cells that undergo the final stages of
287:for his work on phagocytes and phagocytosis.
6214:Chen G, Zhuchenko O, Kuspa A (August 2007).
5986:
5414:
4721:
4719:
4665:
4630:
4418:
4370:
4244:. The Rockefeller University. Archived from
4187:
4138:
4089:
4040:
3679:
3584:. The Rockefeller University. Archived from
3354:
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3066:
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2984:
2914:
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2820:
2701:
2650:
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2498:Feldman MB, Vyas JM, Mansour MK (May 2019).
2491:
2304:
2243:
2172:
2162:
2160:
1765:
644:and is an important function of phagocytes.
6367:(4th ed.). London: Blackwell Science.
5081:
5008:
5006:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4866:
4671:
4576:
4513:
3987:
3762:
3469:
2710:"The phagocytes: neutrophils and monocytes"
2540:
2360:
1993:
1991:
1423:and LGL cells (large granular lymphocytes)
7111:
7097:
6522:
6508:
5379:
4737:
2708:Dale DC, Boxer L, Liles WC (August 2008).
2128:
2126:
2107:
2015:
1594:bind with the use of the virulence factor
1279:, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells
753:
723:
6487:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
6423:
6341:Ernst, J. D.; Stendahl, O., eds. (2006).
6247:
6110:
6087:
6069:
5860:
5633:
5623:
5579:
5444:
5275:
5222:
5181:
5151:
4980:
4970:
4929:
4919:
4808:
4755:
4716:
4699:
4689:
4559:
4549:
4450:
4425:Kalesnikoff J, Galli SJ (November 2008).
4394:
4364:
4341:
4331:
4213:
4121:
4072:
4011:
3981:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3845:
3756:
3720:
3685:
3661:
3649:
3606:
3512:
3433:
3421:
3409:
3386:
3329:
3224:
3125:
3113:
3090:
3060:
2978:
2826:
2725:
2684:
2674:
2644:
2632:
2620:
2523:
2467:
2384:
2343:
2333:
2157:
1853:volume; these in turn can be followed by
1343:free and fixed macrophages and monocytes
6345:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5992:
4997:
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3977:
3975:
3579:
2827:Klebanoff SJ (1999). "Myeloperoxidase".
2315:
2233:
2231:
2229:
2181:
1988:
1903:that separated from the tree leading to
1864:
1724:
1713:that reduce the supply of a phagocyte's
1605:
1485:
1144:
1057:
937:
886:
828:
757:
694:
540:. The source of interferon-gamma can be
482:
392:
344:
304:
182:
31:
7029:Megakaryocyte–erythroid progenitor cell
5949:
4901:
4472:
4470:
4427:"New developments in mast cell biology"
4260:
4235:
4233:
2366:
2123:
2043:, retrieved on November 28, 2008. From
1949:Little C, Fowler HW, Coulson J (1983).
1860:
684:
187:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in his laboratory
14:
7534:
5301:
3862:
3582:"Dendritic Cells and Immune Tolerance"
3360:
3301:
3241:
2294:
2292:
2239:Induced innate responses to infection.
2143:
2141:
2118:Evolution of the innate immune system.
2066:
2064:
1786:of host cells and can cause damage to
1533:
1078:Neutrophils are normally found in the
1008:. Other signals include TNF-alpha and
405:killing) or outside of the phagocyte (
7092:
6503:
4726:Paoletti, Notario & Ricevuti 1997
4522:"Type 1 fimbrial expression enhances
4035:Paoletti, Notario & Ricevuti 1997
3972:
3919:
3573:
3463:
2861:
2226:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1951:The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
808:—which increases their production of
388:
285:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
102:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
4467:
4239:
4230:
3250:"Cell corpse engulfment mediated by
3247:
2252:
1944:
1942:
1771:battery of toxic chemicals inside a
1635:, for example, produces the enzymes
992:(also known as effector T cells or T
598:
6495:White blood cell engulfing bacteria
6169:. Vol. 271. pp. 253–300.
4377:Novak N, Bieber T, Peng WM (2010).
4314:Sallusto F, Lanzavecchia A (2002).
2289:
2138:
2061:
2034:
1671:and thereby infect latter as well.
1502:
24:
6015:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb46269.x
5964:10.1097/01.CCM.0000057843.47705.E8
5921:10.1097/01.moh.0000190113.31027.d5
5415:Dersch P, Isberg RR (March 1999).
3783:10.1111/j.1440-1827.1996.tb03641.x
1957:
1134:
1044:proteins, and hydrolytic enzymes.
227:, meaning "to eat or devour", and
25:
7563:
6444:
5152:Burns SM, Hull SI (August 1999).
5012:
4491:10.1034/j.1600-065X.2001.790102.x
4302:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005
3733:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005
3143:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
2897:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005
2369:"Medals, memoirs—and Metchnikoff"
2029:Hoffbrand, Pettit & Moss 2005
1939:
571:In some diseases, e.g., the rare
100:. Mechnikov was awarded the 1908
66:cells. Their name comes from the
6264:
6104:
5875:10.1097/00075198-200102000-00001
5810:
5672:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04583.x
5461:
5029:
4825:
4801:10.1128/IAI.68.12.6939-6945.2000
4738:Birge RB, Ucker DS (July 2008).
4526:virulence for the urinary tract"
4065:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03532.x
4013:10.1203/00006450-199812000-00021
3472:"Antigen Presenting Cells (APC)"
2759:Journal of Immunological Methods
2049:Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921
714:major histocompatibility complex
528:
479:Oxygen-independent intracellular
6314:
5174:10.1128/IAI.67.8.3757-3762.1999
4358:
4307:
4295:
4028:
3960:
3907:
3895:
3883:
3805:
3750:
3738:
3726:
3714:
3667:
3655:
3643:
3609:Internal and Emergency Medicine
3600:
3518:
3506:
3494:
3451:
3439:
3427:
3415:
3403:
3131:
3119:
3107:
3092:10.1590/s1413-86702007000500010
3054:
2957:
2902:
2890:
2785:
2750:
2638:
2626:
2614:
2602:
2479:
2443:
2431:
1482:Pathogen evasion and resistance
664:. Phagocytes form part of the
459:, a substance used in domestic
294:
7438:Immunoglobulin class switching
5715:10.1016/j.jdermsci.2006.03.011
4785:by nonprofessional phagocytes"
2003:
1129:neutrophil extracellular traps
1047:
911:
413:Oxygen-dependent intracellular
13:
1:
6175:10.1016/S1937-6448(08)01206-9
6165:with a look at macrophages".
5840:10.1016/S0272-6386(99)70375-6
5486:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01324-9
5096:10.1016/S0966-842X(02)02343-0
4881:10.1016/S0962-8924(00)88955-2
4188:Steinman RM, Cohn ZA (1973).
3700:10.1016/S0955-0674(03)00103-0
3361:Zhou Z, Yu X (October 2008).
3213:Current Opinion in Immunology
2806:10.1016/S1357-2725(96)00084-2
2771:10.1016/S0022-1759(99)00146-5
1933:
1667:that are in turn ingested by
1602:Survival inside the phagocyte
1417:Blood, lymph and lymph nodes
1409:Blood, lymph and lymph nodes
1173:
798:
738:, that occurs in the thymus.
648:Interactions with other cells
573:chronic granulomatous disease
199:(freely moving) cells in the
6720:Extramedullary hematopoiesis
6475:Resources in other libraries
6324:Roitt's Essential Immunology
4691:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002619
4530:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
3032:10.1097/MOH.0b013e3282f2bcce
2727:10.1182/blood-2007-12-077917
2516:10.1016/j.semcdb.2018.04.008
2318:"Immunology's Coming of Age"
2073:Journal of Medical Biography
1871:scanning electron microscope
1721:Disruption of cell signaling
876:
824:
230:
222:
72:
37:Scanning electron micrograph
7:
6426:How the Immune System Works
5419:Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
5131:10.1016/j.yexcr.2005.05.024
4672:Urb M, Sheppard DC (2012).
