189:
201:
427:
1083:
659:
853:
965:
306:
390:
1100:
1117:
1066:
706:
1997:
1049:
819:. The arolium, plantulae and pulvilli are adhesive organs enabling their possessors to climb smooth or steep surfaces. They all are outgrowths of the exoskeleton and their cavities contain blood. Their structures are covered with tubular tenent hairs, the apices of which are moistened by a glandular secretion. The organs are adapted to apply the hairs closely to a smooth surface so that adhesion occurs through surface molecular forces.
487:. They are found most frequently on the larvae of moths and sawflies. Prolegs do not have the same structure as modern adult insect legs, and there has been a great deal of debate as to whether they are homologous with them. Current evidence suggests that they are indeed homologous up to a very primitive stage in their embryological development, but that their emergence in modern insects was not homologous between the
358:
570:
844:), the long tendon courses through the tarsus and tibia before reaching the femur. Tension on the long tendon is controlled by two muscles, one in the femur and one in the tibia, which can operate differently depending on how the leg is bent. Tension on the long tendon controls the claw, but also bends the tarsus and likely affects its stiffness during walking.
636:
and associated sclerites of its thoracic segment, and in some species it articulates with the edge of the sternite as well. The homologies of the various basal sclerites are open to debate. Some authorities suggest that they derive from an ancestral subcoxa. In many species, the coxa has two lobes
413:
and their relatives) have seven-segmented walking legs, comprising coxa, trochanter, prefemur, femur, tibia, tarsus, and a tarsal claw. Myriapod legs show a variety of modifications in different groups. In all centipedes, the first pair of legs is modified into a pair of venomous fangs called
316:
legs differ from those of insects by the addition of two segments on either side of the tibia, the patella between the femur and the tibia, and the metatarsus (sometimes called basitarsus) between the tibia and the tarsus (sometimes called telotarsus), making a total of seven segments.
649:
The trochanter articulates with the coxa but usually is attached rigidly to the femur. In some insects, its appearance may be confusing; for example it has two subsegments in the
Odonata. In parasitic Hymenoptera, the base of the femur has the appearance of a second trochanter.
692:
The tibia is the fourth section of the typical insect leg. As a rule, the tibia of an insect is slender in comparison to the femur, but it generally is at least as long and often longer. Near the distal end, there is generally a tibial spur, often two or more. In the
320:
The tarsus of spiders have claws at the end as well as a hook that helps with web-spinning. Spider legs can also serve sensory functions, with hairs that serve as touch receptors, as well as an organ on the tarsus that serves as a humidity receptor, known as the
459:
Except in species in which legs have been lost or become vestigial through evolutionary adaptation, adult insects have six legs, one pair attached to each of the three segments of the thorax. They have paired appendages on some other segments, in particular,
376:
are divided primitively into seven segments, which do not follow the naming system used in the other groups. They are: coxa, basis, ischium, merus, carpus, propodus, and dactylus. In some groups, some of the limb segments may be fused together. The claw
1013:
taxa have diverged from a simple body plan with many similar appendages which are serially homologous, into a variety of body plans with fewer segments equipped with specialised appendages. The homologies between these have been discovered by comparing
772:. Usually, the parempodia are bristly (setiform), but in a few species they are fleshy. Sometimes the parempodia are reduced in size so as to almost disappear. Above the unguitractor plate, the pretarsus expands forward into a median lobe, the
697:, the tibia of the foreleg bears a large apical spur that fits over a semicircular gap in the first segment of the tarsus. The gap is lined with comb-like bristles, and the insect cleans its antennae by drawing them through.
780:
452:, each with five components. In order from the body they are the coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus. Each is a single segment, except the tarsus which can be from three to seven segments, each referred to as a
502:, vary more than in the adults. As mentioned, some have prolegs as well as "true" thoracic legs. Some have no externally visible legs at all (though they have internal rudiments that emerge as adult legs at the final
381:) of a lobster or crab is formed by the articulation of the dactylus against an outgrowth of the propodus. Crustacean limbs also differ in being biramous, whereas all other extant arthropods have uniramous limbs.
