1949:(Parliament of Germany) amended Article 146 and the Preamble of the Basic Law to state that German unification had now been fully achieved, while also adding a further clause 143(3) to entrench in the Basic Law the irreversibility of acts of expropriation undertaken by the Soviet occupying powers between 1945 and 1949. Hence when the GDR's nominal accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 came into effect on 3 October 1990, Article 23 was no longer in place. Strictly therefore, German reunification was effected by the Unification Treaty between two sovereign states, the GDR and the Federal Republic, and not by the GDR's prior declaration of accession under Article 23, although the former Article 23 was agreed by both parties to the Treaty as setting the constitutional model by which unification would be achieved.
2381:(one of only four women on the 70-strong panel) was eventually successful in a largely lone campaign to gain constitutional protection for sex equality. Notwithstanding this, there was a striking disjunction between the social context of two-parent, family households assumed in the Basic Law, and the everyday reality of German society in 1949, where over half of adult women were unmarried, separated or widowed, where the effective working population was overwhelmingly female, and where millions of expellees, refugees and displaced families were still without permanent accommodation. It was not until 1994 that constitutional protection was extended against discrimination on grounds of disability, while discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation is still not disallowed within the Basic Law.
2327:(special way): the proposition that Germany had followed a path to modernity radically different from that of its European neighbours, that had rendered it particularly susceptible to militaristic, anti-humanitarian, totalitarian and genocidal impulses. The theory is much contested, but formed the major context for the original formulation of the Basic Law. The Basic Law sought "to correct the course of Germany's Sonderweg—to reclaim the German State from its special historical path, and to realise in postwar West Germany the Liberal Democratic Republic that had proved unachievable for the Frankfurt patriots of 1848 or the Weimar revolutionaries of 1919." In interpreting it, the Federal Constitutional Court seemed to "have its eye on a Germany that might have been".
2001:
2428:. The Allies maintained in fact that sovereign authorities wielding state powers no longer existed in the former German Reich; so, as the 'highest authority' for Germany, they were entitled to assume all sovereign powers without limitation of duration or scope, and could legitimately impose whatever measures on the German people within German national territory as any government could legally do on its own people—including validly ceding parts of that territory and people to another country. They argued furthermore that international conventions constraining occupying powers in wartime from enforcing fundamental changes of governmental system, economic system or social institutions within the territory under their control—the
3208:, the two states discussed the possibility of drafting a new common constitution followed by a plebiscite, as envisioned in Article 146, but this path was ultimately not taken. Instead the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic decided to keep the Basic Law, amended in accordance with the terms of the Two plus Four Treaty, because it had proved to be effective in West Germany. To facilitate reunification and to reassure other states, the FRG made some changes to the Basic Law. Article 23 was fulfilled by reunification itself, and then withdrawn to indicate that there were no other parts of Germany that existed outside of the unified territory.
2595:
499:(Article 93 paragraph 1 No. 4a). Article 1 of these fundamental rights, which states that human dignity shall be inviolable and all state authority shall respect and protect it, cannot be changed or removed. The same is true of Article 20, which enshrines fundamental principles of the state—for example, that Germany is a state of law and a democracy. Laws which limit these basic rights are in no case allowed to affect the essence of these rights (Article 19 paragraph 2). Some people think every basic right cannot be changed or removed. However, that is a misconception as other fundamental rights are not protected by Article 79 paragraph 3 (
2013:
2664:) which is both an independent constitutional organ and at the same time part of the judiciary in the sectors of constitutional law and public international law. Its judgements have the legal status of ordinary law. It is required by law to declare statutes as null and void if they are in violation of the Basic Law. Although judgements of the Federal Constitutional Court are supreme over all other counts, it is not a court of appeal; the FCC only hears constitutional cases, and maintains sole jurisdiction in all such cases, to the exclusion of all other courts.
2843:, the “final stroke” or settlement on criminal affairs. While politicians raised concerns over granting amnesty to perpetrators who committed or abetted murderous policies under the Nazis, the Bundestag ended up approving Article 103, including an extension of a statute of limitations for Nazi-related murders. When the Basic Law extended its scope into East German regions upon reunification in 1990, concerns regarding Article 103 were enlivened. At the time, courts in the new unified state dealt with the legal dilemma of liability of border guards from the
1993:
1770:, maintaining that there remained separated parts of 'Germany as a whole' in the form of German peoples living outside the territory under the control of the Federal Republic of 1949, with whom the Federal Republic was constitutionally bound to pursue reunification, and in respect of whom mechanisms were provided by which such other parts of Germany might subsequently declare their accession to the Basic Law. Since initially the Basic Law did not apply for all of Germany, its legal provisions were only valid in its field of application (
2187:
2449:
approval of all the Allies. From the 1950s onwards, however, a school of German legal scholars developed the alternative view that the Allies had only taken custody of German sovereignty while the former German state had been rendered powerless to act, and that consequently, once a freely constituted German government had come into being in the form of the
Federal Republic, it could resume the identity and legal status of the former German Reich without reference to the Allied Powers.
542:
491:) are guaranteed in Germany by the Federal Constitution and in some state constitutions. In the Basic Law, most fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the same name (Articles 1 to 19). They are subjective public rights with the constitutional rank which bind all institutions and functions of the state. In cases where a federal or state law or public ordinance is alleged to be in violation of these fundamental rights, the Basic Law provides the
2396:
as embedding in the Basic Law both the proposition that
Germany in 1949 was neither unified nor free, and also as binding the new Federal Republic to a duty to pursue the creation of such a free and unified Germany "on behalf of those Germans to whom participation was denied". The Basic Law potentially provided two routes for the establishment of a reborn and unified German state: either under Article 23 whereby 'other parts of Germany' over and above the named
1713:
2615:" in case of political instability (such as those provided for by Article 81). Under Article 59 paragraph 1, the Federal President represents the Federal Republic of Germany in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats. Furthermore, all federal laws must be signed by the President before they can come into effect; however, he/she can only veto a law that he believes to violate the constitution.
2288:, and in particular, is no longer in Supreme Command of the armed forces. Indeed, the original text of the Basic Law of 1949 made no provision for federal armed forces; only in 1955 was the Basic Law amended with Article 87a to allow the creation of a German military for the Federal Republic. The government now depends only on the parliament; while the military, by contrast with their status in the Weimar Republic, are entirely under parliamentary authority.
2706:
the constitution. Under the Basic Law the fundamentals of the constitution in
Articles 1 and 20, the fundamental rights in Articles 1 to 19, and key elements of the federalist state, cannot be removed. Especially important is the protection of the division of state powers into the legislative, executive and judicial branches. This is provided by Article 20. A clear separation of powers was considered imperative to prevent measures like an over-reaching
2511:), and had the general effect of removing or rewording all the clauses (including Article 23) on which the Federal Constitutional Court had relied in support of its claim to the continued legal identity of the German Reich as an 'overall state'. Specifically too, the Basic Law was then amended such that the constitutional duty of the German people to strive for unity and freedom was stated as now fully realised, and consequently that the expanded '
261:
245:
2021:
3192:, or remove or otherwise affect the essence of, any of the fundamental rights originally specified in Articles 1 to 19, but may clarify, extend or refine those original principles and fundamental rights. Where however Articles 1 to 20 have subsequently been amended or extended, any additional words and phrases are not protected by the eternity clause but may be further amended or removed through the normal constitutional process.