4601:10.4049/jimmunol.156.4.1490
3580:Steinman, Ralph M. (2004).
2829:Proc. Assoc. Am. Physicians
2450:Robinson & Babcock 1998
2367:Aterman K (April 1, 1998).
2148:Robinson & Babcock 1998
2120:retrieved on March 20, 2009
1627:, create a highly modified
1518:—the bacterium that causes
1395:Non-professional phagocytes
1362:Non-professional phagocytes
1004:and displaying the protein
628:display molecules, such as
10:
7568:
7267:Polyclonal B cell response
5119:Experimental Cell Research
4651:10.2500/108854101778148764
4147:Nature Reviews. Immunology
3470:Lee T, McGibbon A (2004).
2841:10.1111/paa.1999.111.5.383
1692:
1559:Staphylococcus epidermidis
1383:ingest foreign particles.
1177:
1138:
1051:
1034:secondary lymphoid tissues
915:
880:
727:
688:
602:
582:
298:
215:and shared his ideas with
178:
7501:
7459:
7401:
7302:
7232:
7140:
7133:
7053:
7013:
6987:
6959:
6926:
6886:Antigen-presenting cells
6879:
6814:
6805:
6741:
6732:
6712:
6674:
6649:
6640:
6611:
6571:
6562:
6538:
6470:Resources in your library
6297:10.1016/j.dci.2008.11.004
6140:10.1016/j.mib.2008.05.005
5788:10.1017/S0031182005008139
5625:10.3389/fimmu.2021.782495
5525:10.1007/s00011-007-7206-z
3890:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
3379:10.1016/j.tcb.2008.08.002
3226:10.1016/j.coi.2019.11.009
2876:10.1016/j.lab.2004.05.014
2486:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
2474:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
2462:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
2167:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
2152:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
2133:Ernst & Stendahl 2006
1766:Host damage by phagocytes
1572:produce proteins such as
6974:Nucleated red blood cell
6530:Myeloid blood cells and
6489:Medical Subject Headings
6409:. New York: Wiley–Liss.
5753:10.1016/j.pt.2004.10.004
5472:in murine macrophages".
5250:Streptococcus pneumoniae
4972:10.3389/fimmu.2020.00650
4921:10.3389/fimmu.2017.01781
4783:Encephalitozoon cuniculi
3818:Environ. Health Perspect
2335:10.3389/fimmu.2019.00684
2055:August 22, 2008, at the
1919:pseudoplasmodium or slug
1915:Dictyostelium discoideum
1910:Dictyostelium discoideum
1565:Streptococcus pneumoniae
1546:found on the surface of
1238:macrophages, monocytes,
577:Chédiak–Higashi syndrome
7076:Hematopoietic stem cell
6995:Leukocyte extravasation
6864:Foreign-body giant cell
6240:10.1126/science.1143991
6071:10.1196/annals.1373.014
5612:Frontiers in Immunology
5437:10.1093/emboj/18.5.1199
5359:10.1078/1438-4221-00159
5054:10.1242/jcs.112.18.2993
4959:Frontiers in Immunology
4908:Frontiers in Immunology
4834:Journal of Cell Science
4551:10.1073/pnas.93.18.9827
3322:10.1126/science.1092533
3278:10.1126/science.1087641
3177:10.1126/science.1087621
2322:Frontiers in Immunology
2204:10.1126/science.7878464
2085:10.1258/jmb.2008.008006
1538:Bacteria often produce
1230:neutrophils, monocytes
1210:Professional Phagocytes
754:Professional phagocytes
730:Immunological tolerance
724:Immunological tolerance
708:) are broken down into
7381:Tolerance in pregnancy
7123:adaptive immune system
6424:Sompayrac, L. (2019).
5394:10.1006/smim.2001.0335
5224:10.1074/jbc.M411374200
4902:Lin A, Loré K (2017).
4781:"Phagocytic uptake of
4206:10.1084/jem.137.5.1142
3551:10.1038/sj.icb.7100088
2419:. The Nobel Foundation
1888:
1876:Streptococcus pyogenes
1817:produced by bacteria,
1733:
1646:Listeria monocytogenes
1614:
1495:
1404:Variety of phenotypes
1194:gram-negative bacteria
1150:
1075:
1028:1 cells come from the
950:
896:
834:
763:
700:
670:adaptive immune system
558:natural killer T cells
513:. The third type uses
501:
398:
350:
311:
191:The Russian zoologist
188:
93:while he was studying
48:
7416:Somatic hypermutation
7250:Polyclonal antibodies
7245:Monoclonal antibodies
6365:Essential Haematology
6128:Curr. Opin. Microbiol
5782:. 130 Suppl: S27–35.
5509:Staphylococcus aureus
4846:10.1242/jcs.114.1.119
3688:Curr. Opin. Cell Biol
2676:10.3390/genes10020092
1868:
1833:resulting from acute
1728:
1633:Staphylococcus aureus
1609:
1583:Staphylococcus aureus
1510:inflammatory response
1492:Staphylococcus aureus
1489:
1148:
1061:
941:
890:
832:
761:
698:
642:inflammatory response
619:programmed cell death
562:tumor necrosis factor
497:Neisseria gonorrhoeae
486:
396:
348:
308:
193:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov
186:
91:Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov
35:
7433:Junctional diversity
7201:Antigen presentation
7071:Hematopoietic system
6859:Langhans giant cells
6050:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci
5995:Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci
5958:(4 Suppl): S195–99.
5572:10.1128/IAI.01779-06
5268:10.1128/IAI.01186-08
4326:(Suppl 3): S127–32.
4159:10.1038/nri.2017.105
3948:on December 31, 2010
3824:(Suppl 5): 1261–63.
3476:Dalhousie University
2590:on December 28, 2012
2568:10.1002/jlb.55.2.147
2386:10.1002/jlb.63.4.515
2316:Kaufmann SH (2019).
1861:Evolutionary origins
1784:extracellular matrix
1641:superoxide dismutase
1570:group A streptococci
891:Monocytes in blood (
744:peripheral tolerance
691:Antigen presentation
685:Antigen presentation
666:innate immune system
550:natural killer cells
438:superoxide dismutase
436:by an enzyme called
217:Carl Friedrich Claus
165:antigen presentation
7428:V(D)J recombination
7411:Affinity maturation
7163:Antigenic variation
6834:Alveolar macrophage
6232:2007Sci...317..678C
6062:2006NYASA1081..130C
6007:1997NYASA.832..426R
5909:Curr. Opin. Hematol
5863:Curr Opin Crit Care
5816:Paoletti pp. 426–30
5316:10.1038/nrmicro1289
5304:Nat. Rev. Microbiol
4757:10.1038/cdd.2008.58
4639:Allergy Asthma Proc
4542:1996PNAS...93.9827C
3482:on January 12, 2008
3270:2003Sci...302.1563W
3264:(5650): 1563–1566.
