43:
103:
2683:(Horrendous grammatical war of the ancient Teutons, e.g. page 43 or page 90). His usage comes closer to that of Grimm than Zwengel's, referring to a variety of phonemic irregularities, including in what he called "ungleichfließende Verben" (i.e. strong verbs). However the connotation is negative, implying degenerate sounds:
2688:("If these old Icelandic documents are to be believed, it seems that in the time of the folk migrations the mouths of the Germans, and especially of the rabble, had grown so twisted and full and their tongues and lips so squint and knobbly that they had to speak and enunciate in such an unschooled, degenerate (
1600:, which could be consonants much as they are in English, but they could also be held on as continuants and carry a full syllable stress and then are transcribed with a small circle beneath them. There are many modern languages who show these sounds in syllable nuclei, including Indo-European ones (e.g.
2685:
Wil man nun diesen so alten Isländischen
Uhrkunden Glauben beilegen, dan ergibt sichs, woher in Wandagischen Zeiten den Teutschen, und sonderlich dem Teutschen Pöbelvolke, sei das Maul so krum und voll geworden, und die Zunge und Lippen so scheef und knobbicht gewachsen, daß man so unartig, ablautend
2705:
A translator's footnote reads: "In our language, it seems to us that the uncouthness of such compounds as
Upsound, Offsound, and Insound, could hardly be compensated by any advantage to be derived from their use; and we therefore purpose, in the course of this work, where any of these terms occur in
1178:
A classic example of the five grades of ablaut in a single root is provided by the different case forms of two closely related Greek words. In the following table, an acute accent (´) marks the syllable carrying the word stress; a macron (¯) marks long vowels and the syllable in
1449:, and over time, it changed according to phonetic context, so the language started to develop a more complex vowel system. Thus, it has often been speculated that an original e-grade underwent two changes in some phonetic environments: under certain circumstances, it changed to
1773:, assimilation with nasals, or the effect of the presence of laryngeals in the Indo-European (IE) roots as well as their subsequent loss in most daughter languages, mean that a language may have several different vowels representing a single vowel in the parent language.
2154:
In the daughter languages, these came to be important markers of grammatical distinctions. The vowel change in the
Germanic strong verb, for example, is the direct descendant of that seen in the Indo-European verb paradigm. Examples in modern English are the following:
833:
had used the word negatively to suggest that German verbs lacked the sophistication of the classics, but there is no hint of this disdain in Grimm or in modern scholarly usage. In
English, the term became established through the 1845 translation of
2009:
In PIE, there were already ablaut differences within the paradigms of verbs and nouns. These were not the main markers of grammatical form, since the inflection system served this purpose, but they must have been significant secondary markers.
1568:
terés, pronounced perhaps , as this combination of consonants and vowels would be possible in
English as well. In other cases, however, the absence of a vowel strikes the speaker of a modern western European language as unpronounceable.
1721:
plural of a
Germanic strong verb (see below) is derived from the zero grade, classes 4 and 5 have instead vowels representing the lengthened e-grade, as the stems of these verbs could not have sustained a zero grade in this position.
1456:
However, that is not certain: the phonetic conditions that controlled ablaut have never been determined, and the position of the word stress may not have been a key factor at all. There are many counterexamples to the proposed rules:
1768:
Although PIE had only this one, basically regular, ablaut sequence, the development in the daughter languages is frequently far more complicated, and few reflect the original system as neatly as Greek. Various factors, such as
2662:(When moving the body it is important to adjust the voice (lowering it) accordingly). Zwengel's name was misprinted as Zweigel by Schoppe, and the error has been copied in etymological dictionaries to the present day.
1783:, thus converting the original zero grade to a new "u-grade" in many words. Thus, while ablaut survives in some form in all Indo-European languages, it became progressively less systematic over time.
999:
Ablaut is the oldest and most extensive single source of vowel gradation in the Indo-European languages and must be distinguished clearly from other forms of gradation, which developed later, such as
1756:
in later PIE. However, some argue controversially that the e-grade could sometimes be replaced by an a-grade without the influence of a laryngeal, which might help to explain the vowels in class 6
992:, but understanding why they have unusual forms that seem irregular (and indeed why they are actually perfectly regular within their own terms) requires an understanding of the grammar of the
2784:
1572:
To understand, one must be aware that there were a number of sounds that were consonants in principle but could operate in ways analogous to vowels: the four syllabic sonorants, the three
1167:, it is said to be in the "e-grade" or "full grade". When it had no vowel, it is said to be in the "zero grade". Syllables with long vowels are said to be in "lengthened grade". (When the
2654:
The earliest attestation known to the main etymological dictionaries is a sole reference in a 16th-century discussion of rhetoric in a handbook of legal language by Johann Peter
Zwengel (
887:). The difference does not need to be indicated in the spelling. There are many kinds of vowel gradation in English and other languages, which are discussed generally in the article
1776:
In particular, the zero grade was often subject to modification from changes in the pronunciation of syllabic sonorants. For example, in
Germanic, syllabic sonorants acquired an
821:, which indicates movement downwards or away, or deviation from a norm; thus the literal meaning is "sound reduction". It was coined in this sense in 1819 by the German linguist
1717:
However, not every PIE syllable was capable of forming a zero grade; some consonant structures inhibited it in particular cases, or completely. Thus, for example, although the
3522:
1918:
The explanation is that the
Germanic and Greek nominative forms developed from the o-grade, the Latin word and the Germanic genitive from the zero-grade (in which syllabic
942:
For the study of
European languages, one of the most important instances of vowel gradation is the Indo-European ablaut, remnants of which can be seen in the English verbs
1897:. The consonant differences can be explained by regular sound shifts in primitive Germanic but not the vowel differences: by the regular laws of sound changes, Germanic
3247:
3322:
1477:
Many examples of lengthened grades, including those listed above, are not directly conditioned by ablaut. Instead, they are a result of sound changes like
2706:
the original, to retain them in their German shape. Of these terms, Ablaut and Umlaut are those which chiefly, if not alone, are used by our author."