960:
The majority of aquatic insects use their legs only for swimming (natatorial), though many species of immature insects swim by other means such as by wriggling, undulating, or expelling water in jets.
811:
generally have paired lobes or pulvilli, meaning "little cushions". There is a single pulvillus below each unguis. The pulvilli often have an arolium between them or otherwise a median bristle or
226:. A uniramous limb comprises a single series of segments attached end-to-end. A biramous limb, however, branches into two, and each branch consists of a series of segments attached end-to-end.
171:
and may only bend in one plane. This means that a greater number of segments is required to achieve the same kinds of movements that are possible in vertebrate animals, which have rotational
153:
arthropods but modern arthropods have eight or fewer. It has been argued that the ancestral leg need not have been so complex, and that other events, such as successive loss of function of a
768:, the parempodia are a symmetrical pair of structures arising from the outside (distal) surface of the unguitractor plate between the claws. It is present in many Hemiptera and almost all
731:
and certain insect larvae the tarsus also is single-segmented. Most modern insects have tarsi divided into subsegments (tarsomeres), usually about five. The actual number varies with the
257:(inner structures). Exopodites can be easily distinguished from exites by the possession of internal musculature. The exopodites can sometimes be missing in some crustacean groups (
1370:
Kukalova-Peck, J. (1992). "The "Uniramia" do not exist - the ground plan of the
Pterygota as revealed by Permian Diaphanopterodea from Russia (Insecta, Paleodictyopteroidea)".
549:
are adapted to scuttling beneath underwater stones and the like, whereas the adults have more gracile legs that are less of a burden during flight. Again, the young of the
1910:"Function of a Muscle Whose Apodeme Travels Through a Joint Moved by Other Muscles: Why the Retractor Unguis Muscle in Stick Insects is Tripartite and has no Antagonist"
822:
Insects control the ungues through muscle tension on a long tendon, the "retractor unguis" or "long tendon". In insect models of locomotion and motor control, such as
545:, the legs of larvae tend to resemble those of the adults in general, except in adaptations to their respective modes of life. For example, the legs of most immature
287:. It is now believed that several groups of arthropods evolved uniramous limbs independently from ancestors with biramous limbs, so this taxon is no longer used.
957:, are adapted for seizing prey that the insects feed on while flying or while sitting still on a plant; they are nearly incapable of using them for walking.
1529:
680:
legs because the typical leaping mechanism is to straighten the joint between the femur and the tibia, and the femur contains the necessary massive
145:
of leg segments between groups are difficult to prove and are the source of much argument. Some authors posit up to eleven segments per leg for the
624:
and have to do with how the leg attaches to the main exoskeleton of the insect. Such sclerites differ considerably between unrelated insects.
788:
1760:
932:
Other beetles with spectacularly muscular hind femora may not be saltatorial at all, but very clumsy; for example, particular species of
418:. In some millipedes, the first leg pair in males may be reduced to tiny hooks or stubs, while in others the first pair may be enlarged.
276:
are uniramous. In crustaceans, the first antennae are uniramous, but the second antennae are biramous, as are the legs in most species.
414:
forcipules. In most millipedes, one or two pairs of walking legs in adult males are modified into sperm-transferring structures called
925:; they have heavily bipinnately muscled femora and straight, long tibiae adapted to leaping and to some extent to defence by kicking.
815:, meaning the meeting place of the pulvilli. On the underside of the tarsal segments, there frequently are pulvillus-like organs or
553:
are called "crawlers" and they crawl around looking for a good place to feed, where they settle down and stay for life. Their later
641:
which is usually the larger part of the coxa. A meron is well developed in
Periplaneta, the Isoptera, Neuroptera and Lepidoptera.
2240:
1678:
Suzuki, Y; Palopoli, MF (Oct 2001). "Evolution of insect abdominal appendages: are prolegs homologous or convergent traits?".