3020:Curr. Opin. Hematol
2935:10.1189/jlb.0603252
2267:10.1038/nrmicro1004
2255:Nat. Rev. Microbiol
2196:1995Sci...267.1456T
1823:alcoholic hepatitis
1534:Avoiding engulfment
1397:
1260:Gut and intestinal
1212:
1186:Toll-like receptors
1010:lipopolysaccharides
969:macrophages in the
927:stem cells, or the
748:autoimmune diseases
363:Toll-like receptors
359:scavenger receptors
7005:Intrinsic immunity
6869:Touton giant cells
6285:Dev. Comp. Immunol
6273:, pp. 251–252
6271:Delves et al. 2006
4269:Annu. Rev. Immunol
4053:Clin. Exp. Immunol
3967:Delves et al. 2006
3914:Delves et al. 2006
3902:Delves et al. 2006
3878:Delves et al. 2006
3745:Delves et al. 2006
3674:Delves et al. 2006
3621:10.1007/BF02934736
3539:Immunol. Cell Biol
3527:, pp. 237–242
3525:Delves et al. 2006
3501:Delves et al. 2006
3458:Delves et al. 2006
3448:, pp. 171–184
3446:Delves et al. 2006
2964:Delves et al. 2006
2909:Delves et al. 2006
2609:Delves et al. 2006
2438:Delves et al. 2006
2299:Delves et al. 2006
2237:Janeway, Chapter:
2150:, p. 187 and
2116:Janeway, Chapter:
2010:Delves et al. 2006
1998:Delves et al. 2006
1983:Delves et al. 2006
1889:
1849:and a decrease in
1734:
1730:Leishmania tropica
1615:
1515:Treponema pallidum
1496:
1472:Connective tissue
1393:
1208:
1151:
1076:
951:
897:
835:
764:
701:
630:phosphatidylserine
523:hydrolytic enzymes
502:
399:
389:Methods of killing
351:
312:
251:Bacillus anthracis
189:
49:
7527:
7526:
7455:
7454:
7205:professional APCs
7086:
7085:
7049:
7048:
6922:
6921:
6849:Epithelioid cells
6728:
6727:
6708:
6707:
6704:
6703:
6636:
6635:
6451:Library resources
6435:978-1-119-54212-4
6416:978-0-471-12364-4
6393:978-1-57331-102-1
6374:978-0-632-05153-3
6352:978-0-521-84569-4
6333:978-1-4051-3603-7
6184:978-0-12-374728-0
5828:Am. J. Kidney Dis
5417:"A region of the
5048:(18): 2993–3002.
4840:(Pt 1): 119–129.
4744:Cell Death Differ
4431:Nature Immunology
4396:10.1159/000232565
4242:"Dendritic Cells"
4240:Steinman, Ralph.
3941:978-80-967366-1-4
3588:on March 11, 2009
3316:(5650): 1516–17.
3171:(5650): 1560–63.
3079:Braz J Infect Dis
2864:J. Lab. Clin. Med
2301:, pp. 172–84
2190:(5203): 1456–62.
1831:hypovolemic shock
1807:acute lung injury
1749:Trypanosoma cruzi
1743:Toxoplasma gondii
1578:fimbrial proteins
1554:exopolysaccharide
1479:
1478:
1466:Endothelial cells
1372:endothelial cells
1359:
1358:
1272:Connective tissue
1202:fimbrial proteins
1168:cytotoxic T cells
771:, which includes
736:central tolerance
599:Role in apoptosis
442:hydroxyl radicals
430:hydrogen peroxide
419:respiratory burst
273:, from the Greek
117:white blood cells
16:(Redirected from
7559:
7421:Clonal selection
7393:Immune privilege
7388:Immunodeficiency
7343:Cross-reactivity
7333:Hypersensitivity
7138:
7137:
7113:
7106:
7099:
7090:
7089:
7020:Precursor cells
6946:Promegakaryocyte
6812:
6811:
6739:
6738:
6664:Promegakaryocyte
6647:
6646:
6569:
6568:
6560:
6559:
6545:
6544:
6524:
6517:
6510:
6501:
6500:
6439:
6420:
6408:
6397:
6378:
6356:
6337:
6309:
6308:
6280:
6274:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6251:
6226:(5838): 678–81.
6211:
6205:
6204:
6158:
6152:
6151:
6123:
6114:
6108:
6102:
6101:
6091:
6073:
6041:
6035:
6034:
5990:
5984:
5983:
5947:
5941:
5940:
5904:
5895:
5894:
5858:
5852:
5851:
5823:
5817:
5814:
5808:
5807:
5771:
5765:
5764:
5741:Trends Parasitol
5736:
5727:
5726:
5703:J. Dermatol. Sci
5698:
5692:
5691:
5654:
5648:
5647:
5637:
5627:
5603:
5594:
5593:
5583:
5566:(8): 3791–3801.
5551:
5545:
5544:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5474:Trends Microbiol
5465:
5459:
5458:
5448:
5431:(5): 1199–1213.
5412:
5406:
5405:
5377:
5371:
5370:
5342:
5336:
5335:
5299:
5290:
5289:
5279:
5243:
5237:
5236:
5226:
5217:(52): 54881–86.
5202:
5196:
5195:
5185:
5156:Escherichia coli
5149:
5143:
5142:
5114:
5108:
5107:
5084:Trends Microbiol
5079:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5068:
5033:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5013:Todar, Kenneth.
5010:
4995:
4994:
4984:
4974:
4950:
4944:
4943:
4933:
4923:
4899:
4893:
4892:
4869:Trends Cell Biol
4864:
4858:
4857:
4829:
4823:
4822:
4812:
4776:
4770:
4769:
4759:
4750:(7): 1096–1102.
4735:
4729:
4723:
4714:
4713:
4703:
4693:
4669:
4663:
4662:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4580:
4574:
4573:
4563:
4553:
4524:Escherichia coli
4517:
4511:
4510:
4474:
4465:
4464:
4454:
4443:10.1038/ni.f.216
4422:
4416:
4415:
4413:
4411:
4398:
4374:
4368:
4367:, pp. 45–46
4362:
4356:
4355:
4345:
4335:
4311:
4305:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4253:
4248:on June 27, 2009
4237:
4228:
4227:
4217:
4185:
4179:
4178:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4125:
4114:10.1172/JCI35740
4108:(10): 3491–502.
4093:
4087:
4086:
4076:
4044:
4038:
4032:
4026:
4025:
4015:
3991:
3985:
3979:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3944:. Archived from
3923:
3917:
3911:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3881:
3880:, pp. 31–36
3875:
3860:
3859:
3849:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3736:
3730:
3724:
3718:
3712:
3711:
3683:
3677:
3671:
3665:
3664:, pp. 18–19
3659:
3653:
3652:, pp. 16–17
3647:
3641:
3640:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3577:
3571:
3570:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3489:
3487:
3478:. Archived from
3467:
3461:
3455:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3436:, pp. 27–35
3431:
3425:
3419:
3413:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3390:
3367:Trends Cell Biol
3358:
3352:
3351:
3333:
3305:
3299:
3297:
3245:
3239:
3238:
3228:
3204:
3198:
3196:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3135:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3094:
3070:
3064:
3058:
3052:
3051:
3015:
3009:
3008:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2824:
2818:
2817:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2729:
2705:
2699:
2698:
2688:
2678:
2654:
2648:
2647:, pp. 13–16
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2586:. Archived from
2547:
2538:
2537:
2527:
2495:
2489:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2424:
2417:"Ilya Mechnikov"
2413:
2407:
2406:
2388:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2347:
2337:
2313:
2302:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2250:
2241:
2235:
2224:
2223:
2179:
2170:
2164:
2155:
2145:
2136:
2130:
2121:
2114:
2105:
2104:
2068:
2059:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1986:
1980:
1955:
1954:
1946:
1899:are unicellular
1879:(orange) during
1794:products (e.g.,
1549:Escherichia coli
1503:Avoiding contact
1446:Epithelial cells
1398:
1392:
1368:epithelial cells
1353:Langerhans cells
1317:microglial cells
1240:sinusoidal cells
1213:
1207:
1184:Mast cells have
1149:A dendritic cell
1121:primary granules
1012:from bacteria. T
959:microglial cells
806:interferon gamma
534:Interferon-gamma
367:immunoglobulin G
233:
225:
75:
21:
7567:
7566:
7562:
7561:
7560:
7558:
7557:
7556:
7532:
7531:
7528:
7523:
7497:
7451:
7397:
7376:Clonal deletion
7304:
7298:
7228:
7129:
7117:
7087:
7082:
7045:
7009:
6988:Immune response
6983:
6961:Red blood cells
6955:
6918:
6895:Langerhans cell
6890:Dendritic cells
6875:
6801:
6724:
6700:
6684:Proerythroblast
6670:
6632:
6616:Monocytopoiesis
6607:
6551:
6534:
6528:
6481:
6480:
6479:
6459:
6458:
6454:
6447:
6442:
6436:
6417:
6394:
6375:
6353:
6334:
6317:
6312:
6281:
6277:
6269:
6265:
6212:
6208:
6185:
6159:
6155:
6124:
6117:
6109:
6105:
6042:
6038:
5991:
5987:
5948:
5944:
5905:
5898:
5859:
5855:
5824:
5820:
5815:
5811:
5772:
5768:
5737:
5730:
5699:
5695:
5655:
5651:
5604:
5597:
5552:
5548:
5505:
5501:
5480:(10): 392–401.