1083:). Confusingly, in some contexts, the terms 'ablaut', 'vowel gradation', 'apophony' and 'vowel alternation' are used synonymously, especially in
1623:. However, they could also carry a syllable stress, in which case they were more like vowels. Thus, some linguists prefer to transcribe them ə
1091:
prefer to keep 'ablaut' for the specific Indo-European phenomenon, which is the meaning intended by the linguists who first coined the word.
3506:
2506:
2494:
1635:. The vocalic pronunciation may have originally involved the consonantal sounds with a very slight schwa before and/or after the consonant.
1740:"god". There does not seem to be a rule governing the unaccented syllables that take zero grade and the ones that take stronger grades.
3240:
1505:-tōr. Thus, these forms were originally in the regular, unlengthened e-grade and o-grade. Such lengthened vowels were, however, later
1564:
trés, which may already have been pronounced something like , it is not difficult to imagine it as a contraction of an older *ph
2696:
prefix is derogatory in the sense of "low-grade". Schoppe questions whether Grimm would have been aware of Schottelius's usage.
606:
3181:
1993:
For the English-speaking non-specialist, a good reference work for quick information on IE roots, including the difference of
3700:
3667:
3538:
3233:
3009:
2965:
2001:(2000). (Note that in discussions of lexis, Indo-European roots are normally cited in the e-grade, without any inflections.)
1748:
It is still a matter of debate whether PIE had an original a-vowel at all. In later PIE, the disappearance of the laryngeal h
725:, a paradigm inherited directly from the Proto-Indo-European stage of the language. Traces of ablaut are found in all modern
1817:, which presumably meant "high". The former comes from the e-grade, the latter from the zero-grade. (Zero-grade followed by
3514:
2892:
2251:
was first described, and this is still what most people primarily associate with the phenomenon. A fuller description of
784:
In the context of European languages, the phenomenon was first described in the early 18th century by the Dutch linguist
124:
1706:
Thus, any of these could replace the ablaut vowel when it was reduced to the zero-grade: the pattern CVrC (for example,
3530:
3080:
2255:
operating in English, German and Dutch verbs and of the historical factors governing these can be found at the article
3213:
3191:
3170:
3135:
3116:
3090:
3050:
3028:
2987:
2943:
656:
86:
64:
30:"Ablaut" redirects here. For a general discussion of phonological alternations outside of Indo-European studies, see
57:
3695:
188:
2692:) and distasteful manner", page 90). Schoppe compares this to words like "Abschaum, Abraum, Abwurf", where the
2354:
Ablaut can often explain apparently random irregularities. For example, the verb "to be" in Latin has the forms
3705:
1666:
came in postvocalic positions, the result was a diphthong. Ablaut is nevertheless regular and looks like this:
3651:
3467:
3264:
355:
114:
1445:
One way to think of this system is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European originally had only one vowel, short
3561:
3472:
3462:
3456:
3256:
692:
110:
3690:
3656:
2867:
3410:
3277:
3272:
2572:
Many examples of lengthened-grade roots in the daughter languages are actually caused by the effect of
2445:
Accusative and vocative singular, nominative, accusative and vocative dual, nominative plural of nouns.
599:
751:
3633:
3477:
1607:
The laryngeals could be pronounced as consonants, in which case they were probably variations on the
370:
147:
1489:
of originally short vowels. In the examples above, Szemerényi's law affected the older sequences *ph
3556:
3489:
3430:
3297:
2401:. In the singular, the stem is stressed, so it remains in the e-grade, and it takes the inflection
2393:
The difference between singular and plural in these languages is easily explained: the PIE root is
1486:
830:
679:
538:
338:
310:
156:
51:
2594:
1726:
726:
508:
420:
270:
245:
235:
163:
120:
533:
3292:
2997:
2953:
1088:
993:
513:
68:
17:
3377:
2840:
2660:
In bewegung des leibs sind warzunemen die theil der stim (dauon ablaut) sich darnach zubewegen
2577:
1478:
320:
3661:
3582:
2658:, Frankfurt am Main 1568, page 3b), where it apparently refers to a lowering of voice pitch:
592:
3366:
3615:
3588:
3482:
3332:
3310:
2426:
2256:
1786:
Ablaut explains vowel differences between related words of the same language. For example:
1757:
699:
665:
503:
303:
3158:
1442:
As with most reconstructions, however, scholars differ about the details of this example.
8:
3620:
3610:
3337:
3061:
2927:
1732:
in unaccented syllables, but in some cases the lack of accent does not cause zero grade:
1729:
1654:, but they could also become pure vowels when the following ablaut vowel reduced to zero.
1548:
grade was rarer still and may not have actually been a part of the ablaut system at all.
1438:
A lengthening of the vowel when the syllable is in word-final position before a sonorant.
463:
275:
183:
3100:
3342:
2619:
1581:
1506:
829:, though the word had been used before him. In particular, the 17th-century grammarian
568:
543:
528:
425:
345:
3605:
3327:
3209:
3187:
3166:
3131:
3112:
3104:
3086:
3046:
3038:
3024:
3005:
2983:
2961:
2939:
2888:
2289:
2278:
as a grammatical marker in Latin are the vowel changes in the perfect stem of verbs.
563:
553:
389:
290:
2609:
3362:
3352:
3347:
3287:
3282:
2573:
1573:
785:
738:
630:
416:
3302:
3043:
Ablaut and Reduplication in the Germanic Verb (=Indogermanische Bibliothek. vol 3)
3201:
2880:
2604:
2171:
1998:
1000:
988:. For simply learning English grammar, it is enough to note that these verbs are
793:
208:
1829:
Ablaut also explains vowel differences between cognates in different languages.