2124:
1958:
1837:
1487:
2030:
1608:
Imms' General
Textbook of Entomology: Volume 1: Structure, Physiology and Development Volume 2: Classification and Biology
1019:
981:
750:, Protura and many insect larvae, the pretarsus is a single claw. On the pretarsus most insects have a pair of claws (
1615:
188:
200:
2134:
1555:"Patterning mechanisms and morphological diversity of spider appendages and their importance for spider evolution"
751:
426:
332:, but with the addition of a pre-tarsus beyond the tarsus. The claws of the scorpion are not truly legs, but are
322:
1178:
676:
In most insects, the femur is the largest region of the leg; it is especially conspicuous in many insects with
936:(Bruchinae) use their swollen hind legs for forcing their way out of the hard-shelled seeds of plants such as
2271:
1201:
677:
590:
586:
779:
534:, specialised, active, legged larvae, but they end their larval stage as legless maggots, for example the
2156:
146:
864:), rather than for digging, leaping, swimming, predation, or other similar activities. The legs of most
760:). Between the ungues, a median unguitractor plate supports the pretarsus. The plate is attached to the
2286:
2276:
2250:
1554:
1894:
Stanislav N Gorb. "Biological attachment devices: exploring nature's diversity for biomimetics Phil.
1758:
483:
insects do however have extra walking legs on their abdominal segments; these extra legs are called
2023:
1853:
Goel, S. C. (1972). "Notes on the structure of the unguitractor plate in
Heteroptera (Hemiptera)".
1082:
633:
300:
2281:
1721:
Galis, Frietson (1996). "The evolution of insects and vertebrates: homeobox genes and homology".
824:
739:
characteristically have 5-segmented fore- and mid-tarsi, but 4-segmented hind tarsi, whereas the
449:
2190:
2119:
2039:
973:
1799:
1477:
1433:& S. Koenemann (2001). "Developmental genetics and arthropod evolution: part I, on legs".
2114:
1983:
1948:
1829:
1635:(1994). "The role of the Distal-less gene in the development and evolution of insect limbs".
658:
395:
172:
1880:
Ross, Edward S. (1991). "Embioptera". In
Naumann, I. D.; Carne, P. B.; et al. (eds.).
852:
415:
8:
2109:
2063:
2016:
632:
The coxa is the proximal segment and functional base of the leg. It articulates with the
964:
305:
1866:
1791:
1703:
1660:
1458:
1415:
1398:
527:
161:
142:
1648:
2002:
1954:
1929:
1833:
1783:
1738:
1734:
1695:
1652:
1611:
1574:
1483:
1450:
1446:
638:
465:
461:
441:
1976:
1795:
1664:
1462:
621:
1921:
1862:
1775:
1759:
Friedemann, Katrin; Spangenberg, Rico; Yoshizawa, Kazunor; Beutel, Rolf G. (2013).
1730:
1707:
1687:
1644:
1566:
1519:
1442:
1430:
1410:
1379:
904:
681:
669:
561:, the legs of immature specimens are in effect smaller versions of the adult legs.
473:
1826:
True Bugs of the World (Hemiptera:Heteroptera): Classification and
Natural History
907:
Gyrinidae are long and adapted for grasping food or prey in quite a different way.
389:
2245:
2083:
1632:
1042:
929:(Alticini) also have powerful hind femora that enable them to leap spectacularly.
1504:
2201:
1761:"Evolution of attachment structures in the highly diverse Acercaria (Hexapoda)"
1341:
1099:
914:, are reduced so greatly that only two pairs of functional walking legs remain.
868:
are good examples. However, there are many specialized adaptations, including:
792:, front leg showing enlarged tarsomere, which contains the silk-spinning organs
718:
345:
296:
167:
In arthropods, each of the leg segments articulates with the next segment in a
1691:
1570:
1116:
2265:
1933:
1065:
996:
probably had three body regions, each with a unique combination of Hox genes.
992:) by up to three segments. Segments with maxillopeds have Hox gene 7. Fossil
800:) have an enlarged basal tarsomere on each of the front legs, containing the
736:
511:
499:
378:
362:
48:
2008:
705:
448:
Insects and their relatives are hexapods, having six legs, connected to the
2227:
2073:
1787:
1742:
1699:
1578:
1454:
989:
877:
873:
550:
542:
519:
340:
that is also found in spiders and is specialised for predation and mating.