5466:
5462:
5413:
5409:
5378:
5374:
5343:
5339:
5300:
5293:
5244:
5240:
5203:
5199:
5150:
5146:
5115:
5111:
5080:
5076:
5066:
5064:
5034:
5030:
5020:
5018:
5011:
4998:
4951:
4947:
4900:
4896:
4865:
4861:
4830:
4826:
4795:(12): 6939–45.
4777:
4773:
4736:
4732:
4724:
4717:
4684:(4): e1002619.
4670:
4666:
4635:
4631:
4621:
4619:
4581:
4577:
4536:(18): 9827–32.
4518:
4514:
4475:
4468:
4437:(11): 1215–23.
4423:
4419:
4409:
4407:
4375:
4371:
4363:
4359:
4312:
4308:
4300:
4296:
4265:
4261:
4251:
4249:
4238:
4231:
4186:
4182:
4143:
4139:
4102:J. Clin. Invest
4094:
4090:
4045:
4041:
4033:
4029:
3992:
3988:
3980:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3951:
3949:
3942:
3924:
3920:
3912:
3908:
3900:
3896:
3888:
3884:
3876:
3863:
3830:10.2307/3433544
3810:
3806:
3767:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3743:
3739:
3731:
3727:
3719:
3715:
3684:
3680:
3672:
3668:
3660:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3605:
3601:
3591:
3589:
3578:
3574:
3535:
3531:
3523:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3499:
3495:
3485:
3483:
3468:
3464:
3456:
3452:
3444:
3440:
3432:
3428:
3420:
3416:
3408:
3404:
3359:
3355:
3306:
3302:
3248:Wang X (2003).
3246:
3242:
3205:
3201:
3161:
3157:
3147:
3145:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3124:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3071:
3067:
3059:
3055:
3016:
3012:
2993:J Pak Med Assoc
2989:
2985:
2977:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2923:J. Leukoc. Biol
2919:
2915:
2911:, pp. 6–10
2907:
2903:
2895:
2891:
2860:
2856:
2825:
2821:
2800:(11): 1191–95.
2790:
2786:
2755:
2751:
2706:
2702:
2655:
2651:
2643:
2639:
2631:
2627:
2619:
2615:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2591:
2556:J. Leukoc. Biol
2548:
2541:
2496:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2422:
2420:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2373:J. Leukoc. Biol
2365:
2361:
2314:
2305:
2297:
2290:
2251:
2244:
2236:
2227:
2180:
2173:
2165:
2158:
2154:, pp. 7–10
2146:
2139:
2131:
2124:
2115:
2108:
2069:
2062:
2057:Wayback Machine
2039:
2035:
2027:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1996:
1989:
1985:, pp. 2–10
1981:
1958:
1947:
1940:
1936:
1863:
1768:
1723:
1695:
1660:M. tuberculosis
1655:phospholipase C
1651:listeriolysin O
1604:
1536:
1505:
1484:
1364:
1313:Nervous tissue
1304:Lymphoid tissue
1262:Peyer's patches
1182:
1176:
1143:
1137:
1135:Dendritic cells
1056:
1050:
1030:differentiation
1027:
1015:
999:
995:
945:oozing from an
920:
914:
885:
879:
827:
801:
785:dendritic cells
756:
732:
726:
693:
687:
650:
607:
601:
585:
531:
481:
449:myeloperoxidase
415:
391:
320:dead host cells
303:
297:
269:that he called
181:
137:dendritic cells
45:anthrax bacilli
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7565:
7555:
7554:
7549:
7544:
7525:
7524:
7522:
7521:
7516:
7511:
7505:
7503:
7499:
7498:
7496:
7495:
7490:
7489:
7488:
7478:
7477:
7476:
7465:
7463:
7457:
7456:
7453:
7452:
7450:
7449:
7440:
7435:
7430:
7425:
7424:
7423:
7418:
7407:
7405:
7403:Immunogenetics
7399:
7398:
7396:
7395:
7390:
7385:
7384:
7383:
7378:
7373:
7368:
7363:
7351:
7350:
7348:Co-stimulation
7345:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7308:
7306:
7300:
7299:
7297:
7296:
7291:
7289:Immune complex
7285:
7284:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7263:
7262:
7257:
7252:
7247:
7236:
7234:
7230:
7229:
7227:
7226:
7221:
7216:
7211:
7209:Dendritic cell
7197:
7196:
7191:
7190:
7189:
7187:Conformational
7184:
7173:
7172:
7167:
7166:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7144:
7142:
7135:
7131:
7130:
7116:
7115:
7108:
7101:
7093:
7084:
7083:
7081:
7080:
7079:
7078:
7068:
7063:
7057:
7055:
7051:
7050:
7047:
7046:
7044:
7043:
7038:
7037:
7036:
7031:
7026:
7017:
7015:
7011:
7010:
7008:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6991:
6989:
6985:
6984:
6982:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6965:
6963:
6957:
6956:
6954:
6953:
6948:
6943:
6941:Megakaryoblast
6938:
6932:
6930:
6924:
6923:
6920:
6919:
6917:
6916:
6915:
6914:
6904:
6903:
6902:
6897:
6892:
6883:
6881:
6877:
6876:
6874:
6873:
6872:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6820:
6818:
6809:
6803:
6802:
6800:
6799:
6798:
6797:
6787:
6786:
6785:
6775:
6774:
6773:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6747:
6745:
6736:
6734:Myeloid tissue
6730:
6729:
6726:
6725:
6723:
6722:
6716:
6714:
6710:
6709:
6706:
6705:
6702:
6701:
6699:
6698:
6697:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6679:Erythropoiesis
6675:
6672:
6671:
6669:
6668:
6667:
6666:
6661:
6659:Megakaryoblast
6654:Thrombopoiesis
6650:
6644:
6638:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6631:
6630:
6629:
6628:
6623:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6604:
6603:
6598:
6593:
6588:
6583:
6576:Granulopoiesis
6572:
6566:
6557:
6542:
6536:
6535:
6527:
6526:
6519:
6512:
6504:
6498:
6497:
6492:
6478:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6461:
6460:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6445:External links
6443:
6441:
6440:
6434:
6421:
6415:
6398:
6392:
6379:
6373:
6360:
6351:
6338:
6332:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6310:
6275:
6263:
6206:
6183:
6153:
6115:
6111:Sompayrac 2019
6103:
6080:1854/LU-369324
6036:
5985:
5952:Crit. Care Med
5942:
5896:
5853:
5818:
5809:
5766:
5728:
5693:
5660:Mol. Microbiol
5649:
5595:
5546:
5499:
5460:
5407:
5382:Semin. Immunol
5372:
5353:(6–7): 501–9.
5337:
5310:(12): 948–58.
5291:
5238:
5197:
5168:(8): 3757–62.
5158:O75:K5 strain"
5144:
5109:
5074:
5028:
4996:
4945:
4894:
4859:
4824:
4771:
4730:
4715:
4678:PLOS Pathogens
4664:
4629:
4595:(4): 1490–96.
4575:
4512:
4466:
4417:
4369:
4365:Sompayrac 2019
4357:
4306:
4294:
4259:
4229:
4200:(5): 1142–62.
4180:
4153:(2): 134–147.