1699:
2299:), i.e. the election of a new chancellor. The new procedure was intended to provide more stability than under the Weimar Constitution, when extremists on the left and right would vote to remove a chancellor, without agreeing on a new one, creating a leadership vacuum. In addition it was possible for the parliament to remove individual ministers by a vote of distrust, while it now has to vote against the cabinet as a whole.
468:
2310:
within
Germany, that were nevertheless different from the generality of rules and principles of international law as they might operate between Germany and other nations. Hence, the Federal Constitutional Court could recognise East Germany as a sovereign state in international law in the second sense, while still asserting that it was not a "sovereign state in international law" within Germany itself.
1937:, under which the Allied Powers had relinquished their residual German sovereignty. So, on the date of accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany Article 23 was repealed, representing an explicit commitment under Two-Plus-Four Treaty that, following the unification of East Germany, West Germany and Berlin, no "other parts of Germany" remained in east or west to which the
3201:
important reform was the introduction in 1968 of emergency competencies, for example
Article 115 paragraph (1). This was done by a grand coalition of the two main political parties (CDU/CSU and SPD) and was accompanied by heated debate. In the following year there were changes to the articles regarding the distribution of taxes between federal government and the states of Germany.
2998:
the constitutional court. In the Weimar
Republic, the public image of political parties was clearly negative and they were often regarded as vile. At the same time there was no obligation to adhere to democratic standards (in contrast, the Basic Law stipulates that parties' "... internal organisation must conform to democratic principles", which precludes any party using the
2641:, consisting of ministers appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's suggestion. While every minister governs his or her department autonomously, the Chancellor may issue overriding policy guidelines. The Chancellor is elected for a full term of the Bundestag and can only be dismissed by parliament electing a successor in a "constructive vote of no confidence".
1797:) at a later date. Therefore, although the Basic Law was considered provisional, it allowed more parts of Germany to join its field of application. On one side, it gave the Federal Republic of Germany—composed as it was in 1949—no right to negotiate, reject or deny another German state's declaration of its accession to the FRG, subject to the FRG's recognising that state
2080:. These papers—amongst other points—summoned the Ministerpräsidenten to arrange a constitutional assembly, that should work out a democratic and federal constitution for a West German state. According to Frankfurt Document No 1, the constitution should specify a central power of German government, but nevertheless respect the administration of the
42:
2356:) were inherently in conflict with one another, and the Parliamentary Council drafting the Basic Law were well aware that their militantly pro-democratic ideals were far from generally shared in the bleak context of Germany in 1949. Hence they built into the Basic Law a strong instrument for guardianship of the "
2226:, all state power is directly bound to guarantee these basic rights. Article 1 of the Basic Law, which establishes this principle that "human dignity is inviolable" and that human rights are directly applicable law, as well as the general principles of the state in Article 20, which guarantees democracy,
2493:
claim that the German Reich continued to exist as an 'overall state' such that the duty to strive for future German unity could not be abandoned while East and West
Germany remained disunited, albeit that without any institutional organs of itself the 'overall' Reich was currently not capable of action.
3211:
The question of "using" Article 146 to draw a new constitution, and hold a referendum, was left to the twelfth (and first all-German) Bundestag, which after consideration decided against a new draft. However, the
Bundestag passed the constitutional reform of 1994, a minor change, but still fulfilling
2997:
In contrast to Weimar, political parties are explicitly mentioned in the constitution, i.e., officially recognized as important participants in politics. Parties are obliged to adhere to the democratic foundations of the German state. Parties found in violation of this requirement may be abolished by
2855:
had to decide whether there existed a violation of an inadmissibility of retroactive punishment in the criminal statute. Since
Article 103 only permitted prosecution for an offense when it occurred under the applicable law, the Constitutional Court rejected the appeals. The prohibition of retroactive
2368:
The Basic Law places at its head a guarantee of inviolable fundamental rights. Initially it was intended to limit these to classic formulations of civil freedoms, as with equality before the law, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of occupation and freedom of religious conscience. In the
421:
In the preamble to the Basic Law, its adoption was declared as an action of the "German people", and
Article 20 states "All state authority is derived from the people". These statements embody the constitutional principles that 'Germany' is identical with the German people, and that the German people
1894:
between East Germany and West Germany, the Federal Constitutional Court justified the recognition of East Germany as a valid German state, on the basis that this would enable the GDR in the future to declare accession to the Basic Law under Article 23. But the Court then explicitly acknowledged that
1803:
and being satisfied that the declaration of accession resulted from the free self-determination of its people; while on the other side an acceding state would have to accept the Basic Law and all laws so far legislated under the institutions of the FRG as they were. As the Federal Republic could not
3119:
Although this is not explicitly spelled out in the Basic Law, a number of Constitutional Court cases in the 1990s established that the military may not be deployed by the government outside of NATO territory without a specific resolution of parliament, which describes the details of the mission and
2506:
of the GDR did indeed declare its accession to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law, but postdated to come into effect on 3 October 1990, and conditional on fundamental amendments being made to the Basic Law in the interim. These amendments were required to implement the series of
2496:
According to the 1973 decision of the Federal Constitutional Court, Article 23 of the Basic Law required the Federal Republic to be "legally open" to the accession of those former parts of Germany who were then organised into the German Democratic Republic, and they noted that this implied that the
2395:
As adopted by West Germany in 1949 as an interim constitution, the preamble of the Basic Law looked forward explicitly to a future free and united German state: "The entire German people is called upon to accomplish, by free self-determination, the unity and freedom of Germany." This was understood
2364:
the Federal Constitutional Court not only has jurisdiction in constitutional matters, but also exclusive jurisdiction in such matters; all other courts must refer constitutional cases to it. The intention of the framers of the Basic Law was that this court would range widely against any tendency to
2309:
shall be an integral part of federal law". The latter article was included in deference to the post-war actions of the occupying Western powers; but had the unintended consequence that the Federal Constitutional Court tended to define "rules of international law" as applicable to German federal law
2084:
and it should contain provisions and guarantees of individual freedom and individual rights of the German people in respect to their government. With the specific request of a federal structure of a future German state the Western Powers followed German constitutional tradition since the foundation
2705:
The Weimar Constitution did not institute a court with similar powers. When the Basic Law is amended, this has to be done explicitly; the concerning article must be cited. Under Weimar the constitution could be amended without notice; any law passed with a two-thirds majority vote was not bound by
2611:
integrative role and the controlling function of upholding the law and the constitution. It has also a "political reserve function" for times of crisis in the parliamentary system of government. The Federal President gives direction to general political and societal debates and has some important "
2501:
German State and as a valid state in international relations (albeit without then according it within West Germany with the status of a separate sovereign state) could be interpreted as furthering the long-term objective of eventual German unification, rather than as contradicting it. On 23 August
2346:
in his "illegal" seizure of dictatorial powers. Consequently, following the death of Hitler in 1945 and the subsequent capitulation of the German Armed Forces, the national institutions and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct,
1889:
The Basic Law, in its original form, maintained the continuing existence of a larger Germany and German people, only parts of whom were currently organised within the Federal Republic. Nevertheless, the full extent of the implied wider German nation is nowhere defined in the Basic Law, although it
422:
act constitutionally as the primary institution of the German state. Where the Basic Law refers to the territory under the jurisdiction of this German state, it refers to it as the 'federal territory', so avoiding any inference of there being a constitutionally defined 'German national territory'.