1656:
1524:
2217:
2196:
2181:
2171:
2166:
2129:
2067:
1925:
1059:
954:
950:
933:
926:
922:
911:
892:
841:
769:
761:
740:
663:
535:
488:
309:
Diagram of a spider leg and pedipalp – the pedipalp has one fewer segment
230:
168:
1823:
2222:
2186:
1909:
1130:
918:
900:
797:
783:
747:
558:
523:
515:
495:. Such concepts are pervasive in current interpretations of phylogeny.
373:
280:
279:
For a time, possession of uniramous limbs was believed to be a shared,
150:
1996:
1779:
746:
The distal segment of the typical insect leg is the pretarsus. In the
1351:
1153:
1110:
1076:
1071:
1037:
1010:
993:
977:
938:
903:) are adapted to seizing and holding prey in one way, while those of
888:
881:
865:
861:
837:
672:
attachments, spines on tibiae painfully effective in a defensive kick
582:
531:
410:
406:
337:
273:
28:
24:
1383:
860:
The typical thoracic leg of an adult insect is adapted for running (
856:
Bruchine with powerful femora used for escape from hard-shelled seed
713:), showing tarsomeres and pretarsi with ungues, pulvilli and empodia
472:, all of which are derived from paired legs on each segment of some
349:, there are no metatarsi or pretarsi, leaving six segments per leg.
212:
Generalized external morphology of uniramous and biramous appendages
2176:
1475:
1346:
1093:
1048:
985:
969:
765:
710:
694:
617:
578:
431:
402:
366:
333:
329:
313:
284:
258:
154:
847:
436:
showing full leg anatomy, including plantulae under each tarsomere
2148:
2093:
2088:
2078:
946:
829:
808:
728:
724:
637:
where it articulates with the pleuron. The posterior lobe is the
507:
503:
32:
1429:
735:, which may be useful for diagnostic purposes. For example, the
365:, showing the segments; the ischium and merus are fused in many
357:
1898:
2008; 366(1870): 1557-1574 doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2172 1471-2962
1105:
1088:
1054:
1028:
1006:
896:
833:
554:
546:
492:
484:
469:
269:
262:
124:
1946:
526:
have thoracic legs, but no prolegs. Some insects that exhibit
732:
480:
40:
1502:
723:
The ancestral tarsus was a single segment and in the extant
569:
498:
In general, the legs of larval insects, particularly in the
35:. Many of the terms used for arthropod leg segments (called
2047:
1884:(2 ed.). Melbourne University Press. pp. 405–409.
1605:
1015:
1000:
988:
7, 8, and 9 correspond in these groups but are shifted (by
801:
283:, so uniramous arthropods were grouped into a taxon called
1476:
Pat
Willmer; Graham Stone; Ian Johnston (12 March 2009).
1973:
1824:
Schuh, Randall T. & Slater, James
Alexander (1995).
564:
249:. Other structures aside from the latter two are termed
1828:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p.
1630:
1992:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1595:
557:have no functional legs in most species. Among the
1975:
1855:Journal of Entomology Series A, General Entomology
1754:
1752:
43:origin, and may be confused with terms for bones:
1505:"Exopodites, Epipodites and Gills in Crustaceans"
1369:
616:Associated with the leg itself there are various
585:, has the following parts, in sequence from most
229:The external branch (ramus) of the appendages of
2263:
1592:
1907:
1879:
1749:
1469:
910:The forelegs of some butterflies, such as many
848:Variations in functional anatomy of insect legs
577:A representative insect leg, such as that of a
1677:
265:), and they are completely absent in insects.
2038:
2024:
1518:(2). Museum für Tierkunde Dresden: 229–254.
1503:Geoff A. Boxshall & Damià Jaume (2009).
241:, while the internal branch is known as the
1852:
764:of the flexor muscle of the ungues. In the
218:The appendages of arthropods may be either
2031:
2017:
1947:Novartis Foundation; Hall, Brian (2008).
1523:
1414:
1396:
876:(Gryllotalpidae) and some scarab beetle (
178:
1908:RADNIKOW, G.; BÄSSLER, U. (1991-05-01).