1432:
A switch to the zero-grade when the word stress moves to the following syllable.
1099:
In Proto-Indo-European, the basic, inherent vowel of most syllables was a short
1084:
3628:
3566:
3435:
3420:
3382:
3372:
3357:
3225:
2581:
2267:
1601:
1521:
1482:
989:
797:
670:
350:
250:
203:
198:
3684:
3405:
2975:
2624:
2284:
2131:
1770:
1435:
A switch to the o-grade when the word stress moves to the preceding syllable.
558:
400:
379:
365:
325:
746:
2907:
2629:
2371:
1512:
Nevertheless, there are examples of true lengthened grades, in which short
855:
Vowel gradation is any vowel difference between two related words (such as
742:
435:
360:
315:
193:
143:
132:
2432:
Some of the morphological functions of the various grades are as follows:
766:
757:
3425:
822:
620:
578:
573:
493:
430:
2013:
An example of ablaut in the paradigm of the noun in PIE can be found in
805:
3440:
2614:
2161:
1777:
1453:(the o-grade) and in others, it disappeared entirely (the zero-grade).
927:) and others the complete disappearance of a vowel (reduction to zero:
835:
765:
498:
459:
383:
228:
2887:(2nd ed.). Boston, MA / New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
2935:
2473:
ending-stressed feminine, originally collective, action nouns (Greek
2166:
1863:"thornbush", literally "horse-tooth"). This form is related to Latin
1718:
548:
468:
442:
375:
285:
219:
891:. Some involve a variation in vowel length (quantitative gradation:
811:
2599:
2271:
1930:
in Germanic). Going a step further back, some scholars reconstruct
1752:
could leave an a-colouring and this may explain all occurrences of
888:
850:
684:
523:
518:
488:
240:
176:
31:
817:
773:
were used to describe the phenomena now known respectively as the
1802:. The former comes from the e-grade, the latter from the o-grade.
1126:
Thus, ablaut results in the alternation of the following sounds:
449:
280:
263:
128:
3099:
2531:
Present dual and plural tense of athematic verbs; ending stress.
1560:
may appear difficult for speakers of English. In the case of *ph
2634:
2493:
Nominative, vocative and accusative singular of certain nouns (
1881:, with the same meaning, and is reflected in the English words
454:
409:
3085:(19 ed.). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 3.
2540:
Some verbs in the aorist (the Greek thematic "second aorist").
1989:), come from the (short) o-grade and the e-grade respectively.
737:
The phenomenon of Indo-European ablaut was first recorded by
2362:(they are). The equivalent forms in German are very similar:
2263:
1971:
1965:
1875:
1869:
1509:
and spread to other words in which the change did not occur.
1403:
1361:
1320:
1281:
1239:
1123:
or sometimes disappearing entirely to leave no vowel at all.
908:
688:
645:
109:
This article contains characters used to write reconstructed
2409:
was stressed, causing the stem to reduce to the zero grade:
3523:
Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme
1428:
In this unusually neat example, the following can be seen:
790:
Gemeenschap tussen de Gottische spraeke en de Nederduytsche
3208:(2nd ed.). Boston & New York: Houghton Mifflin.
2543:
Oblique singular/dual/plural, accusative plural of nouns.
2520:
Present tense of causative verbs; stem (not root) stress.
2104:
An example in a verb is *bʰeydʰ- "to wait" (cf. "bide").
1175:-grade is referred to, the short vowel forms are meant.)
1051:) or the results of modern English word-stress patterns (
636:
2772:
The Origins of Old Germanic Studies in the Low Countries
1532:. Alternations of this type were rare, however, and the
1465:
show pretonic and posttonic e-grade, respectively, and
1183:
is the one illustrating the different vowel gradations.
3206:
The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots
2912:
Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon
2885:
The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots
2554:
Present singular of certain athematic verbs (so-called
2262:
The same phenomenon is displayed in the verb tables of
27:
Grammatical change of vowels in Indo-European languages
2932:
Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction
2850:
2848:
2681:
Horrendum bellum grammaticale Teutonum antiquissimorum
657:
3411:
3312:
2811:
2809:
2807:
1858:
911:), others in vowel coloring (qualitative gradation:
648:
642:
639:
2845:
2821:
2794:
2792:
1646:were semi-vowels, probably pronounced like English
809:is borrowed from German, and derives from the noun
633:
2804:
2442:Present singular of athematic verbs; root stress.
1544:alternation was the most common by far. The long
3682:
3255:
2789:
2656:Neu Groß Formular und vollkommlich Cantzlei Buch
3082:Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache
745:(roughly 8th century BCE), and was codified by
113:words (for an explanation of the notation, see
2247:It was in this context of Germanic verbs that
1107:is the name of the process whereby this short
3241:
3125:
2584:, which operated within Indo-European times.
2534:Perfect dual and plural tense; ending stress.
2484:ending-stressed masculine agent nouns (Greek
2439:Present tense of thematic verbs; root stress.
844:
600:
3186:(in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 18.
2458:stem-stressed masculine action nouns (Greek
668:
3066:Online Etymological Dictionary (Etymonline)
3507:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
3248:
3234:
3157:
3145:Schoppe, Georg (1923). "Nomina ante res".
2470:"circular course" < "*act of running");
2025:are derived (both via the zero-grade stem
607:
593:
3163:Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics
2405:. In the plural, however, the inflection
1763:
871:) or two forms of the same word (such as
732:
87:Learn how and when to remove this message
907:shows reduction of the first vowel to a
729:, though its prevalence varies greatly.
50:This article includes a list of general
3200:
3179:
3144:
3037:
3018:
2996:
2952:
2879:
2854:
2827:
2737:
2004:
1638:In pre-vocalic positions, the phonemes
698:An example of ablaut in English is the
125:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
14:
3683:
3059:
3004:(2000 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass.