3220:
under Article 3, and environmental protection was made a policy objective of the state in the new Article 20a. Article 3 was also reworded to ban discrimination on grounds of disability. In 1992, membership in the European Union was institutionalised (new Article 23). For the privatisation of the
2492:
sovereign jurisdiction over East Germany. The Treaty was challenged in the Federal Constitutional court, as apparently contradicting the overriding aspirations of the Basic Law for a unified German state; but the Treaty's legality was upheld by the Court, heavily qualified by a reassertion of the
2461:
adopted a mirror image version of this claim, being framed in anticipation of a future all-German constitution on its own political terms, but it was replaced with a new constitution in 1968 that made no references to a wider national German nation, and from that date the GDR maintained that from
2448:
envisaged that an eventual self-governing state would emerge from the wreckage of WWII covering 'Germany as a whole', but that this new state would have no claim to sovereignty other than as derived from the sovereignty then being assumed by the Allies, and its constitution would also require the
1873:
then opened the way for the government of the Saar Protectorate to declare its accession to the West German state under Article 23, including the new Saarland into the field of application of the Basic Law. The Saar held no separate referendum on its accession. With effect from 1 January 1957 the
506:
According to this regulation the Federal Constitutional Court can be called not only because of a violation of fundamental rights, but also by violation "of the rights set out in Article 20 paragraph 4 and Articles 33, 38, 101, 103 and 104". Hence, these rights are called the rights identical to
3019:
to war service (Article 4), and prohibited the Federal Republic from activities preparing for or engaging in aggressive war (Article 26). These provisions remain in force. Also in the 1949 Basic Law, Article 24 empowered the federal government to join international systems for mutual collective
3239:
The most controversial debate arose concerning the limitation of the right to asylum in 1993 as in the current version of Article 16a. This change was later challenged and confirmed in a judgment by the constitutional court. Another controversy was spawned by the limitation of the right to the
3200:
The Basic Law had been amended 50 times as of 2003. Important changes to the Basic Law were the re-introduction of conscription and the establishment of the Bundeswehr in 1956. Therefore, several articles were introduced into the constitution, e.g., Articles 12a, 17, 45a-c, 65a, 87a-c. Another
2610:
runs the government and the day-to-day affairs of state. However, the German President's role is more than merely ceremonial. By his or her actions and public appearances, the Federal President represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. The President's office has an
2046:
of the three western occupying powers (US, United Kingdom, France) and the three Western neighbours of Germany (Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg) was debating the political future of the three western occupation zones of Germany. The negotiations ended with the conclusion that a democratic and
389:
would adopt a proper constitution, enacted under the provisions of Article 146 of the Basic Law, which stipulates that such a constitution must be "freely adopted by the German people". Nevertheless, although the amended Basic Law was approved by all four Allied Powers in 1990 (who thereby
2365:
slip back toward non-democratic ways: "a strict but benevolent guardian of an immature democracy that cannot quite trust itself". As such the Federal Constitutional Court had the power to ban political parties whose objectives or actions threatened the 'free democratic basic order".
394:), it was never submitted to a popular vote, neither in 1949 nor in 1990. However, the Basic Law as passed in 1949 also contained Article 23 which provided for "other parts of Germany" to "join the area of applicability of the Basic Law" which was the provision that was used for
2347:
such that the Basic Law could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity. Nevertheless, although the Weimar Republic was now wholly irretrievable, avoiding its perceived constitutional weaknesses represented the predominant concern for the framers of the Basic Law.
3120:
limits its term. There are also strict restrictions on the intervention of the military within Germany (i.e. a ban of the military being used for police-type duties), which generally only allow the military to act in unarmed roles within Germany (such as disaster relief).
2920:(states) and participates in federal legislation. The Bundesrat's power has grown over the years, as the fields of federal legislation were extended at the expense of state legislation. In return, the number of laws requiring the assent of the Bundesrat was also extended.
2763:, of federal military criminal courts having jurisdiction only in a state of defense or on soldiers serving abroad, and of a federal disciplinary court. Article 92 establishes that all courts other than the federal courts established under the Basic Law are courts of the
2897:
The main body of the legislative branch is Germany's parliament, the Bundestag, which enacts federal legislation, including the budget. Each member of the Bundestag has the right to initiate legislation, as do the cabinet and the Bundesrat. The Bundestag also elects the
1933:) envisaged states within East Germany being included into the field of application of the Basic Law, but subject to the Basic Law first being amended in accordance with both the previously negotiated Unification Treaty between East and West Germany, and also the
2952:
as new chancellor. Surprisingly, two representatives of CDU/CSU voted for SPD's Willy Brandt so that the vote failed. Nevertheless, the coalition had no majority in the Bundestag, so that a new election was necessary. It was later revealed that the East German
2092:
were reluctant to fulfill what was expected from them, as they anticipated that the formal foundation of a West German state would mean a permanent disruption of German unity. A few days later they convened a conference of their own on Rittersturz ridge near
2416:
in creating a new permanent constitution that would replace the Basic Law. Adoption of a constitution under Article 146 would have implied that the legal validity of a unified German State would rest on "a free decision by the German people" as a whole.
2174:, but at the same time decided that it would still come into force in Bavaria if two-thirds of the other Länder ratified it. On 23 May 1949, in a solemn session of the Parliamentary Council, the German Basic Law was signed and promulgated. The time of
3163:—the words are to be understood meaning votes on legislative issues—are, by now, common practice on the level of the Länder. Claims of extending this practice also to the federal level have an undisputed constitutional basis in the Article 20, being
1874:
Federal Republic regarded itself as including almost all of Western Germany such that the only "other parts of Germany" to which Article 23 might be extended were now to the east, hence relinquishing all claims to those western parts of the former
2452:
From the 1950s, the claim that there was a single continuing German Reich, and that in some sense the Federal Republic and the Federal Republic alone could represent that Reich, was adopted both by the Federal Government itself and by the
2874:), and that a relative or a person in the confidence of the prisoner must be notified of a judicial decision imposing detention. The German Constitution (i.e. the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany) unmistakably outlines the
4171:
3159:. Yet Article 20 states that "All state authority is derived from the people. It shall be exercised by the people through elections and other votes and through specific legislative, executive and judicial bodies". These
3304:
Translated by Christian Tomuschat, David P Currie, Donald P Kommers and Raymond Kerr, in cooperation with the Language Service of the German Bundestag. The translation includes the amendment(s) to the Act by the Act of
2154:
in Bonn on 8 May 1949—the museum was the only intact building in Bonn large enough to house the assembly—and after being approved by the occupying powers on 12 May 1949, it was ratified by the parliaments of all the
2839:, or the state molded by the rule of law. Thus, criminal justice issues such as amnesty towards former Nazis, were encompassed by Article 103’s ban on retroactive punishment. This was also echoed by the concept of
2690:
individual complaint – a suit brought by a person alleging that a law or any action of government violated his or her constitutional rights. All possible solutions in the regular courts must have been exhausted
2940:
governments. However, early elections have been called three times (1972, 1982, and 2005). The last two occasions were considered controversial moves and were referred to the constitutional court for review.
2902:, the head of government, usually (but not necessarily) the leader of the majority party or the party with a plurality of seats in the Bundestag, and takes part in the election of the Federal President.