1552:
1001:Evolution and homology of arthropod legs
963:
851:
778:
704:
657:
568:
425:
388:
356:
304:
175:at the base of the fore and hind limbs.
16:Form of jointed appendage of arthropods
2264:
2241:Animal locomotion on the water surface
1967:
1606:Richards, O. W.; Davies, R.G. (1977).
1496:
1482:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 329.
2012:
1720:
1559:Arthropod Structure & Development
1512:Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny
880:) are adapted to burrowing in earth (
807:Under their pretarsi, members of the
743:have four tarsomeres on each tarsus.
620:around its base. Their functions are
565:Fundamental morphology of insect legs
1553:Pechmann, Matthias (November 2010).
1399:"Reflections on arthropod evolution"
1974:Brusca, R.C.; Brusca, G.J. (1990).
1479:Environmental Physiology of Animals
917:In most grasshoppers and crickets (
514:. In contrast, the larvae of other
506:). Examples include the maggots of
132:
104:
92:
80:
68:
52:
13:
1882:The Insects of Australia. Volume 1
1867:10.1111/j.1365-3032.1972.tb00124.x
1416:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1996.tb01659.x
1020:evolutionary developmental biology
982:evolutionary developmental biology
14:
2298:
1723:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1995:
1447:10.1046/j.1525-142X.2001.01038.x
1115:
1098:
1081:
1064:
1047:
942:in which they grew to adulthood.
668:, legs saltatorial, femora with
199:
187:
1940:
1914:Journal of Experimental Biology
1901:
1888:
1873:
1846:
1817:
1714:
1631:Panganiban, Grace; Nagy, Lisa;
1535:from the original on 2019-04-26
573:Diagram of a typical insect leg
1982:. Sinauer Associates. p.
1671:
1624:
1546:
1423:
1390:
1363:
328:The situation is identical in
290:
1:
1649:10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00151-2
1357:
1005:The embryonic body segments (
899:(Mantodea), and ambush bugs (
644:
530:begin their metamorphosis as
1735:10.1016/0169-5347(96)30038-4
384:
352:
7:
2157:Comparative foot morphology
1435:Evolution & Development
1372:Canadian Journal of Zoology
1335:
147:most recent common ancestor
10:
2303:
1953:. John Wiley. p. 29.
716:
439:
421:
294:
2236:
2210:
2147:
2102:
2056:
2046:
2040:Animal locomotion on land
1692:10.1007/s00427-001-0182-3
1571:10.1016/j.asd.2010.07.007
891:forelegs of mantidflies (
700:
687:
653:
393:Seven-segmented legs of
301:Glossary of spider terms
976:of different groups of
627:
253:(outer structures) and
164:gains of leg segments.
2120:Rectilinear locomotion
997:
857:
793:
714:
673:
574:
437:
399:
369:
336:, a different kind of
310:
179:Biramous and uniramous
173:ball-and-socket joints
2115:Undulatory locomotion
1525:10.3897/asp.67.e31699
967:
921:), the hind legs are
855:
840:), or stick insects (
782:
708:
661:
572:
429:
396:Scutigera coleoptrata
392:
360:
308:
23:is a form of jointed
2272:Arthropod morphology
1926:10.1242/jeb.157.1.87
1610:. Berlin: Springer.
2110:Concertina movement
2064:Arboreal locomotion
804:-producing glands.
31:, usually used for
1805:on 25 January 2014
1403:Biol. J. Linn. Soc
1397:Fryer, G. (1996).
998:
858:
794:
715:
674:
575:
528:hypermetamorphosis
438:
400:
370:
311:
160:, could result in
2287:Trilobite anatomy
2277:Animal locomotion
2259:
2258:
2143:
2142:
2003:Arthropods portal
1960:978-0-470-51566-2
1839:978-0-8014-2066-5
1780:10.1111/cla.12030
1489:978-1-4443-0922-5
1333:
1332:
1243:collum (no legs)
1186:mandibles (jaws)
1133:(jaws and fangs)
905:whirligig beetles
442:Insect morphology
281:derived character
2294:
2054:
2053:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2000:
1999:
1988:
1987:
1981:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1905:
1899:
1896:Trans. R. Soc. A
1892:
1886:
1885:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1804:
1798:. Archived from
1765:
1756:
1747:
1746:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1633:Carroll, Sean B.