2982:(2001 ed.). Motilal Banarsidass.
2974:
2926:
2815:
1611:sound and so normally transcribed as h
3668:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
3539:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary
3229:
3078:
2798:
2686:und übel sprechen und ausreden müssen
2564:Some derived verbal nouns (so-called
1959:comes from the lengthened o-grade of
678:
1472:
36:
3515:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben
3165:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3147:Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift
1950:and explain it as 'the eating one'.
755:(4th century BCE), where the terms
24:
3531:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon
3128:Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft
2960:(2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
2958:Indo-European Language and Culture
2551:Nominative singular of many nouns.
1938:, from the zero grade of the root
1926:much in the same way as it became
56:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
3717:
2382:, and developed into e.g. Polish
2370:. The same forms were present in
1997:grade behind related lexemes, is
1813:(castle) both come from the root
2537:Past participles; ending stress.
2121:Perfect (third-person singular)
1909:usually goes back to a syllabic
1798:both come from the same IE root
1094:
629:
101:
41:
3126:Meier-Brügger, Michael (2002).
2920:
2901:
2873:
2860:
2833:
2699:
2671:In 1673, Schottelius used both
2665:
2648:
2017:, from which the English words
1889:. One reconstructed IE form is
189:Consonant voicing and devoicing
3023:(2003 ed.). McGraw Hill.
2777:
2764:
2755:
2746:
2728:
2719:
1725:Zero grade is said to be from
1520:. Examples are the verbs with
13:
1:
3652:Proto-Indo-European mythology
3111:. Heidelberg: Winter Verlag.
3045:. Heidelberg: Winter Verlag.
2713:
1551:
115:Proto-Indo-European phonology
3701:Proto-Indo-European language
3562:Proto-Indo-European homeland
3257:Proto-Indo-European language
2148:(note reduplicating prefix)
1946:'to eat' and the participle
1859:
1497:-tor-s, changing them to *ph
1469:has an accented zero grade.
994:reconstructed proto-language
693:Proto-Indo-European language
7:
3657:Proto-Indo-European society
2587:
767:
758:
10:
3722:
3412:
3313:
2466:"creature, person"; Greek
1972:
1966:
1876:
1870:
1743:
1461:and its nominative plural
1404:
1362:
1321:
1282:
1240:
1163:If a syllable had a short
848:
845:Ablaut and vowel gradation
29:
3644:
3634:North European hypothesis
3598:
3575:
3549:
3498:
3449:
3393:
3263:
3109:Indogermanische Grammatik
3079:Kluge, Friedrich (1963).
3019:Coulson, Michael (2003).
2561:Some verbs in the aorist.
1576:and the two semi-vowels:
1142:
131:combining characters and
3557:Indo-European migrations
3159:Szemerényi, Oswald J. L.
3060:Harper, Douglas (2001).
2641:
2488:"wheel" < "*runner").
1487:compensatory lengthening
1422:(adjective, nominative)
1382:(adjective, accusative)
1111:changed, becoming short
815:"sound", and the prefix
792:("Common aspects of the
539:Compensatory lengthening
311:Compensatory lengthening
3576:Artificial compositions
2998:Whitney, William Dwight
2523:Perfect singular tense.
2139:Perfect (third plural)
1901:can originate from PIE
1727:pre-Proto-Indo-European
727:Indo-European languages
164:Quantitative metathesis
71:more precise citations.
3696:Historical linguistics
3459:(nouns and adjectives)
3323:Glossary of sound laws
3180:Trübner, Karl (1939).
2477:"offspring", Sanskrit
2462:"offspring", Sanskrit
1764:Subsequent development
733:History of the concept
669:
3706:Linguistic morphology
3662:Indo-European studies
2980:The Sanskrit Language
2509:neuter nouns such as
1809:(mountain, hill) and
1516:alternates with long
849:Further information:
717:and its related noun
3616:Anatolian hypothesis
3589:The king and the god
3183:Deutsches Wörterbuch
2928:Beekes, Robert S. P.
2427:Indo-European copula
2425:. See main article:
2348:(vowel lengthening)
2330:(vowel lengthening)
2257:Germanic strong verb
2005:Grammatical function
1837:comes from Germanic
1736:, nominative plural
1710:) could become CrC (
1089:historical linguists
800:languages", 1710).
739:Sanskrit grammarians
625:Indo-European ablaut
304:Transphonologization
3625:Outdated theories:
3621:Armenian hypothesis
3611:Schleicher theories
3367:Edgerton's converse
2954:Fortson, Benjamin W
2948:. (Europe), (U.S.).
2497:root nouns such as
1522:"Narten" inflection
1300:(noun, nominative)
1260:(noun, accusative)
839:Comparative Grammar
691:variations) in the
184:Consonant gradation
111:Proto-Indo-European
3691:Germanic languages
3583:Schleicher's fable
3039:Coetsem, Frans van
2938:: John Benjamins.
2675:and the adjective
2620:Inflected language
2547:lengthened grade:
1845:, Old High German
1841:(e.g. Old English
1582:syllabic sonorants
1556:The zero grade of
1493:-tér-s and *n̥-péh
827:Deutsche Grammatik
569:Consonant mutation
544:Monophthongization
426:Consonant mutation
3678:
3677:
3606:Kurgan hypothesis
3105:Manfred Mayrhofer
3101:Kuryłowicz, Jerzy
3011:978-81-208-0620-7
2967:978-1-4051-8895-1
2770:Cornelis Dekker,
2610:Guna (in grammar)
2556:Narten-stem verbs
2352:
2351:
2245:
2244:
2152:
2151:
2102:
2101:
1981:(compare English
1704:
1703:
1528:"moon", genitive
1524:, and nouns like
1473:Lengthened grades
1426:
1425:
1341:(noun, genitive)
1210:(transliterated)
1198:(reconstruction)
1161:
1160:
1087:comparisons, but
683:) is a system of
680:[ˈaplaʊt]
617:
616:
564:Shm-reduplication
554:Rhinoglottophilia
390:Consonant harmony
291:Cluster reduction
121:rendering support
97:
96:
89:
16:(Redirected from
3713:
3415:
3414:
3316:
3315:
3288:Laryngeal theory
3283:Glottalic theory
3278:Centum and satem
3250:
3243:
3236:
3227:
3226:
3219:
3202:Watkins, Calvert
3197:
3176:
3154:
3141:
3122:
3096:
3075:
3073:
3072:
3056:
3034:
3015:
3002:Sanskrit Grammar
3000:(January 2008).