2141:
On 1 September 1948 the Parlamentarischer Rat assembled and began working on the exact wording of the Basic Law. The 65 members of the Parlamentarischer Rat were elected by the parliaments of the German
1808:, nor could accession under Article 23 be achieved by international treaty with third party states, although the Federal Constitutional Court recognised that a future declared accession could be framed
1772:
480:
337:
320:
288:
2968:
examined the case, and decided that the vote was valid, but with reservations. It was decided that a vote of confidence could be so engineered only if it were based on an actual legislative impasse.
4225:
1814:
as a compact between the Federal Republic and the acceding state. It remained unclear whether accession under Article 23 could be achieved by a part of Germany whose government was not recognised
3891:
1014:
1009:
1004:
1923:
declared the accession of the GDR according to Article 23 to the Federal Republic of Germany to come into effect on 3 October 1990, making unification an act unilaterally initiated by the last
2466:
supported its claims in part, as they acknowledged the Federal Republic as the sole legitimate democratically organised state within former German territory (the GDR being held to be a Soviet
4167:
3078:. The Chancellor is directly responsible to the parliament, the Minister is indirectly responsible to the parliament because it can remove the entire Cabinet by electing a new chancellor.
2302:
Article 32 of the Basic Law allows the states to conduct foreign affairs with states with regards to matters falling within their purview, under supervision of the Federal Government.
1901:
recognition of the GDR also implied acceptance of the constitutional power of the GDR in the interim to enter into international treaties on its own account, naming specifically the
4372:
2497:
Federal Republic could recognise the capability of the GDR state, as then constituted, of so declaring its accession. In this sense, the Basic Treaty's recognition of the GDR as a
425:
The authors of the Basic Law sought to ensure that a potential dictator would never again be able to come to power in the country. Although some of the Basic Law is based on the
2105:
instead of calling it a "constitution". By these provisions they made clear, that any West German state was not a definite state for the German people, and that future German
267:
4919:
3870:
4502:
4664:
1890:
was always clearly understood that the peoples of both East Germany and Berlin would be included. In its judgement of 1973, confirming the constitutional validity of the
2507:
constitutional changes to the Basic Law that had been agreed both in the Unification Treaty between the GDR and the Federal Republic, and in the 'Two Plus Four Treaty' (
2424:
in May 1945, no effective national government of any sort existed in Germany and all national military and civil authority and powers were thereon exercised by the four
1531:
3584:, had voted for the Basic Law, but the Western Allies denied West Berlin, as part of quadripartite Berlin, being included in the field of application of the Basic Law.
335:. However, when reunification took place in 1990, the Basic Law was retained as the definitive constitution of reunified Germany. Its original field of application (
1780:). This legal term was frequently used in West German legislation when West German laws did not apply to the entirety of German territory, as was usually the case.
4145:
1883:
1541:
727:
2097:. They decided that any of the Frankfurt requirements should only be implemented in a formally provisional way. So the constitutional assembly was to be called
2508:
1934:
357:
2350:
The experience of the Weimar Republic had resulted in a widespread public perception that the principles of representative democracy and of the rule of law (
429:, the first article is a protection of human dignity ("MenschenwĂĽrde") and human rights; they are core values protected by the Basic Law. The principles of
248:
1526:
1486:
798:
4198:
4221:
2547:
2305:
Article 24 states that the Federal Government may "transfer sovereign powers to international institutions" and Article 25 states that "general rules of
2948:'s coalition had lost its majority in the Bundestag, so that the opposition (CDU/CSU) tried to pass a constructive vote of no confidence, thus electing
2050:
As an immediate consequence of the London Six-Power Conference, the representatives of the three western occupation powers on 1 July 1948, convoked the
4707:
1952:
As part of the process, East Germany, which had been a unitary state since 1952, was re-divided into its initial five partially self-governing states (
5838:
2928:
The Basic Law contains no clear provision to call early elections. Neither the chancellor nor the Bundestag has the power to call elections, and the
2373:/CSU representatives) succeeded in inserting protection both for 'Marriage and the Family" and for parental responsibility for children's education,
1681:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1265:
1260:
2360:" of the Federal Republic, in the form of the Federal Constitutional Court, representing a 'staggering conferral of judicial authority'. Unlike the
1671:
3732:
1820:
by the Federal Republic, and if so how; but in practice this situation did not arise. Article 23, altered after 1990, originally read as follows:
5086:
4929:
4740:
3371:
2870:
must be provided for by statute and authorised by a judge before the end of the day following the arrest (analogous to the common law concept of
3694:
4519:
3252:, but the judges confirmed the changes. Other changes took place regarding a redistribution of competencies between federal government and the
2989:
for 18 September 2005. The constitutional court agreed to the validity of this procedure on 25 August 2005, and the elections duly took place.
2694:
referral by regular court – a court can refer the question as to whether a statute applicable to the case before that court is constitutional.
4059:
3840:
1753:
462:
4589:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1879:
406:, Article 23 was repealed the same day as reunification came into force. An unrelated article on the relationship between Germany and the
2191:
1255:
1130:
855:
3167:
general and unchangeable article on state structure. However, this could only be conferred by a constitutional amendment nevertheless.
3101:
are prohibited. From eleven defense commissioners until 2013 eight performed military or war services. Six hold an officer's rank (or
3610:
This authorisation has not been implemented by statute; German soldiers are under the jurisdiction of the civilian court system. See
1972:). After the changes of the Basic Law, mostly pertaining to the accession in 1990, additional major modifications were made in 1994 (
1135:
3807:
2686:
The Federal Constitutional Court decides on the constitutionality of laws and government actions under the following circumstances:
5577:
4817:
4725:
3339:
3140:
was founded following a 1952 referendum that approved the fusion of three separate states. In a 1996 referendum the inhabitants of
3097:
who can be petitioned directly by soldiers, bypassing the chain of command. Disciplinary measures against soldiers petitioning the
3075:
2899:
2624:
2607:
2558:
453:("Ewigkeitsklausel") Article 79 (3) that prohibits any sort of change or removal of the principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20.
4480:
3862:
2321:
In seeking to come to terms with Germany's catastrophic recent history, much discussion has focused on the key theory of a German
1804:
itself declare the accession of another part of Germany under Article 23, this provision could not be applied as an instrument of
5758:
3236:
added in 2009, which became fully effective in 2016. In 2002, the protection of animals was explicitly mentioned in Article 20a.
2965:
2741:
2577:
565:
4499:
4400:
2178:
ended, as the new West German state, the Federal Republic of Germany, came into being, although still under Western occupation.
5900:
4700:
3956:
3860:
3133:
2342:
was characterised as having been a 'failed' state, whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by
1791:
German states, initially not included in the field of application of the Basic Law, with the right to declare their accession (
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
776:
179:
4646:
3781:
2667:
The court is famous for nullifying several high-profile laws, passed by large majorities in the parliament. An example is the
1726:
6112:
5831:
5051:
4780:
4775:
4461:
4269:
4089:
3413:
3407:
2830:
2370:
1906:
1656:
1620:
1245:
1225:
2679:
to shoot down civilian aircraft in case of a terrorist attack. It was ruled to be in violation of the guarantee of life and
352:—consisted of the three Western Allies' zones of occupation, but at the insistence of the Western Allies, formally excluded
5358:
4626:
4604:
3623:
The Federal Disciplinary Court was abolished in 2003 and its jurisdiction merged into the administrative court system. See
3063:
2444:
of German institutions and legal structures had been agreed by the Allies as absolute moral imperatives. Consequently, the
2247:
2238:, remain under the guarantee of perpetuity stated in Article 79 paragraph 3, i.e., the principles underlying these clauses
1584:
970:
935:
2701:'s members can bring suit against a law. In this case the suit need not refer to a specific case of the law's application.