1628:
1622:
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1603:
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1427:
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1418:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1367:
1119:
1102:
1085:
1068:
1051:
1025:
1024:
945:The legs of the
872:The forelegs of
670:bipennate muscle
233:is known as the
203:
191:
134:
106:
94:
82:
70:
54:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2293:
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2291:
2262:
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2255:
2246:Fish locomotion
2232:
2206:
2139:
2098:
2084:Knuckle-walking
2042:
2037:
2001:
1994:
1991:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1945:
1941:
1906:
1902:
1893:
1889:
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1822:
1818:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1763:
1757:
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1729:(10): 402–403.
1719:
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1672:
1637:Current Biology
1629:
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1507:
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1395:
1391:
1384:10.1139/z92-037
1368:
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1360:
1338:
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1097:
1091:
1080:
1074:
1063:
1057:
1046:
1043:Trilobitomorpha
1040:
1033:
1031:
1009:) of different
1003:
980:, as traced by
850:
721:
703:
690:
656:
647:
630:
567:
474:common ancestor
444:
424:
387:
355:
303:
293:
216:
215:
214:
213:
209:
208:
207:
204:
196:
195:
192:
181:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2300:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2282:Spider anatomy
2279:
2274:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2251:Volant animals
2248:
2243:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2225:
2220:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2153:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2060:
2058:
2051:
2044:
2043:
2036:
2035:
2028:
2021:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1990:
1989:
1966:
1959:
1939:
1900:
1887:
1872:
1861:(2): 167–173.
1845:
1838:
1816:
1774:(2): 170–201.
1748:
1713:
1686:(10): 486–92.
1680:Dev Genes Evol
1670:
1643:(8): 671–675.
1623:
1616:
1591:
1565:(6): 453–467.
1545:
1495:
1488:
1468:
1441:(5): 343–354.
1422:
1389:
1378:(2): 236–255.
1361:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
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1311:
1310:
1307:
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1301:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1290:
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1281:
1278:
1275:
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1231:
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1227:
1224:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1166:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1151:
1148:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1120:
1103:
1086:
1069:
1052:
1035:
1002:
999:
968:Expression of
962:
961:
958:
943:
930:
915:
908:
885:
849:
846:
719:Tarsal formula
702:
699:
689:
686:
655:
652:
646:
643:
629:
626:
614:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
566:
563:
518:, such as the
423:
420:
386:
383:
354:
351:
297:Spider anatomy
292:
289:
211:
210:
205:
198:
197:
193:
186:
185:
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15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2299:
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2249:
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2239:
2238:
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2229:
2226:
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2221:
2219:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2162:Arthropod leg
2160:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2095:
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2090:
2087:
2085:
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2080:
2077:
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2069:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2022:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2004:
1998:
1993:
1985:
1980:
1979:
1978:Invertebrates
1970:
1962:
1956:
1952:
1951:
1943:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1891:
1883:
1876:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1841:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1755:
1753:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1717:
1709:
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1701:
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1674:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
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1638:
1634:
1627:
1619:
1617:0-412-61390-5
1613:
1609:
1602:
1600:
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1596:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1549:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1499:
1491:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1472:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1431:Schram, F. R.
1426:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1362:
1353:
1350:
1348:
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1343:
1340:
1339:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1229:2nd maxillae
1228:
1226:2nd maxillae
1225:
1223:2nd maxillae
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1209:1st maxillae
1208:
1206:1st maxillae
1205:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1167:
1164:2nd antennae
1163:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1142:1st antennae
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1095:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1061:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1044:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
974:body segments
971:
966:
959:
956:
952:
948:
944:
941:
940:
935:
931:
928:
924:
920:
916:
913:
909:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
883:
879:
875:
874:mole crickets
871:
870:
869:
867:
863:
854:
845:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
826:
820:
818:
814:
810:
805:
803:
799:
796:Webspinners (
791:
790:
785:
781:
777:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
758:
754:
749:
744:
742:
738:
737:Pterogeniidae
734:
730:
726:
720:
712:
707:
698:
696:
685:
684:musculature.