2993:
2971:
2949:
2915:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2881:Watkins, Calvert
2877:
2871:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2843:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2802:
2796:
2787:
2781:
2775:
2768:
2762:
2761:Whitney, p. xii.
2759:
2753:
2750:
2744:
2741:
2735:
2734:Beekes, §12.2.1.
2732:
2726:
2723:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2669:
2663:
2652:
2578:Szemerényi's law
2281:
2280:
2158:
2157:
2107:
2106:
2032:
2031:
2021:and (via Latin)
1975:
1974:
1969:
1968:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1872:
1862:
1669:
1668:
1501:-tḗr and *n̥-péh
1479:Szemerényi's law
1411:
1410:
1409:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1186:
1185:
1129:
1128:
786:Lambert ten Kate
779:lengthened grade
770:
761:
682:
677:
674:
660:
655:
654:
651:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
609:
602:
595:
140:
139:
127: instead of
105:
104:
92:
85:
81:
78:
72:
67:this article by
58:inline citations
45:
44:
37:
21:
3721:
3720:
3716:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3711:
3710:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3674:
3640:
3594:
3571:
3545:
3494:
3450:Parts of speech
3445:
3389:
3259:
3254:
3223:
3216:
3194:
3173:
3138:
3119:
3093:
3070:
3068:
3053:
3031:
3012:
2990:
2968:
2946:
2923:
2918:
2914:, 2008, p. 146.
2906:
2902:
2895:
2894:978-039598610-3
2883:, ed. (2000) .
2878:
2874:
2865:
2861:
2853:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2826:
2822:
2814:
2805:
2797:
2790:
2782:
2778:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:Coulson, p. xv.
2751:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2725:Fortson, §4.12.
2724:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2710:
2704:
2700:
2670:
2666:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2605:Germanic umlaut
2590:
2422:
2414:
2398:
2172:Past participle
2007:
1943:
1935:
1922:developed into
1766:
1760:, for example.
1751:
1746:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1567:
1563:
1554:
1507:grammaticalised
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1485:, which caused
1475:
1421:
1402:
1395:
1388:
1381:
1360:
1352:
1340:
1319:
1311:
1299:
1280:
1273:
1266:
1259:
1238:
1230:
1223:
1215:
1209:
1197:
1097:
1001:Germanic umlaut
853:
847:
735:
675:
658:
632:
628:
613:
584:
583:
484:
476:
475:
474:
473:
445:
412:
395:
394:
371:Final devoicing
341:
331:
330:
306:
296:
295:
266:
256:
255:
231:
214:
213:
209:Debuccalization
179:
169:
168:
159:
138:
137:
136:
119:Without proper
106:
102:
93:
82:
76:
73:
63:Please help to
62:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3719:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3639:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3629:Beech argument
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3602:
3600:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3585:
3579:
3577:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3567:Salmon problem
3564:
3559:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3535:
3527:
3519:
3511:
3502:
3500:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3438:
3436:Thematic vowel
3433:
3428:
3423:
3421:Narten present
3418:
3408:
3403:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3308:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3269:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3253:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3230:
3221:
3220:
3214:
3198:
3192:
3177:
3171:
3155:
3142:
3136:
3130:. de Gruyter.
3123:
3117:
3097:
3091:
3076:
3057:
3051:
3035:
3029:
3016:
3010:
2994:
2988:
2976:Burrow, Thomas
2972:
2966:
2950:
2944:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2916:
2900:
2893:
2872:
2866:Reproduced in
2859:
2844:
2839:Reproduced in
2832:
2820:
2803:
2788:
2783:Reproduced in
2776:
2763:
2754:
2745:
2736:
2727:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2709:
2708:
2698:
2664:
2646:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2570:
2569:
2562:
2559:
2552:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2525:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2507:proterokinetic
2490:
2489:
2482:
2471:
2455:
2454:
2447:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2420:
2412:
2396:
2350:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2287:
2274:. Examples of
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2142:*bʰe-bʰidʰ-ḗr
2140:
2136:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2124:*bʰe-bʰóydʰ-e
2122:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2006:
2003:
1991:
1990:
1952:
1951:
1941:
1933:
1915:
1914:
1827:
1826:
1803:
1765:
1762:
1758:Germanic verbs
1749:
1745:
1742:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1673:
1656:
1655:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1565:
1561:
1553:
1550:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1474:
1471:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1424:
1423:
1418:
1412:
1400:
1393:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1378:
1371:
1358:
1350:
1347:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1330:
1317:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1290:
1278:
1271:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1249:
1236:
1228:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1211:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1171:-grade or the
1159:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1133:
1096:
1093:
846:
843:
788:, in his book
734:
731:
615:
614:
612:
611:
604:
597:
589:
586:
585:
582:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
536:
531:
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
491:
485:
482:
481:
478:
477:
472:
471:
466:
457:
452:
446:
441:
440:
439:
438:
433:
428:
423:
413:
408:
407:
404:
403:
397:
396:
393:
392:
387:
373:
368:
363:
358:
356:Palatalization
353:
351:Coarticulation
348:
342:
337:
336:
333:
332:
329:
328:
323:
318:
313:
307:
302:
301:
298:
297:
294:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
267:
262:
261:
258:
257:
254:
253:
251:Vowel breaking
248:
243:
238:
232:
227:
226:
223:
222:
216:
215:
212:
211:
206:
204:L-vocalization
201:
199:Spirantization
196:
191:
186:
180:
175:
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:
160:
155:
154:
151:
150:
123:, you may see
107:
100:
99:
98:
95:
94:
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3718:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3574:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3540:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3518:
3516:
3512:
3510:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3409:
3407:
3406:Caland system
3404:
3402:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3368:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3333:Bartholomae's
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3317:
3309:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3251:
3246:
3244:
3239:
3237:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3217:
3215:0-618-08250-6
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3193:9783110849349
3189:
3185:
3184:
3178:
3174:
3172:0-19-824015-5
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3143:
3139:
3137:3-11-017243-7
3133:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3118:3-533-03487-9
3114:
3110:
3107:(1968–1969).