5205:
5188:
5021:
2964:
intentionally lost a confidence vote in order to call an early election to strengthen his position in the Bundestag. The
2737:
1589:
819:
6270:
6235:
6107:
5920:
5096:
5061:
5006:
4135:
3274:
2429:
2374:
2292:
1511:
1506:
1250:
638:
601:
47:
3148:
rejected a proposed merger of the two states. After referendums on reestablishing to Länder borders as existed in the
2275:
is permitted against anyone seeking to abolish constitutional order, if other remedies were to fail under Article 20.
6255:
6173:
5945:
5545:
5449:
5286:
4745:
4693:
4434:
3513:
3376:
1916:
1746:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1240:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
988:
983:
978:
906:
621:
24:
19:"Constitution of Germany" redirects here. For the constitution that governed Germany during the Weimar Republic, see
2697:
abstract regulation control – the federal government, a government of one of the federal states or a quarter of the
2000:
5824:
3327:
2745:
1912:
1886:, were reunited with the Federal Republic in 1963 by means of an international treaty without invoking Article 23.
1665:
1516:
1220:
705:
2488:
with the GDR, recognising it as one of two German states within one German nation, and relinquishing any claim to
1466:
6188:
6140:
6032:
6027:
5411:
5011:
2826:
2753:
2338:
regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state, illegal and illegitimate from the outset, while the
6214:
5394:
5210:
4894:
4194:
3388:
3358:
3345:
3027:
The Basic Law was amended in 1955 with Article 87a allowing the creation from new of federal armed forces, the
2749:
2357:
1615:
1536:
710:
626:
4082:
The Struggle for the Files: The Western Allies and the Returning of German Archives after the Second World War
2550:, the head of government, normally (but not necessarily) the leader of the largest grouping in the Bundestag.
360:
between the two parts of Germany and all four Allies stipulated the implementation of a number of amendments.
6260:
6145:
5992:
5688:
5464:
5326:
5230:
5129:
3155:
The denial of referendums in other cases was designed to avoid the kind of populism that allowed the rise of
3071:
2986:
2795:
2791:
2132:. The delegates at the convention were appointed by the leaders of the newly formed (or newly reconstituted)
2377:
representatives then amended this to protect additionally the rights of children born outside marriage, and
6150:
5708:
5436:
5306:
4810:
3536:
being included in the field of application, let alone East Berlin, whose rulers clearly rejected this idea.
3501:
3249:
2852:
2655:
2454:
1941:
might validly be extended. Rather than adopting a new constitution under Article 146 of the Basic Law, the
1862:
1739:
1643:
1599:
1574:
1555:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1235:
1230:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
950:
881:
841:
758:
496:
171:
4347:
3248:). This was done by changes to Article 13 paragraph (3) and Article 6. The changes were challenged in the
6275:
5503:
5416:
4868:
4658:
4509:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR), 22 February 1996. Introduction: paragraph 6.
4426:
4291:
3625:
2777:
2361:
2256:
2077:
2043:
1866:
1861:
Whereas the West German state had gained restricted sovereignty in May 1955, the Saarlanders rejected in
1594:
1579:
1140:
930:
75:
3577:
3267:
The Constitutional Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded
2594:
2470:), but they did not accept the associated arguments for the Reich's continuing 'metaphysical' existence
1854:
6092:
6062:
6022:
6002:
5982:
5885:
5426:
5338:
5316:
5235:
5220:
5036:
5016:
4858:
3731:. Association of the Councils of State and Supreme Administrative Jurisdictions of the European Union.
3725:
3152:
all failed, this institution has not been used, as minor border changes can be done by state contract.
945:
846:
647:
2170:
rejected the Basic Law mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual
6265:
6178:
5997:
5678:
4863:
4735:
4396:
German Bundestag: Official English Translation of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany:
3861:
Stiftung Deutsches Historisches Museum, Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
3496:
3365:
3233:
2117:
996:
897:
888:
211:
4527:
3212:
the constitutional question together with some other amendments between 1990 and 1994. For example,
2480:, the Federal Republic in the early 1970s sought to end hostile relations with the countries of the
2012:
6198:
6183:
6130:
6077:
6072:
6047:
5905:
5655:
5617:
5454:
5225:
3441:
2875:
2867:
1501:
771:
680:
492:
449:
are key components of the Basic Law (Article 20). Articles 1 and 20 are protected by the so-called
332:
175:
167:
6168:
4056:
3836:
3188:. Such a vote may not remove any of the principles underlying Articles 1 and 20 as defined by the
806:
6245:
6102:
6052:
6012:
5970:
5965:
5960:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5910:
5895:
5890:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5791:
5665:
5645:
5622:
5602:
5562:
5525:
5474:
5348:
5311:
5081:
4803:
4478:
International law aspects of the German reunification alternative answers to the German question.
3481:
3282:
3066:
who himself was not dependent on the parliament. Under the Basic Law, during times of peace, the
3016:
2390:
2211:
1661:
1481:
597:
570:
314:
on 8 May 1949 and came into effect on 23 May after having been approved by the occupying western
6193:
6135:
6097:
6087:
6067:
6057:
6042:
6037:
6017:
5987:
5955:
5940:
5915:
5592:
5567:
5530:
5389:
5321:
5150:
5041:
5031:
4730:
3892:
Wikisource:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany#II. THE FEDERATION AND THE L.C3.84NDER
3569:
3471:
3352:
3021:
2425:
2271:. The suspension of human rights would also be illegal under Articles 20 and 79, as above. The
940:
659:
315:
100:
4562:
4451:
3180:
Article 79 states the Basic Law may be amended by an absolute two-thirds majority of both the
6250:
6082:
6007:
5977:
5753:
5572:
5557:
5520:
4420:
3507:
3466:
3461:
3455:
3393:
2802:
2670:
2462:
1949 there had existed two entirely separate sovereign German states. The Federal Republic's
2369:
event particular interests pushed for additional consideration: the Catholic Church (through
2252:
2231:
2210:
while shielded from the public. The basic law formed the central part of the constitution of
2147:
2098:
1676:
1647:
734:
500:
438:
391:
221:
201:
155:
3653:
3062:, outside of the control of the parliament or the public. The army directly reported to the
6240:
5535:
5479:
5363:
5301:
5296:
5266:
5198:
5176:
5124:
5026:
4755:
3426:
3399:
3205:
3185:
3059:
2977:
2929:
2911:
2773:
2731:
2711:
2603:
2589:
2566:
2543:
2524:
2421:
2405:
2280:
1846:
1521:
1022:
921:
872:
791:
786:
781:
749:
718:
589:
395:
386:
187:
183:
150:
143:
127:
4558:
3137:
2637:
and the most influential figure in German day-to-day politics, as well as the head of the
2024:
Facsimile of the Basic Law of 1949 as received by each member of the Parliamentary Council
1850:
398:
from the constitutional standpoint. As the overwhelming consensus thereafter was that the
8:
5718:
5612:
5587:
5582:
5459:
5404:
5343:
5249:
4980:
4914:
4750:
4261:
4141:
3812:
This is the original 1949 text, as distinguished from the amended version in force today.