4137:
4088:
4039:
4027:
3986:
3982:Sompayrac 2019
3971:
3959:
3940:
3918:
3906:
3894:
3882:
3861:
3804:
3761:
3757:Sompayrac 2019
3749:
3747:, pp. 1–6
3737:
3725:
3721:Sompayrac 2019
3713:
3678:
3666:
3662:Sompayrac 2019
3654:
3650:Sompayrac 2019
3642:
3599:
3572:
3529:
3517:
3513:Sompayrac 2019
3505:
3493:
3462:
3460:, pp. 456
3450:
3438:
3434:Sompayrac 2019
3426:
3422:Sompayrac 2019
3414:
3410:Sompayrac 2019
3402:
3373:(10): 474–85.
3353:
3300:
3240:
3199:
3155:
3130:
3126:Sompayrac 2019
3118:
3114:Sompayrac 2019
3106:
3065:
3061:Sompayrac 2019
3053:
3010:
2983:
2979:Sompayrac 2019
2968:
2956:
2913:
2901:
2889:
2854:
2819:
2784:
2749:
2700:
2649:
2645:Sompayrac 2019
2637:
2633:Sompayrac 2019
2625:
2621:Sompayrac 2019
2613:
2611:, pp. 6–7
2601:
2539:
2490:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2442:
2430:
2408:
2359:
2303:
2288:
2261:(10): 820–32.
2242:
2225:
2171:
2156:
2137:
2122:
2106:
2060:
2045:Nobel Lectures
2041:Ilya Mechnikov
2033:
2014:
2002:
1987:
1956:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1862:
1859:
1800:kidney failure
1767:
1764:
1738:cell signaling
1722:
1719:
1694:
1691:
1603:
1600:
1535:
1532:
1504:
1501:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1468:
1463:
1462:Blood vessels
1459:
1458:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1418:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1401:Main location
1363:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1349:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1291:
1285:
1281:
1280:
1274:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1257:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1236:
1232:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1223:
1217:
1216:Main location
1178:Main article:
1175:
1172:
1164:T helper cells
1141:Dendritic cell
1139:Main article:
1136:
1133:
1115:are released.
1105:metamyelocytes
1072:Giemsa stained
1052:Main article:
1049:
1046:
1025:
1013:
997:
993:
990:T helper cells
916:Main article:
913:
910:
881:Main article:
878:
875:
826:
823:
800:
797:
755:
752:
728:Main article:
725:
722:
704:proteins (the
689:Main article:
686:
683:
681:presentation.
649:
646:
603:Main article:
600:
597:
584:
581:
530:
527:
487:Micrograph of
480:
477:
434:singlet oxygen
414:
411:
390:
387:
299:Main article:
296:
293:
263:Almroth Wright
180:
177:
62:, and dead or
43:phagocytosing
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7564:
7553:
7550:
7548:
7547:Immune system
7545:
7543:
7540:
7539:
7537:
7530:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7500:
7494:
7491:
7487:
7484:
7483:
7482:
7479:
7475:
7472:
7471:
7470:
7467:
7466:
7464:
7462:
7458:
7448:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7422:
7419:
7417:
7414:
7413:
7412:
7409:
7408:
7406:
7404:
7400:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7386:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7371:Clonal anergy
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7358:
7357:
7353:
7352:
7349:
7346:
7344:
7341:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7331:
7329:
7326:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7310:
7309:
7307:
7301:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7286:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7261:
7260:Microantibody
7258:
7256:
7253:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7242:
7241:
7238:
7237:
7235:
7231:
7225:
7222:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7199:
7198:
7195:
7192:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7179:
7178:
7175:
7174:
7171:
7168:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7150:
7149:
7146:
7145:
7143:
7139:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7121:
7114:
7109:
7107:
7102:
7100:
7095:
7094:
7091:
7077:
7074:
7073:
7072:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7058:
7056:
7052:
7042:
7041:Myelomonocyte
7039:
7035:
7032:
7030:
7027:
7025:
7022:
7021:
7019:
7018:
7016:
7012:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6992:
6990:
6986:
6980:
6977:
6975:
6972:
6970:
6967:
6966:
6964:
6962:
6958:
6952:
6951:Megakaryocyte
6949:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6939:
6937:
6934:
6933:
6931:
6929:
6925:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6908:
6905:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6891:
6888:
6887:
6885:
6884:
6882:
6878:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6856:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6829:Kupffer cells
6827:
6825:
6822:
6821:
6819:
6817:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6804:
6796:
6793:
6792:
6791:
6788:
6784:
6781:
6780:
6779:
6776:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6748:
6746:
6744:
6740:
6737:
6735:
6731:
6721:
6718:
6717:
6715:
6711:
6695:
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6681:
6680:
6677:
6676:
6673:
6665:
6662:
6660:
6657:
6656:
6655:
6652:
6651:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6639:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6610:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6596:Metamyelocyte
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
6578:
6577:
6574:
6573:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6561:
6558:
6555:
6550:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6540:Hematopoiesis
6537:
6533:
6525:
6520:
6518:
6513:
6511:
6506:
6505:
6502:
6496:
6493:
6490:
6486:
6483:
6482:
6476:
6473:
6471:
6468:
6466:
6463:
6462:
6457:
6452:
6437:
6431:
6427:
6422:
6418:
6412:
6407:
6406:
6399:
6395:
6389:
6385:
6380:
6376:
6370:
6366:
6361:
6359:
6354:
6348:
6344:
6339:
6335:
6329:
6325:
6320:
6319:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6291:(4): 411–29.
6290:
6286:
6279:
6272:
6267:
6259:
6255:
6250:
6245:
6241:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6210:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6163:Dictyostelium
6157:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6134:(3): 271–76.
6133:
6129:
6122:
6120:
6112:
6107:
6099:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6063:
6059:
6056:(1): 130–36.
6055:
6051:
6047:
6040:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6001:(1): 426–48.
6000:
5996:
5989:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5946:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5903:
5901:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5864:
5857:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5837:
5834:(2): 384–99.
5833:
5829:
5822:
5813:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5770:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5735:
5733:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5709:(3): 203–14.
5708:
5704:
5697:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5666:(3): 681–95.
5665:
5661:
5653:
5645:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5602:
5600:
5591:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5560:Infect. Immun
5557:
5550:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5519:(7): 340–49.
5518:
5514:
5510:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5464:
5456:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5420:
5411:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5388:(6): 381–90.
5387:
5383:
5376:
5368:
5364:
5360:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5341:
5333:
5329:
5325:
5321:
5317:
5313:
5309:
5305:
5298:
5296:
5287:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5262:(2): 676–84.
5261:
5257:
5256:Infect. Immun
5253:
5251:
5242:
5234:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5216:
5212:
5211:J. Biol. Chem
5208:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5162:Infect. Immun
5159:
5157:
5148:
5140:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5113:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5090:(5): 232–37.
5089:
5085:
5078:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5032:
5016:
5009:
5007:
5005:
5003:
5001:
4992:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4949:
4941:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4898:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4870:
4863:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4828:
4820:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4789:Infect. Immun
4786:
4784:
4775:
4767:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4734:
4728:, p. 427
4727:
4722:
4720:
4711:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4668:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4645:(3): 115–19.
4644:
4640:
4633:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4579:
4571:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4525:
4516:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4473:
4471:
4462:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4421:
4406:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4373:
4366:
4361:
4353:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4333:10.1186/ar567
4329:
4325:
4321:
4320:Arthritis Res
4317:
4310:
4304:, p. 134
4303:
4298:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4263:
4247:
4243:
4236:
4234:
4225:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4184:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4092:
4084:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4059:(1): 139–45.
4058:
4054:
4050:
4043:
4036:
4031:
4023:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4006:(6): 946–50.
4005:
4001:
3997:
3990:
3983:
3978:
3976:
3968:
3963:
3947:
3943:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3922:
3916:, p. 187
3915:
3910:
3904:, p. 156
3903:
3898:
3891:
3886:
3879:
3874:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3777:(7): 473–85.
3776:
3772:
3765:
3759:, p. 136
3758:
3753:
3746:
3741:
3735:, p. 117
3734:
3729:
3722:
3717:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3694:(5): 557–64.
3693:
3689:
3682:
3675:
3670:
3663:
3658:
3651:
3646:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3615:(3): 187–96.