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3092:9783111698847
3088:
3084:
3083:
3077:
3067:
3063:
3062:"ablaut (n.)"
3058:
3054:
3052:3-8253-4267-0
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3030:0-340-85990-3
3026:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2989:81-208-1767-2
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2945:90-272-2150-2
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2924:
2913:
2909:
2908:Derksen, Rick
2904:
2896:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2869:
2863:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2842:
2836:
2829:
2824:
2817:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2800:
2795:
2793:
2786:
2780:
2773:
2767:
2758:
2749:
2743:Burrow, §2.1.
2740:
2731:
2722:
2718:
2702:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2661:
2657:
2651:
2647:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2625:Reduplication
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2285:Present tense
2283:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2268:Ancient Greek
2265:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2133:
2132:reduplicating
2129:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2105:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2042:suffix (t-u)
2041:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2011:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1830:
1825:in Germanic.)
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1774:
1772:
1771:vowel harmony
1761:
1759:
1755:
1741:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1723:
1720:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1575:
1570:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1508:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1429:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1408:
1401:
1399:
1391:
1386:
1385:
1379:
1376:
1372:
1366:
1359:
1356:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1338:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1318:
1315:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1279:
1277:
1269:
1264:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1237:
1234:
1226:
1221:
1220:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1176:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1095:Ablaut grades
1092:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1074:
1072:
1066:
1064:
1058:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1042:
1040:
1034:
1032:
1026:
1024:
1018:
1016:
1010:
1008:
1002:
997:
995:
991:
987:
985:
979:
978:
972:
971:
965:
963:
957:
955:
949:
947:
940:
938:
934:
932:
926:
924:
918:
916:
910:
906:
904:
898:
896:
890:
886:
884:
878:
876:
870:
868:
862:
860:
852:
842:
840:
837:
832:
828:
824:
820:
819:
814:
813:
808:
807:
801:
799:
795:
791:
787:
782:
780:
776:
772:
771:
769:
762:
760:
754:
753:
748:
744:
741:in the later
740:
730:
728:
724:
722:
716:
714:
710:
706:
701:
696:
694:
690:
686:
681:
673:
672:
667:
663:
662:
653:
626:
622:
610:
605:
603:
598:
596:
591:
590:
588:
587:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
559:Sulcalization
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
486:
480:
479:
470:
467:
465:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
447:
444:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
418:
415:
414:
411:
406:
405:
402:
401:Dissimilation
399:
398:
391:
388:
385:
381:
380:vowel harmony
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
366:Labialization
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
340:
335:
334:
327:
326:Floating tone
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
308:
305:
300:
299:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
268:
265:
260:
259:
252:
249:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
233:
230:
225:
224:
221:
218:
217:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
181:
178:
173:
172:
165:
162:
161:
158:
153:
152:
149:
145:
142:
141:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
116:
112:
91:
88:
80:
70:
66:
60:
59:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
3666:
3587:
3537:
3529:
3521:
3513:
3505:
3499:Main sources
3416:-conjugation
3400:
3378:Szemerényi's
3338:Fortunatov's
3311:
3303:
3222:
3205:
3182:
3162:
3150:
3146:
3127:
3108:
3081:
3069:. Retrieved
3065:
3042:
3020:
3001:
2979:
2957:
2931:
2921:Bibliography
2911:
2903:
2884:
2875:
2868:Google Books
2862:
2855:Schoppe 1923
2841:Google Books
2835:
2828:Trübner 1939
2823:
2785:Google Books
2779:
2771:
2766:
2757:
2748:
2739:
2730:
2721:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2659:
2655:
2650:
2630:Semitic root
2571:
2566:proto-vrddhi
2565:
2555:
2546:
2527:zero-grade:
2526:
2514:
2510:
2502:
2498:
2485:
2478:
2474:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2453:Verbal nouns
2448:
2434:
2431:
2418:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2394:
2392:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2372:Proto-Slavic
2367:
2363:
2359:
2358:(he is) and
2355:
2353:
2340:
2335:
2322:
2317:
2305:
2300:
2275:
2261:
2252:
2248:
2246:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2153:
2103:
2092:*pr̥-téw-ey
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2012:
2008:
1994:
1992:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1947:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1868:
1865:dens, dentis
1864:
1854:
1850:
1849:), genitive
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1767:
1753:
1747:
1737:
1733:
1724:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1705:
1663:
1659:
1657:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1608:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1571:
1557:
1555:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1530:*méh₁-n̥s-os
1529:
1525:
1517:
1513:
1511:
1476:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1427:
1420:"fatherless"
1415:
1406:
1397:
1380:"fatherless"
1374:
1364:
1354:
1333:
1323:
1313:
1293:
1284:
1275:
1252:
1242:
1232:
1213:
1206:
1201:
1194:
1190:Ablaut grade
1189:
1180:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1162:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1078:
1076:
1070:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1054:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1038:
1036:
1030:
1028:
1022:
1020:
1014:
1012:
1006:
1004:
998:
983:
981:
976:
974:
969:
967:
961:
959:
953:
951:
945:
943:
941:
936:
930:
928:
922:
920:
914:
912:
902:
900:
894:
892:
882:
880:
874:
872:
866:
864:
858:
856:
854:
838:
826:
816:
810:
804:
802:
789:
783:
778:
774:
764:
756:
750:
743:Vedic period
736:
720:
718:
712:
708:
704:
702:
697:
624:
618:
436:Vowel hiatus
361:Velarization
339:Assimilation
316:Nasalization
194:Assibilation
144:Sound change
108:
83:
74:
55:
3426:Nasal infix
3343:Grassmann's
3328:Brugmann's
2816:Harper 2001
2582:Stang's law
2513:"water" or
2145:zero-grade
2095:zero-grade
2081:zero-grade
2078:*pr̥-téw-s
2070:zero-grade
2061:Accusative
2056:zero-grade
2047:Nominative
2039:root (p-r)
1893:, genitive
1887:orthodontic
1857:, but also
1678:zero-grade
1483:Stang's law
1305:zero-grade
1224:full grade
1216:translation
831:Schottelius
823:Jacob Grimm
700:strong verb
621:linguistics
579:Chain shift
574:Vowel shift
494:Affrication
483:Other types
431:Tone sandhi
321:Tonogenesis
148:alternation
135:characters.