3803:
3611:
3486:
3382:
3226:
3222:
2760:
2219:
2065:
1902:
1491:
1471:
527:
426:
231:
134:
20:
5076:
4249:
2972:
2515:' could no longer be "legally open" to further accessions of former German territories.
5784:
5777:
5632:
5597:
5484:
5469:
5399:
5377:
5353:
5281:
5215:
5145:
5056:
4975:
4944:
4853:
4830:
4477:
3573:
3476:
3436:
3213:
2933:
2848:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2532:
2485:
2433:
2167:
2106:
2073:
2055:
2005:
1891:
1865:
the transformation of their protectorate into an independent state within the emerging
1476:
668:
2714:. This act had given the government legislative powers which effectively finished the
5738:
5713:
5660:
5607:
5421:
5193:
4985:
4580:
4457:
4430:
4397:
4329:
4265:
4085:
3446:
3270:
3217:
2806:
2764:
2445:
2397:
2378:
2306:
2239:
2235:
2222:, which listed them merely as "state objectives". Pursuant to the mandate to respect
2133:
2029:
We must be sure that what we construct will some day be a good house for all Germans.
1992:
1496:
829:
112:
3965:
2037:
speaking about the objective of the West German Basic Law at the Koenig Museum, 1948
5800:
5748:
5743:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5550:
5515:
5489:
5161:
4965:
4934:
4889:
4884:
4257:
3777:
2528:
2245:
There were, in the original version, no emergency powers such as those used by the
2113:
prevailed and the Western Powers gave in concerning this highly symbolic question.
2059:
865:
4576:
4566:
3756:
2999:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5640:
5066:
4642:
4506:
4484:
4404:
4373:"To Prosecute Nazis; Jurist Suggests a Constitutional Amendment to Permit Trials"
4063:
3844:
3189:
3149:
3102:
2937:
2857:
2785:
2715:
2536:
2512:
2339:
2272:
2266:
1938:
1829:
For the time being, this Basic Law shall apply in the territory of the Länder of
1717:
1625:
484:
450:
399:
341:
324:
292:
4222:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Role in the international arena"
2982:
2186:
377:. The term "constitution" (Verfassung) was avoided as the drafters regarded the
5805:
5683:
5670:
5333:
5091:
3598:
3561:
2810:
2441:
2278:
The constitutional position of the federal government was strengthened, as the
2195:
1965:
1834:
1703:
673:
411:
407:
4617:
3778:"Article 93 of the Basic Law (Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland)"
2420:
Following the surrender of the German High Command and the dissolution of the
402:
was settled, and to reaffirm the renunciation of any residual German claim to
6229:
5046:
4333:
4317:
3431:
3232:
Since then, there have only been minor amendments, with the exception of the
3109:
2949:
2871:
2861:
2822:
2680:
2612:
2227:
2223:
2151:
2146:
with one deputy representing about 750,000 people. After being passed by the
655:
434:
122:
5847:
5431:
5106:
5101:
5071:
4970:
4924:
4769:
4685:
3695:"Right to Have Rights – The German Constitutional Concept of Human Dignity"
3452:
2945:
2844:
2818:
2719:
2707:
2481:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2437:
2343:
2335:
2331:
1875:
1842:
382:
349:
300:
82:
5816:
4029:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
4016:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
4003:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3990:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3943:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3930:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3917:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
3904:
Democracy's Guardian: A History of the German Federal Constitutional Court
2660:
The guardian of the Basic Law is the German Federal Constitutional Court (
1857:. In other parts of Germany it shall be put into force on their accession.
541:
5441:
5155:
4990:
4939:
3581:
3533:
3491:
3145:
3106:
2961:
2835:
2474:
within the organs of the Federal Republic alone. Subsequently, under the
2404:) could subsequently declare their accession, or under Article 146 where
2352:
2199:
2121:
2034:
1924:
1920:
1870:
1830:
1767:
634:
446:
353:
331:) to indicate that it was a provisional piece of legislation pending the
1712:
410:
was instead inserted in its place two years later. As a heritage of the
5650:
5271:
4668:
4608:
3129:
3067:
3055:
3041:
3035:
3029:
2975:
engineered a defeat in a vote of confidence after a power shift in the
2676:
2570:
2476:
2412:) could be exercised by elected representatives of the entirety of the
2255:
of 1933 to suspend basic rights and to remove communist members of the
1805:
510:
442:
403:
274:
252:
196:
97:
92:
4084:. Translated by Seyer, D. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219ff.
1825:
Former Article 23 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
5261:
4909:
4168:"www.bundespraesident.de: Der Bundespräsident / Constitutional basis"
4122:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4107:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
4043:
The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures for German Unification
3580:. The Stadtverordnetenversammlung von Berlin, then only competent in
3181:
3113:
3094:
3047:
2892:
2698:
2554:
2323:
2181:
1944:
699:
430:
162:
139:
4674:
3594:
3132:, concerning the federal level of legislation, on a single issue: a
3039:
therefore has no constitutional or legal continuity with either the
2523:
The Basic Law established Germany as a parliamentary democracy with
2101:(lit. parliamentary council) and the constitution given the name of
1778:
Geltungsbereich des Grundgesetzes fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
4795:
4654:
3824:
The Constitutional Jursiprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany
2207:
2125:
2020:
3089:), reporting once a year to parliament, not to the executive. The
2218:
Basic rights are fundamental to the Basic Law, in contrast to the
1964:, with East and West Berlin reuniting into a new city-state (like
5540:
4960:
4904:
4826:
4650:
2413:
2203:
2163:
2156:
2129:
2094:
1969:
1838:
1786:
467:
415:
304:
3958:
How a constitution can safeguard democracy:The German Experience
3284:
Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany — Amendments to 28
2109:
and the reunification of Germany was still on their agenda. The
2016:
German stamp commemorating the work of the Parlamentarischer Rat
5851:
4675:
Staatsrecht for you – Introduction to german constitutional law
3156:
3141:
2260:
1882:). The towns of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, which had been
472:
3112:, were high-ranking and decorated admirals or generals of the
2786:
General provisions for the judiciary and rights of the accused
2759:
Article 96 authorizes the establishment by federal law of the
41:
4920:
Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples
4899:
3565:
2954:
2756:
as supreme courts in their respective areas of jurisdiction.
3081:
The Basic Law also institutes the parliamentary post of the
2932:
can do so only if the chancellor so requests after losing a
2291:
To remove the chancellor, the parliament has to engage in a
3863:"Gerade auf LeMO gesehen: LeMO Das lebendige Museum Online"
2436:—did not apply, and could not apply, as the termination of
311:
4057:
Moving the law of occupation into the twenty-first century
3597:'. The "Herren" in question were "Augustiner Chorherren",
2194:
drew up the draft for the Basic Law in summer 1948 at the
1996:
Article 1, sentence 1: "Human dignity shall be inviolable"
348:)—that is, the states that were initially included in the
3128:
Unlike the Weimar Constitution, the Basic Law only names
2064:
in Frankfurt am Main and committed to them the so-called
2936:. This was designed to avoid the chronic instability of
2542:
The executive branch consists of the largely ceremonial
3780:. Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection.