3614:
3610:
3603:
3587:
3583:
3576:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3545:(8): 575–81.
3544:
3540:
3533:
3526:
3521:
3514:
3509:
3503:, p. 161
3502:
3497:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3466:
3459:
3454:
3447:
3442:
3435:
3430:
3423:
3418:
3411:
3406:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3357:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3304:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3253:
3244:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3159:
3144:
3140:
3134:
3127:
3122:
3115:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3085:(5): 489–95.
3084:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3062:
3057:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3014:
3006:
3002:
2999:(9): 516–18.
2998:
2994:
2987:
2981:, p. 136
2980:
2975:
2973:
2966:, p. 188
2965:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2929:(2): 163–89.
2928:
2924:
2917:
2910:
2905:
2899:, p. 118
2898:
2893:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2870:(3): 124–26.
2869:
2865:
2858:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2835:(5): 383–89.
2834:
2830:
2823:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2765:(1–2): 3–14.
2764:
2760:
2753:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2720:(4): 935–45.
2719:
2715:
2711:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2641:
2634:
2629:
2622:
2617:
2610:
2605:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2562:(2): 147–52.
2561:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2544:
2535:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2482:
2475:
2470:
2463:
2458:
2452:, p. vii
2451:
2446:
2440:, p. 263
2439:
2434:
2418:
2412:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2379:(4): 515–17.
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2355:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2300:
2295:
2293:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2247:
2240:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2176:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2153:
2149:
2144:
2142:
2135:, p. 186
2134:
2129:
2127:
2119:
2113:
2111:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2079:(2): 96–103.
2078:
2074:
2067:
2065:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2031:, p. 331
2030:
2025:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2012:, p. 251
2011:
2006:
2000:, p. 250
1999:
1994:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1952:
1945:
1943:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1923:fruiting body
1920:
1916:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1883:with a human
1882:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1792:phospholipase
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1774:
1773:phagolysosome
1763:
1761:
1757:
1756:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1703:streptolysins
1700:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1683:schwann cells
1680:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1529:
1528:wound healing
1525:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1500:
1493:
1488:
1474:
1471:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1391:
1389:
1384:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1289:
1288:Kupffer cells
1286:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1206:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1147:
1142:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1114:
1113:promyelocytes
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1019:
1011:
1007:
1003:
991:
986:
984:
980:
979:interleukin-6
976:
975:interleukin-1
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
948:
944:
940:
936:
935:in diameter.
934:
930:
929:cell division
926:
919:
909:
906:
902:
894:
889:
884:
874:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
850:
848:
844:
840:
831:
822:
818:
816:
811:
807:
796:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
769:myeloid cells
760:
751:
749:
745:
741:
737:
731:
721:
719:
715:
711:
707:
697:
692:
682:
680:
676:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
622:
620:
616:
612:
611:cell division
606:
596:
594:
589:
580:
578:
574:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
529:Extracellular
526:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
499:
498:
493:
490:
485:
476:
474:
471:and infected
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
422:
420:
410:
408:
407:extracellular
404:
403:intracellular
395:
386:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
347:
343:
341:
337:
336:phagolysosome
333:
329:
325:
321:
318:, parasites,
317:
307:
302:
292:
288:
286:
282:
278:
277:
272:
268:
264:
259:
257:
253:
252:
247:
246:
241:
236:
234:
232:
226:
224:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
185:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
107:
103:
99:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
74:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
7529:
7338:Inflammation
7323:Alloimmunity
7318:Autoimmunity
7303:Immunity vs.
7255:Autoantibody
7153:Superantigen
7060:
7000:Phagocytosis
6969:Reticulocyte
6743:Granulocytes
6694:Reticulocyte
6586:Promyelocyte
6549:Myelopoiesis
6465:Online books
6455:
6425:
6404:
6383:
6364:
6342:
6323:
6315:Bibliography
6288:
6284:
6278:
6266:
6223:
6219:
6209:
6166:
6162:
6156:
6131:
6127:
6106:
6053:
6049:
6039:
5998:
5994:
5988:
5955:
5951:
5945:
5915:(1): 21–27.
5912:
5908:
5866:
5862:
5856:
5831:
5827:
5821:
5812:
5780:Parasitology
5779:
5775:
5769:
5747:(1): 35–41.
5744:
5740:
5706:
5702:
5696:
5663:
5659:
5652:
5615:
5611:
5563:
5559:
5549:
5516:
5513:Inflamm. Res
5512:
5508:
5502:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5463:
5428:
5424:
5418:
5410:
5385:
5381:
5375:
5350:
5346:
5340:
5307:
5303:
5259:
5255:
5249:
5241:
5214:
5210:
5200:
5165:
5161:
5155:
5147:
5125:(1): 48–55.
5122:
5118:
5112:
5087:
5083:
5077:
5067:December 19,
5065:. Retrieved
5045:
5041:
5031:
5021:December 19,
5019:. Retrieved
4962:
4958:
4948:
4911:
4907:
4897:
4875:(3): 85–87.
4872:
4868:
4862:
4837:
4833:
4827:
4792:
4788:
4782:
4774:
4747:
4743:
4733:
4681:
4677:
4667:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4622:December 19,
4620:. Retrieved
4592:
4588:
4578:
4533:
4529:
4523:
4515:
4482:
4479:Immunol. Rev
4478:
4434:
4430:
4420:
4410:December 19,
4408:. Retrieved
4386:
4382:
4372:
4360:
4323:
4319:
4309:
4297:
4272:
4268:
4262:
4252:December 19,
4250:. Retrieved
4246:the original
4197:
4193:
4183:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4105:
4101:
4091:
4056:
4052:
4042:
4037:, p. 62
4030:
4003:
4000:Pediatr. Res
3999:
3989:
3984:, p. 18
3962:
3952:December 19,
3950:. Retrieved
3946:the original
3931:
3921:
3909:
3897:
3885:
3821:
3817:
3807:
3774:
3770:
3764:
3752:
3740:
3728:
3723:, p. 18
3716:
3691:
3687:
3681:
3669:
3657:
3645:
3612:
3608:
3602:
3592:December 19,
3590:. Retrieved
3586:the original
3575:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3520:
3508:
3496:
3486:December 19,
3484:. Retrieved
3480:the original
3475:
3465:
3453:
3441:
3429:
3417:
3405:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3261:
3257:
3251:
3243:
3216:
3212:
3202:
3168:
3164:
3158:
3148:December 19,
3146:. Retrieved
3142:
3133:
3128:, p. 68
3121:
3116:, p. 22
3109:
3082:
3078:
3068:
3056:
3026:(1): 22–29.
3023:
3019:
3013:
2996:
2992:
2986:
2959:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2904:
2892:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2832:
2828:
2822:
2797:
2793:
2787:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2717:
2713:
2703:
2666:
2662:
2652:
2640:
2628:
2616:
2604:
2594:December 19,
2592:. Retrieved
2588:the original
2559:
2555:
2507:
2503:
2493:
2488:, p. 78
2481:
2469:
2457:
2445:
2433:
2423:December 19,
2421:. Retrieved
2411:
2376:
2372:
2362:
2325:
2321:
2258:
2254:
2187:
2183:
2169:, p. 10
2076:
2072:
2048:
2036:
2005:
1950:
1914:
1908:
1890:
1881:phagocytosis
1874:
1869:False-color
1855:septic shock
1847:vasodilation
1839:
1804:
1796:leukotrienes
1777:
1769:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1696:
1672:
1659:
1644:
1632:
1622:
1616:
1581:
1563:
1557:
1556:capsules of
1547:
1537:
1513:
1506:
1497:
1491:
1475:Fibroblasts
1412:Lymphocytes
1394:
1385:
1365:
1290:, monocytes
1266:macrophages
1250:Bone tissue
1244:lining cells
1235:Bone marrow
1209:
1190:MHC class II
1183:
1152:
1117:
1077:
1064:erythrocytes
987:
952:
921:
898:
893:Giemsa stain
862:vasodilators
851:
836:
819:
802:
765:
750:can follow.