69:introducing
3685:Categories
3490:Vocabulary
3394:Morphology
3314:*kʷetwóres
3298:Sound laws
3153:: 182-185.
3071:2022-04-21
2799:Kluge 1963
2774:, p.342ff.
2714:References
2615:I-mutation
2574:laryngeals
2495:acrostatic
2162:Infinitive
2064:*pér-tu-m
2050:*pér-tu-s
1987:pedestrian
1979:pes, pedis
1977:and Latin
1867:and Greek
1860:aiƕa-tundi
1778:epenthetic
1574:laryngeals
1552:Zero grade
1387:lengthened
1339:"father's"
1265:lengthened
1222:e-grade or
1085:synchronic
775:full grade
752:Aṣṭādhyāyī
676:pronounced
499:Gemination
460:Synaeresis
229:Epenthesis
157:Metathesis
52:references
3468:Particles
3363:Sievers's
3353:Pinault's
3348:Osthoff's
3265:Phonology
2936:Amsterdam
2690:ablautend
2677:ablautend
2505:"house";
2501:, plural
2481:"birth");
2449:o-grade:
2435:e-grade:
2345:"to sit"
2327:"to see"
2167:Preterite
2075:Genitive
1719:preterite
1526:*mḗh₁-n̥s
990:irregular
803:The term
687:(regular
549:Rhotacism
469:Synizesis
464:diaeresis
443:Synalepha
421:linking R
376:Metaphony
286:Haplology
271:Apheresis
246:Unpacking
236:Prothesis
220:Fortition
77:July 2009
3645:See also
3599:Theories
3473:Pronouns
3463:Numerals
3457:Nominals
3304:boukólos
3293:s-mobile
3204:(2000).
3161:(1996).
3041:(1993).
3021:Sanskrit
2978:(2001).
2956:(2010).
2930:(1995).
2600:Apophony
2588:See also
2517:"tree").
2310:"to do"
2272:Sanskrit
2134:prefix)
2127:o-grade
2114:e-grade
2098:e-grade
2084:e-grade
2067:e-grade
2053:e-grade
1963:. Greek
1955:English
1853:(Gothic
1851:*tund-iz
1833:English
1821:becomes
1815:*bʰergʰ-
1800:*streyg-
1790:English
1712:*bʰr̥gʰ-
1708:*bʰergʰ-
1675:o-grade
1672:e-grade
1467:*wĺ̥kʷos
1463:*deywóes
1389:o-grade
1346:o-grade
1298:"father"
1267:e-grade
1258:"father"
1081:tography
937:couldn't
905:tography
889:apophony
869:tography
851:Apophony
685:apophony
524:Iotacism
519:Betacism
509:Fronting
504:Clipping
489:Apophony
241:Paragoge
177:Lenition
32:Apophony
3550:Origins
3383:Weise's
3373:Stang's
3358:Siebs's
2679:in his
2595:Augment
2576:and of
2486:trokhós
2468:trókhos
2415:es-énti
2290:Perfect
2089:Dative
2015:*pértus
1999:Watkins
1983:octopus
1895:*dn̥tés
1883:dentist
1877:ὀδόντος
1839:*tanþ-s
1805:German
1744:a-grade
1734:*deywó-
1730:syncope
1459:*deywós
1392:*n̥-péh
1349:*n̥-péh
1214:English
1119:, long
1115:, long
1073:tograph
929:could n
897:tograph
861:tograph
825:in his
749:in his
695:(PIE).