3726:"Administrative Justice in Europe – Report for Germany"
3015:
From the outset, the Basic Law guaranteed the right of
2509:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
1958:), being granted equal status as the already existing
1878:
that had been surrendered to France and Denmark. (cf.
4070:, publisher: U.S. Naval Justice School. pp. 21, 28–30
3269:. Duke University Press, 3rd edition (2nd ed. 1997),
2284:
has only a small fraction of the former power of the
4665:
Introduction to the basic and the constitutional law
511:
Extensions of the field of application by Article 23
4647:
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany
4588:Original text of the Basic Law, as adopted in 1949
2242:even if the normal amendment process is followed.
2182:Important differences from the Weimar Constitution
2484:, in the course of which it negotiated in 1972 a
2313:
2047:federal West German state was to be established.
23:. For the constitution of the German Empire, see
6227:
4318:"The Basic Law and the Process of Reunification"
3280:
2580:, which oversees the constitutionality of laws.
16:Constitution for the Federal Republic of Germany
4618:Constitution of the Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
4195:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3677:
3654:"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany"
3372:Constitution of the German Confederation (1871)
3054:The Weimar Constitution had contributed to the
2957:had bribed the two dissenting representatives.
2851:between the former East-West border. Thus, the
2649:
4627:Excerpts from the 1968 Constitution of the GDR
4500:Periodic reports of States parties due in 1993
3761:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
3123:
2856:punishment in Article 103 has been likened to
2518:
297:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
268:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
65:Grundgesetz fĂĽr die Bundesrepublik Deutschland
5832:
4811:
4701:
4605:Constitution of the German Empire (1871–1919)
4292:"X v. The Federal Republic of Germany (1971)"
3265:Donald P. Kommers, Russell A. Miller (2012):
3020:security; but made no specific provision for
2811:multiple punishment for the same criminal act
2553:The legislative branch is represented by the
1927:. East Germany's "declaration of accession" (
1747:
463:Fundamental rights in the German Constitution
310:The West German Constitution was approved in
284:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
249:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
35:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
4715:
4456:. Manchester University Press. p. 146.
4256:, Oxford University Press, pp. 93–154,
4219:Website of the Federal President of Germany
4165:Website of the Federal President of Germany
3759:
3546:
2992:
2668:
2264:
1979:
1973:
1959:
1953:
1942:
1928:
1792:
381:as an interim arrangement for a provisional
265:
63:
5846:
4930:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
2192:Constitutional Convention at Herrenchiemsee
2008:debating the Frankfurt Documents in Koblenz
1896:
1884:occupied and annexed by Netherlands in 1949
1815:
1809:
1798:
1784:
1783:Article 23 of the Basic Law provided other
5839:
5825:
4818:
4804:
4708:
4694:
4073:
2457:. Initially, the 1949 constitution of the
2384:
2116:The draft was prepared at the preliminary
1754:
1740:
40:
4124:, Princeton University Press, p. 14]
4109:, Princeton University Press, p. 13]
3954:
3601:, which ruled the region in former times.
3134:new delimitation of the federal territory
2565:participating in legislation through the
4449:
4247:
4137:Texas Law: Foreign Law Translations 1973
4045:, Princeton University Press, p. 12
3551:(field of application) of the Basic Law.
3340:Constitution of the German Confederation
2593:
2559:mixed-member proportional representation
2185:
2019:
2011:
1999:
1991:
1915:in East Germany fell in 1990. Following
1023:Federal Republic of Germany (since 1949)
466:
4418:
4315:
3821:
3333:
3240:invulnerability of the private domain (
3010:
520:This article is part of a series on the
471:The Grundrechte at Jakob Kaiser House,
6228:
4079:
3784:from the original on 24 September 2015
3770:
3717:
3692:
3593:Explanation of the German meaning of '
2330:In the dominant post-war narrative of
318:on 12 May. It was termed "Basic Law" (
5820:
4799:
4689:
4148:from the original on 20 December 2016
4119:
4104:
4040:
3810:from the original on 2 November 2011.
3229:, amendments were necessary as well.
3005:
2881:
2576:The judicial branch is headed by the
1905:which confirmed the transfer of the "
456:
4825:
4201:from the original on 3 November 2012
3826:, Duke University Press, p. 309
3244:) by means of acoustic observation (
3045:of the Weimar Republic, or with the
2625:Chancellor of Germany (1949–present)
2042:Between February and June 1948, the
1921:parliament of the GDR (East Germany)
4248:Collings, Justin (5 January 2021),
3767: of 23 May 1949 (in German)
3723:
3414:Second Constitution of East Germany
3294:. Berlin, Germany: German Bundestag
2860:in common law systems, such as the
2853:Federal German Constitutional Court
2618:
2214:and subsequently reunified Germany.
1987:
13:
4262:10.1093/oso/9780198858850.003.0004
4174:from the original on 14 April 2014
3738:from the original on 27 March 2014
3408:First Constitution of East Germany
2923:
2813:. During the establishment of the
2644:
2598:Political system of Germany, chart
2293:Constructive vote of no confidence
2259:from power, an important step for
2072:). The handover took place in the
1880:Little Reunification with the Saar
1766:The 1949 Basic Law was explicitly
540:
48:Federal Agency for Civic Education
14:
6287:
4546:
3964:, Goethe-Institut, archived from
3514:United Kingdom constitutional law
3377:Constitution of the German Empire
2430:Hague Regulations of Land Warfare
2076:on the Campus Westend of today's
25:Constitution of the German Empire
4453:The Länder and German federalism
4228:from the original on 16 May 2014
3873:from the original on 20 May 2013
3545:These states formed the initial
3328:German language in the Basic Law
3309:June 2022 (Federal Law Gazette I
3074:, and during war-time under the
2833:—advocated for the ideal of the
2807:retroactive criminal legislation
1711:
1697:
259:
243:
232:Constitution of the German Reich
5022:German revolutions of 1848–1849
4991:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)
4512:
4493:
4470:
4443:
4412:
4390:
4365:
4340:
4316:Steiner, Udo (1 January 2000).
4309:
4284:
4241:
4213:
4187:
4159:
4128:
4113:
4098:
4049:
4034:
4021:
4008:
3995:
3982:
3948:
3935:
3922:
3909:
3896:
3885:
3854:
3830:
3815:
3806:(in German). 1949. Article 23.
3680:Eine kleine Geschichte PreuĂźens
3617:
3604:
3587:
3554:
2868:deprivation of personal liberty
2725:
2718:and led to the dictatorship of
2675:, which would have allowed the
414:, neither was unification with
5007:Early modern period, 1500–1800
4895:List of early Germanic peoples
4567:non-official table of contents
4487:pp. 11 footnote 18, & 26.
3796:
3750:
3686:
3671:
3646:
3539:
3526:
3389:Constitution of Prussia (1920)
3359:Constitution of Prussia (1850)
3346:Constitution of Prussia (1848)
2398:States of the Federal Republic
2297:Konstruktives Misstrauensvotum
1616:Politics of the European Union
427:Weimar Republic's constitution
1:
5130:History of Germany since 1990
4419:Roberts, Geoffrey K. (2000).
3906:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxii
3837:International: Berlin to Bonn
3639:
3259:
3242:Unverletzlichkeit der Wohnung
3170:
2916:The Bundesrat represents the
2825:—the federal chairman of the
2583:
2557:, elected directly through a
385:, expecting that an eventual
4741:Constitution of January 1871
4450:Gunlicks, Arthur B. (2003).