683:
679:
671:
667:
665:
660:
651:
642:
640:
635:
625:
623:
619:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
595:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
571:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
547:Ephemeroptera
544:
539:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:Endopterygota
496:
494:
490:
486:
482:
477:
475:
471:
467:
463:
457:
455:
451:
446:
443:
435:
433:
428:
419:
417:
412:
408:
404:
398:
397:
391:
382:
380:
375:
368:
364:
363:squat lobster
361:The leg of a
359:
350:
348:
347:
341:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
318:
315:
307:
302:
298:
288:
286:
282:
277:
275:
271:
266:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
225:
221:
202:
190:
176:
174:
170:
165:
163:
159:
157:
152:
148:
144:
140:
138:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
102:
98:
90:
86:
78:
74:
66:
62:
58:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
21:arthropod leg
2161:
2074:Hand-walking
1977:
1969:
1949:
1942:
1920:(1): 87–99.
1917:
1913:
1903:
1895:
1890:
1881:
1875:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1825:
1819:
1807:. Retrieved
1800:the original
1771:
1767:
1726:
1722:
1716:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1640:
1636:
1626:
1607:
1582:. Retrieved
1562:
1558:
1548:
1537:. Retrieved
1515:
1511:
1498:
1478:
1471:
1438:
1434:
1425:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1004:
990:heterochrony
937:
934:bean weevils
927:Flea beetles
878:Scarabaeidae
859:
823:
821:
816:
812:
806:
795:
787:
773:
756:
752:
745:
722:
709:Robber fly (
691:
675:
662:
648:
631:
615:
576:
543:Exopterygota
540:
520:Scarabaeidae
510:or grubs of
497:
478:
458:
453:
447:
445:
430:
401:
394:
372:The legs of
371:
344:
342:
327:
323:tarsal organ
319:
312:
278:
268:The legs of
267:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
228:
223:
219:
217:
166:
155:
141:
136:
128:
120:
116:
112:
108:
100:
96:
88:
84:
76:
72:
64:
60:
56:
44:
36:
20:
18:
2218:Canine gait
2191:Facultative
2177:Unguligrade
2172:Plantigrade
2167:Digitigrade
2135:Other modes
2130:Sidewinding
2068:Brachiation
1409:(1): 1–55.
1060:Chelicerata
955:damselflies
951:dragonflies
923:saltatorial
912:Nymphalidae
893:Mantispidae
866:cockroaches
842:Phasmatodea
789:Embia major
770:Heteroptera
755:, singular
741:Cerylonidae
678:saltatorial
664:Acanthacris
536:Acroceridae
489:Lepidoptera
374:crustaceans
291:Chelicerata
231:crustaceans
169:hinge joint
2266:Categories
2228:Human gait
2223:Horse gait
1809:25 January
1768:Cladistics
1539:2012-01-14
1358:References
1183:mandibles
1131:chelicerae
1011:arthropods
994:trilobites
919:Orthoptera
901:Phymatinae
825:Drosophila
798:Embioptera
784:Webspinner
748:Collembola
717:See also:
666:ruficornis
645:Trochanter
612:pretarsus.