733:
702:
651:
623:
608:
586:
570:
538:nitric oxide
532:
515:lactoferrins
503:
495:
489:Gram-stained
457:hypochlorite
446:
423:
416:
400:
383:inflammation
352:
340:iron filings
313:
301:Phagocytosis
295:Phagocytosis
289:
281:Paul Ehrlich
274:
260:
256:phagocytosis
249:
243:
237:
228:
220:
190:
161:nitric oxide
149:
113:phagocytosis
110:
78:
70:
51:
50:
29:
7461:Lymphocytes
7120:Lymphocytic
6854:giant cells
6844:Osteoclasts
6824:Histiocytes
6816:Macrophages
6626:Promonocyte
6113:, p. 2
5042:J. Cell Sci
4194:J. Exp. Med
3969:, p. 4
3892:, p. 8
3771:Pathol. Int
3676:, p. 6
3515:, p. 8
3424:, p. 4
3412:, p. 3
3139:"Apoptosis"
3063:, p. 7
2635:, p. 2
2623:, p. 2
2476:, p. 4
2464:, p. 6
1707:leukocidins
1687:neutrophils
1679:macrophages
1669:macrophages
1665:neutrophils
1524:fibronectin
1456:Hepatocytes
1432:Eosinophils
1376:fibroblasts
1277:histiocytes
1254:osteoclasts
1219:Variety of
1080:bloodstream
1054:Neutrophils
1048:Neutrophils
1018:bone marrow
1006:CD40 ligand
933:micrometers
925:granulocyte
918:Macrophages
912:Macrophages
854:endothelial
781:neutrophils
777:macrophages
718:lymph nodes
662:lymphocytes
546:CD8 T cells
542:CD4 T cells
409:killing).
357:receptors,
283:) the 1908
173:lymphocytes
169:lymph nodes
129:macrophages
121:neutrophils
7552:Leukocytes
7542:Phagocytes
7536:Categories
7502:Substances
7366:Peripheral
7354:Inaction:
7233:Antibodies
7214:Macrophage
7127:complement
6778:Eosinophil
6761:Neutrophil
6751:Myeloblast
6689:Normoblast
6581:Myeloblast
6485:Phagocytes
5869:(1): 1–7.
5776:Leishmania
5618:: 782495.
5470:Leishmania
4589:J. Immunol
4389:(1): 1–7.
4275:: 621–67.
3252:C. elegans
1934:References
1885:neutrophil
1835:hemorrhage
1821:, trauma,
1815:endotoxins
1788:glomerular
1760:Leishmania
1755:Leishmania
1699:cytolysins
1624:Leishmania
1611:Rickettsia
1552:, and the
1380:melanocyte
1221:phenotypes
1198:salmonella
1174:Mast cells
1109:myelocytes
1089:complement
1085:antibodies
870:epithelial
866:Chemotaxis
843:complement
799:Activation
789:mast cells
675:antibodies
638:scramblase
593:meningitis
455:to create
426:superoxide
375:complement
371:antibodies
334:to form a
310:phagocyte.
267:antibodies
240:crustacean
205:starfishes
153:chemotaxis
133:mast cells
52:Phagocytes
41:neutrophil
18:Phagocytes
7519:Cytolysin
7509:Cytokines
7356:Tolerance
7305:tolerance
7224:Immunogen
7061:Phagocyte
6928:Platelets
6907:Monoblast
6839:Microglia
6807:Monocytes
6790:Mast cell
6756:Band cell
6621:Monoblast
6601:Band cell
6591:Myelocyte
6456:Phagocyte
5332:205496221
4485:: 16–24.
3219:: 31–38.
2669:(2): 92.
2510:: 16–23.
1893:evolution
1873:image of
1711:exotoxins
1674:M. leprae
1588:Protein A
1586:produces
1574:M protein
1544:O antigen
1490:Cells of
1436:Basophils
1351:resident
1180:Mast cell
1101:chromatin
1068:cytoplasm
1022:cytokines
1002:IFN-gamma
983:TNF-alpha
955:lysosomes
901:cytoplasm
883:Monocytes
877:Monocytes
847:cytokines
825:Migration
783:, tissue
773:monocytes
658:cytokines
634:cytosolic
626:apoptosis
605:Apoptosis
519:proteases
511:cell wall
379:Toll gene
324:phagosome
261:In 1903,
209:tangerine
141:receptors
125:monocytes
119:(such as
7469:Cellular
7313:Immunity
7311:Action:
7294:Paratope
7282:Idiotype
7272:Allotype
7240:Antibody
7194:Mimotope
7158:Allergen
7141:Antigens
7134:Lymphoid
7034:CFU-GEMM
6795:CFU-Mast
6771:CFU-Baso
6766:Basophil
6554:CFU-GEMM
6305:19063916
6258:17673666
6193:19081545
6148:18550419
6098:17135502
6031:10318084
5972:12682440
5937:29374195
5929:16319683
5891:24164360
5883:11373504
5848:10430993
5804:24696519
5796:16281989
5761:15639739
5723:16679003
5688:14748436
5680:15819624
5644:35003097
5590:17517863
5541:22127111
5533:18607538
5455:10064587
5402:11708894
5367:11890550
5324:16322743
5286:19047408
5233:15501828
5192:10417134
5139:15992798
5104:11973157
5062:10462516
4991:32528462
4940:29321780
4914:: 1781.
4889:14732160
4854:11112696
4819:11083817
4766:18451871
4710:22577358
4659:11424870
4507:23115222
4499:11292019
4461:18936782
4405:19672091
4352:12110131
4289:11861614
4175:25067858
4167:28990587
4132:18787642
4083:17991288
3708:14519390
3637:27585046
3629:17120464
3567:36342899
3559:17592494
3397:18774293
3348:13402617
3340:14645835
3331:1842/448
3294:25672278
3286:14645848
3235:31837595
3193:36252352
3185:14645847
3101:17962876
3048:43243529
3040:18043242
3005:18846805
2951:15862242
2943:14525967
2884:15478278
2849:10519157
2779:10618505
2736:18684880
2695:30699960
2584:44911791
2534:29727727
2403:44748502
2354:31001278
2283:11063073
2275:15378046
2220:12991980
2101:25063709
2093:18463079
2053:Archived
1901:protists
1827:ischemia
1677:infects
1663:infects
1637:catalase
1619:invasins
1592:Yersinia
1540:capsules
1520:syphilis
1388:opsonins
1042:cationic
967:alveolar
905:antigens
858:selectin
839:peptides
815:protozoa
710:peptides
706:antigens
615:necrosis
566:cytokine
507:membrane
494:showing
453:chlorine
373:or with
328:lysosome
271:opsonins
157:oxidants
145:opsonins
95:starfish
83:immunity
60:bacteria
47:(orange)
7514:Opsonin
7493:NK cell
7481:Humoral
7361:Central
7328:Allergy
7277:Isotype
7177:Epitope
7148:Antigen
6936:CFU-Meg
6783:CFU-Eos
6713:General
6358:Website
6249:3291017
6228:Bibcode
6220:Science
6201:7326149
6089:7168046
6058:Bibcode
6023:9704069
6003:Bibcode
5980:4004607
5635:8732375
5581:1951982
5494:9807783
5446:1171211
5277:2632042
4982:7247839
4965:: 650.
4931:5732227
4701:3343118
4617:7917861
4609:8568252
4570:8790416
4538:Bibcode
4452:2856637
4343:3240143
4224:4573839
4215:2139237
4123:2532980
4074:2276935
4022:9853933
3856:9400735
3847:1470168
3838:3433544
3799:6049656
3791:8870002
3388:3125982
3310:Science
3266:Bibcode
3258:Science
3165:Science
2814:9022278
2686:6410116
2576:8301210
2525:6235731
2395:9544583
2345:6456699
2328:: 684.