664:, from
514:Raising
450:Elision
417:Liaison
281:Apocope
276:Syncope
264:Elision
129:Unicode
65:improve
3541:(IEED)
3525:(LIPP)
3483:copula
3441:Vṛddhi
3401:Ablaut
3273:Accent
3212:
3190:
3169:
3134:
3115:
3089:
3049:
3027:
3008:
2986:
2964:
2942:
2891:
2673:ablaut
2635:Vrddhi
2511:*wódr̥
2423:s-énti
2276:ablaut
2253:ablaut
2249:ablaut
2240:broken
2223:driven
2130:(note
2027:*pr̥t-
1995:ablaut
1905:, but
1891:*dónts
1855:tunþus
1796:stroke
1792:strike
1558:ablaut
1135:short
1105:Ablaut
836:Bopp's
806:ablaut
794:Gothic
768:vṛddhi
747:Pāṇini
671:Ablaut
666:German
623:, the
534:Merger
529:Fusion
455:Crasis
410:Sandhi
384:umlaut
346:Fusion
54:, but
18:Ablaut
3670:(EIE)
3533:(NIL)
3517:(LIV)
3509:(IEW)
3478:Verbs
2642:Notes
2503:dómes
2479:janā́
2464:jánas
2460:gónos
2407:-énti
2380:*sǫtь
2376:*estь
2336:sedeō
2318:videō
2264:Latin
2235:broke
2230:break
2218:drove
2213:drive
2206:given
1973:ποδός
1961:*ped-
1948:-ont-
1936:dónts
1871:ὀδούς
1835:tooth
1658:When
1631:and ə
1619:and h
1602:Czech
1414:a-pá-
1405:ἀ-πά-
1373:a-pá-
1363:ἀ-πά-
1207:Greek
1202:Greek
1138:long
1132:zero
966:, or
909:schwa
798:Dutch
711:ng, s
707:ng, s
689:vowel
661:-lowt
133:Latin
3431:Root
3318:rule
3306:rule
3210:ISBN
3188:ISBN
3167:ISBN
3132:ISBN
3113:ISBN
3087:ISBN
3047:ISBN
3025:ISBN
3006:ISBN
2984:ISBN
2962:ISBN
2940:ISBN
2889:ISBN
2580:and
2515:dóru
2475:gonḗ
2386:and
2384:jest
2378:and
2368:sind
2366:and
2360:sunt
2341:sēdī
2323:vīdī
2270:and
2201:gave
2196:give
2189:sung
2184:sang
2179:sing
2023:port
2019:ford
1985:and
1967:πούς
1957:foot
1885:and
1847:zand
1811:Burg
1807:Berg
1794:and
1738:*-es
1662:and
1650:and
1642:and
1596:and
1584:are
1580:The
1481:and
1357:-m̥
1336:-ós
1316:-és
1235:-m̥
1181:bold
1049:ngth
964:dden
879:and
863:and
812:Laut
796:and
777:and
763:and
759:guṇa
462:and
146:and
3413:h₂e
2694:ab-
2499:dṓm
2403:-ti
2399:es-
2364:ist
2356:est
2306:ēgī
2301:agō
2029:).
1944:ed-
1843:tōþ
1781:-u-
1714:).
1697:ow
1694:ew
1686:oy
1683:ey
1627:, ə
1615:, h
1416:tōr
1407:τωρ
1398:tōr
1377:-a
1375:tor
1365:τορ
1355:tor
1332:pa-
1326:-ός
1322:πα-
1308:*ph
1294:tḗr
1292:pa-
1285:τήρ
1283:πα-
1276:tḗr
1270:*ph
1255:-a
1253:tér
1251:pa-
1243:τέρ
1241:πα-
1233:tér
1227:*ph
1195:PIE
1061:wom
939:).
818:ab-
619:In
3687::
3151:XI
3149:.
3103:;
3064:.
2934:.
2910:,
2847:^
2806:^
2791:^
2568:).
2558:).
2429:.
2419:*h
2417:→
2411:*h
2395:*h
2390:.
2388:są
2374::
2266:,
2259:.
1970:,
1940:*h
1932:*h
1928:un
1924:en
1920:n̥
1911:n̥
1907:un
1874:,
1823:ur
1700:u
1689:i
1604:).
1592:,
1588:,
1540:~
1536:~
1367:-α
1334:tr
1324:τρ
1314:tr
1245:-α
1157:ō
1154:o
1149:ē
1146:e
1143:∅
1103:.
1077:ph
1075:/
1069:ph
1067:,
1059:/
1043:/
1041:ng
1035:,
1033:se
1031:ee
1027:/
1025:se
1023:oo
1019:,
1011:/
996:.
984:ow
982:fl
980:,
977:ew
975:fl
973:,
968:fl
958:,
956:de
950:,
948:de
935:→
919:/
901:ph
899:/
893:ph
865:ph
857:ph
841:.
781:.
723:ng
715:ng
659:AB
646:aʊ
419:,
382:,
117:).
3369:)
3365:(
3249:e
3242:t
3235:v
3218:.
3196:.
3175:.
3140:.
3121:.
3095:.
3074:.
3055:.
3033:.
3014:.
2992:.
2970:.
2897:.
2870:.
2857:.
2830:.
2818:.
2801:.
2421:1
2413:1
2397:1
1942:1
1934:1
1913:.
1903:o
1899:a
1819:r
1754:a
1750:2
1664:i
1660:u
1652:y
1648:w
1644:i
1640:u
1633:3
1629:2
1625:1
1621:3
1617:2
1613:1
1609:h
1598:l
1594:r
1590:n
1586:m
1566:2
1562:2
1546:ō
1542:∅
1538:o
1534:e
1518:ē
1514:e
1503:2
1499:2
1495:2
1491:2
1451:o
1447:e
1396:-
1394:2
1353:-
1351:2
1312:-
1310:2
1274:-
1272:2
1231:-
1229:2
1173:o
1169:e
1165:e
1121:ō
1117:ē
1113:o
1109:e
1101:e
1079:o
1071:o
1065:n
1063:a
1057:n
1055:a
1053:m
1047:e
1045:l
1039:o
1037:l
1029:g
1021:g
1017:n
1015:e
1013:m
1009:n
1007:a
1005:m
1003:(
986:n
970:y
962:i
960:r
954:o
952:r
946:i
944:r
933:t
931:o
925:n
923:e
921:m
917:n
915:a
913:m
903:o
895:o
885:n
883:e
881:m
877:n
875:a
873:m
867:o
859:o
721:o
719:s
713:u
709:a
705:i
703:s
652:/
649:t
643:l
640:b
637:æ
634:ˈ
631:/
627:(
608:e
601:t
594:v
386:)
378:(
90:)
84:(
79:)
75:(
61:.
34:.
20:)
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