600:trochanter
559:Apterygota
541:Among the
524:Dytiscidae
516:Coleoptera
462:mouthparts
440:See also:
411:centipedes
407:millipedes
295:See also:
247:endopodite
143:Homologies
113:metatarsus
61:trochanter
29:arthropods
2202:Quadruped
1934:0022-0949
1584:20 August
1352:Tube foot
1329:5th legs
1323:4th legs
1317:9th legs
1309:4th legs
1303:3rd legs
1297:8th legs
1289:3rd legs
1286:3rd legs
1283:2nd legs
1277:7th legs
1269:2nd legs
1266:2nd legs
1263:1st legs
1257:6th legs
1249:1st legs
1246:1st legs
1240:4th legs
1237:5th legs
1220:3rd legs
1217:4th legs
1197:2nd legs
1194:3rd legs
1179:mandibles
1175:1st legs
1172:2nd legs
1154:pedipalps
1150:1st legs
1139:antennae
1136:antennae
1127:antennae
1111:Crustacea
1077:Myriapoda
1072:Centipede
1038:Trilobite
1034:segment)
986:Hox genes
978:arthropod
970:Hox genes
939:Erythrina
889:raptorial
882:fossorial
862:cursorial
838:Acrididae
817:plantulae
682:bipennate
622:articular
618:sclerites
583:cockroach
551:Coccoidea
454:tarsomere
403:Myriapods
385:Myriapoda
353:Crustacea
338:appendage
334:pedipalps
330:scorpions
274:myriapods
259:amphipods
239:exopodite
224:uniramous
194:Uniramous
123:(meaning
47:(meaning
39:) are of
37:podomeres
25:appendage
2211:Specific
1950:Homology
1796:86195785
1788:34781597
1743:21237897
1700:11702198
1665:22980014
1579:20696272
1530:Archived
1463:25997101
1455:11710766
1347:Tentacle
1336:See also
1202:maxillae
1094:Hexapoda
897:mantises
813:empodium
766:Neoptera
711:Asilidae
695:Apocrita
589:to most
587:proximal
579:housefly
532:planidia
493:Symphyta
466:antennae
432:Zabalius
422:Insects
416:gonopods
367:decapods
314:Arachnid
285:Uniramia
220:biramous
206:Biramous
162:parallel
137:patellae
121:dactylus
2149:Anatomy
2125:Rolling
2103:Legless
2094:Walking
2089:Running
2079:Jumping
1708:1163446
1657:7953552
1007:somites
972:in the
947:Odonata
834:locusts
830:Diptera
809:Diptera
774:arolium
762:apodeme
729:Diplura
725:Protura
634:pleuron
555:instars
512:weevils
504:ecdysis
485:prolegs
346:Limulus
270:insects
263:isopods
255:endites
243:endopod
129:patella
101:ischium
33:walking
2197:Triped
2182:Uniped
2057:Legged
1957:
1932:
1836:
1794:
1786:
1741:
1706:
1698:
1663:
1655:
1614:
1577:
1486:
1461:
1453:
1106:Shrimp
1089:Insect
1055:Spider
1029:Somite
984:. The
949:, the
757:unguis
753:ungues
701:Tarsus
609:tarsus
591:distal
481:larval
450:thorax
434:aridus
251:exites
235:exopod
151:extant
125:finger
117:carpus
109:ischia
89:tarsus
85:tibiae
73:femora
2187:Biped
2050:class
1803:(PDF)
1792:S2CID
1764:(PDF)
1704:S2CID
1661:S2CID
1533:(PDF)
1508:(PDF)
1459:S2CID
1032:(body
1016:genes
733:taxon
688:Tibia
654:Femur
639:meron
606:tibia
603:femur
508:flies
479:Some
470:cerci
379:chela
158:-gene
97:tarsi
77:tibia
65:femur
57:coxae
41:Latin
2048:Gait
1955:ISBN
1930:ISSN
1834:ISBN
1811:2014
1784:PMID
1739:PMID
1696:PMID
1653:PMID
1612:ISBN
1586:2020
1575:PMID
1484:ISBN
1451:PMID
1342:Limb
1200:1st
953:and
887:The
802:silk
628:Coxa
597:coxa
522:and
491:and
468:and
299:and
272:and
261:and
45:coxa
19:The
1984:669
1922:doi
1918:157
1863:doi
1776:doi
1731:doi
1688:doi
1684:211
1645:doi
1567:doi
1520:doi
1443:doi
1411:doi
1380:doi
1314:10
1018:in
895:),
832:),
581:or
343:In
245:or
237:or
222:or
156:Hox
149:of
139:).
133:pl.
127:),
111:),
105:pl.
99:),
93:pl.
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81:pl.
75:),
69:pl.
59:),
53:pl.
49:hip
27:of
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