2212:7878464
2192:Bibcode
2184:Science
1905:metazoa
1897:Amoebae
1693:Killing
1629:vacuole
1196:(e.g.,
1160:B cells
1156:T cells
1097:nucleus
961:in the
947:abscess
740:T cells
679:antigen
588:Viruses
583:Viruses
564:. This
554:B cells
355:opsonin
332:granule
245:Daphnia
242:called
223:phagein
179:History
106:amoebae
73:phagein
7486:B cell
7474:T cell
7219:B cell
7182:Linear
7170:Hapten
7066:Plasma
7024:CFU-GM
6900:CFU-DL
6564:CFU-GM
6532:plasma
6491:(MeSH)
6453:about
6432:
6413:
6390:
6371:
6349:
6330:
6303:
6256:
6246:
6199:
6191:
6181:
6146:
6096:
6086:
6029:
6021:
5978:
5970:
5935:
5927:
5889:
5881:
5846:
5802:
5794:
5759:
5721:
5686:
5678:
5642:
5632:
5588:
5578:
5539:
5531:
5492:
5453:
5443:
5425:EMBO J
5400:
5365:
5330:
5322:
5284:
5274:
5231:
5190:
5180:
5137:
5102:
5060:
5017:. 2008
4989:
4979:
4938:
4928:
4887:
4852:
4817:
4807:
4764:
4708:
4698:
4657:
4615:
4607:
4568:
4558:
4505:
4497:
4459:
4449:
4403:
4350:
4340:
4287:
4222:
4212:
4173:
4165:
4130:
4120:
4081:
4071:
4020:
3938:
3854:
3844:
3836:
3797:
3789:
3706:
3635:
3627:
3565:
3557:
3395:
3385:
3346:
3338:
3292:
3284:
3233:
3191:
3183:
3099:
3046:
3038:
3003:
2949:
2941:
2882:
2847:
2812:
2777:
2744:746699
2742:
2734:
2693:
2683:
2582:
2574:
2532:
2522:
2401:
2393:
2352:
2342:
2281:
2273:
2218:
2210:
2099:
2091:
1927:spores
1887:(blue)
1851:plasma
1829:, and
1819:sepsis
1780:kidney
1752:, and
1685:, and
1452:Liver
1428:Blood
1339:Thymus
1329:Spleen
1284:Liver
1227:Blood
981:, and
810:MHC II
791:. One
473:sputum
461:bleach
369:(IgG)
361:, and
213:Vienna
201:larvae
197:motile
135:, and
98:larvae
7054:Other
7014:Other
6979:CFU-E
6880:Other
6197:S2CID
6027:S2CID
5976:S2CID
5933:S2CID
5887:S2CID
5800:S2CID
5684:S2CID
5537:S2CID
5328:S2CID
5183:96650
4810:97802
4613:S2CID
4561:38514
4503:S2CID
4171:S2CID
3834:JSTOR
3795:S2CID
3633:S2CID
3563:S2CID
3344:S2CID
3290:S2CID
3189:S2CID
3044:S2CID
2947:S2CID
2740:S2CID
2714:Blood
2663:Genes
2580:S2CID
2399:S2CID
2279:S2CID
2216:S2CID
2097:S2CID
1925:with
1842:TNF-α
1811:liver
1442:Skin
1348:Skin
1295:Lung
1038:tumor
971:lungs
963:brain
793:litre
654:organ
330:or a
316:fungi
276:opson
231:kutos
87:litre
79:kutos
68:Greek
64:dying
56:cells
39:of a
7125:and
6430:ISBN
6411:ISBN
6388:ISBN
6369:ISBN
6347:ISBN
6328:ISBN
6301:PMID
6254:PMID
6189:PMID
6179:ISBN
6144:PMID
6094:PMID
6054:1081
6019:PMID
5968:PMID
5925:PMID
5879:PMID
5844:PMID
5792:PMID
5757:PMID
5719:PMID
5676:PMID
5640:PMID
5586:PMID
5529:PMID
5490:PMID
5451:PMID
5398:PMID
5363:PMID
5320:PMID
5282:PMID
5229:PMID
5188:PMID
5135:PMID
5100:PMID
5069:2014
5058:PMID
5023:2014
4987:PMID
4936:PMID
4885:PMID
4850:PMID
4815:PMID
4762:PMID
4706:PMID
4655:PMID
4624:2014
4605:PMID
4566:PMID
4495:PMID
4457:PMID
4412:2014
4401:PMID
4348:PMID
4285:PMID
4254:2014
4220:PMID
4163:PMID
4128:PMID
4079:PMID
4018:PMID
3954:2014
3936:ISBN
3852:PMID
3787:PMID
3704:PMID
3625:PMID
3594:2014
3555:PMID
3488:2014
3393:PMID
3336:PMID
3282:PMID
3231:PMID
3181:PMID
3150:2014
3097:PMID
3036:PMID
3001:PMID
2939:PMID
2880:PMID
2845:PMID
2810:PMID
2775:PMID
2732:PMID
2691:PMID
2596:2014
2572:PMID
2530:PMID
2425:2014
2391:PMID
2350:PMID
2271:PMID
2208:PMID
2089:PMID
1705:and
1653:and
1639:and
1596:YopH
1576:and
1434:and
1166:and
1158:and
1111:and
1087:and
965:and
787:and
521:and
465:heme
432:and
159:and
54:are
7447:HLA
7443:MHC
6912:MPS
6642:MEP
6293:doi
6244:PMC
6236:doi
6224:317
6171:doi
6136:doi
6084:PMC
6076:hdl
6066:doi
6011:doi
5999:832
5960:doi
5917:doi
5871:doi
5836:doi
5784:doi
5778:".
5749:doi
5711:doi
5668:doi
5630:PMC
5620:doi
5576:PMC
5568:doi
5521:doi
5482:doi
5441:PMC
5433:doi
5390:doi
5355:doi
5351:291
5312:doi
5272:PMC
5264:doi
5219:doi
5215:279
5178:PMC
5170:doi
5127:doi
5123:309
5092:doi
5050:doi
5046:112
4977:PMC
4967:doi
4926:PMC
4916:doi
4877:doi
4842:doi
4838:114
4805:PMC
4797:doi
4752:doi
4696:PMC
4686:doi
4647:doi
4597:doi
4593:156
4556:PMC
4546:doi
4487:doi
4483:179
4447:PMC
4439:doi
4391:doi
4387:151
4338:PMC
4328:doi
4277:doi
4210:PMC
4202:doi
4198:137
4155:doi
4118:PMC
4110:doi
4106:118
4069:PMC
4061:doi
4057:151
4008:doi
3842:PMC
3826:doi
3822:105
3779:doi
3696:doi
3617:doi
3547:doi
3383:PMC
3375:doi
3326:hdl
3318:doi
3314:302
3274:doi
3262:302
3221:doi
3173:doi
3169:302
3087:doi
3028:doi
2931:doi
2872:doi
2868:144
2837:doi
2833:111
2802:doi
2767:doi
2763:232
2722:doi
2718:112
2681:PMC
2671:doi
2564:doi
2520:PMC
2512:doi
2381:doi
2340:PMC
2330:doi
2263:doi
2200:doi
2188:267
2081:doi
1715:ATP
1562:.
1321:CD4
1125:IgG
1093:pus
943:Pus
492:pus
469:pus
203:of
7538::
7207::
6299:.
6289:33
6287:.
6252:.
6242:.
6234:.
6222:.
6218:.
6195:.
6187:.
6177:.
6142:.
6132:11
6130:.
6118:^
6092:.
6082:.
6074:.
6064:.
6052:.
6048:.
6025:.
6017:.
6009:.
5997:.
5974:.
5966:.
5956:31
5954:.
5931:.
5923:.
5913:13
5911:.
5899:^
5885:.
5877:.
5865:.
5842:.
5832:34
5830:.
5798:.
5790:.
5755:.
5745:21
5743:.
5731:^
5717:.
5707:42
5705:.
5682:.
5674:.
5664:56
5662:.
5638:.
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