4348:"K.-H. W. v. Germany (2001)"
4018:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxxv
4005:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxvi
3992:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxii
3932:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxiv
3502:Rule according to higher law
3250:Federal Constitutional Court
3070:is under the command of the
2905:
2886:
2742:Federal Administrative Court
2656:Federal Constitutional Court
2650:Federal Constitutional Court
2578:Federal Constitutional Court
2455:Federal Constitutional Court
1567:Foreign relations by country
759:Federal Constitutional Court
566:Federal Constitutional Court
497:Federal Constitutional Court
390:relinquished their reserved
369:may be translated as either
180:Federal Administrative Court
172:Federal Constitutional Court
46:Basic Law. Published by the
7:
4427:Manchester University Press
4055:Breven C. Parsons, (2009),
4031:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xxv
3919:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. 287
3822:Kommers, Donald P. (2012),
3321:
3124:Referendums and plebiscites
2955:Ministry for State Security
2831:Federal Minister of Justice
2827:Free Democratic Party (FDP)
2736:Article 95 establishes the
2519:Constitutional institutions
2362:United States Supreme Court
2358:free democratic basic order
2120:(10–23 August 1948) on the
2044:London Six-Power Conference
1867:European Economic Community
971:Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
404:land east of Oder and NeiĂźe
350:Federal Republic of Germany
305:Federal Republic of Germany
76:Federal Republic of Germany
10:
6292:
5037:North German Confederation
5017:Confederation of the Rhine
4746:Constitution of April 1871
4197:. Gesetze-im-internet.de.
4080:Eckert, Astrid M. (2012).
3945:, Oxford; OUP, 2015, p. xv
3693:Enders, Christoph (2010).
3682:. Klett-Cotta. p. 17.
3658:www.gesetze-im-internet.de
3532:The Western Allies denied
3195:
3175:
3105:'s rank), two of them, as
2909:
2890:
2866:Article 104 mandates that
2729:
2653:
2622:
2587:
2459:German Democratic Republic
2388:
1845:, North Rhine-Westphalia,
648:Vice Chancellor of Germany
460:
18:
6271:May 1949 events in Europe
6236:German constitutional law
6207:
6159:
6121:
5858:
5771:
5631:
5511:
5502:
5385:
5376:
5257:
5248:
5184:
5175:
5138:
5117:
4999:
4953:
4877:
4846:
4837:
4721:
4505:15 September 2016 at the
4250:"After Hitler: 1951–1975"
3576:, WĂĽrttemberg-Baden, and
3497:Reconstruction of Germany
3420:
3366:North German Constitution
3281:German Bundestag (2022).
3234:Balanced Budget Amendment
2993:Role of political parties
2546:as head of state and the
2128:, a lake in southeastern
2118:Herrenchiemsee convention
1909:" to Polish sovereignty.
889:Collective municipality (
258:
242:
237:
227:
217:
212:Herrenchiemsee convention
207:
195:
161:
149:
133:
121:
111:
106:
91:
81:
71:
59:
54:
39:
34:
6256:Constitutions of Germany
5189:Administrative divisions
4716:Constitutions of Germany
3678:Eberhard Straub (2011).
3626:Bundesdisziplinargericht
3578:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
3572:, Rhineland-Palatinate,
3519:
3442:Constitutional economics
2876:presumption of innocence
2849:killed escaping refugees
2794:. Article 102 abolishes
2790:Article 97 provides for
2738:Federal Court of Justice
2662:Bundesverfassungsgericht
1855:WĂĽrttemberg-Hohenzollern
1452:State and local politics
997:East Germany (1949–1960)
493:constitutional complaint
333:reunification of Germany
176:Federal Court of Justice
168:6 Supreme federal courts
4476:Johnson, Edward Elwyn.
4238:Retrieved 28 April 2014
4184:Retrieved 13 April 2014
4120:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4105:Quint, Peter E (1991),
4041:Quint, Peter E (1991),
3843:1 February 2011 at the
3482:Legal status of Germany
3017:conscientious objection
2801:Article 103 mandates a
2569:, reflecting Germany's
2391:Legal status of Germany
2385:Legal status of Germany
2212:Allied-occupied Germany
2202:(Isle of Lords) in the
1608:International Relations
598:Frank-Walter Steinmeier
358:Two Plus Four Agreement
5901:Bosnia and Herzegovina
5450:Science and technology
5151:History of Brandenburg
5042:Unification of Germany
5032:Frankfurt Constitution
4659:Univ. of Chicago Press
4575:Official Translation:
4569:(status: August 2006)
4483:9 October 2007 at the
3760:
3570:North Rhine-Westphalia
3547:
3472:German nationality law
3353:Frankfurt Constitution
3022:West German rearmament
2669:
2633:The Chancellor is the
2599:
2265:
2215:
2198:Abbey on the secluded
2162:with the exception of
2085:of the Reich in 1871.
2040:
2025:
2017:
2009:
1997:
1980:
1974:
1960:
1954:
1943:
1929:
1925:East German parliament
1897:
1859:
1849:, Schleswig-Holstein,
1816:
1810:
1799:
1793:
1785:
1777:
1512:North Rhine-Westphalia
1507:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
1122:Parliamentary election
963:Presidential elections
545:
495:with an appeal to the
488:
475:
412:Lesser German solution
345:
328:
316:Allies of World War II
296:
266:
101:parliamentary republic
64:
5087:Flight and expulsions
4422:German politics today
3508:Streitbare Demokratie
3467:German Emergency Acts
3462:Constitution of Japan
3456:Constitution of Italy
3394:Reichstag Fire Decree
2792:judicial independence
2746:Federal Finance Court
2671:Luftsicherheitsgesetz
2597:
2314:Basic Law and German
2253:Reichstag Fire Decree
2232:social responsibility
2189:
2148:Parliamentary Council
2099:Parlamentarischer Rat
2070:Frankfurter Dokumente
2058:) of the West German
2027:
2023:
2015:
2003:
1995:
1822:
1666:Agrarian Conservatism
736:Gemeinsamer Ausschuss
729:Vermittlungsausschuss
622:Chancellor of Germany
544:
470:
439:social responsibility
392:constitutional rights
222:Parlamentarischer Rat
191:Federal Finance Court
6261:1949 in West Germany
5759:World Heritage Sites
5437:German states by GDP
5027:German Confederation
4756:Enabling Act of 1933
4751:Constitution of 1919
4736:Constitution of 1867
4731:Constitution of 1849
4726:Constitution of 1815
4600:Former constitutions
4520:"www.dukeupress.edu"
4403:19 June 2017 at the
4062:3 March 2016 at the
3851:. 13 September 1948.
3427:Abolition of Prussia
3334:Former constitutions
3246:GroĂźer Lauschangriff
3087:defense commissioner
3060:state within a state
3011:Role of the military
3002:, even internally).
2971:In 2005, Chancellor
2966:constitutional court
2960:In 1982, Chancellor
2944:In 1972, Chancellor
2912:Bundesrat of Germany
2774:extraordinary courts
2761:Federal Patent Court
2754:Federal Social Court
2750:Federal Labour Court
2732:Judiciary of Germany
2604:parliamentary system
2590:President of Germany
2525:separation of powers
2422:Flensburg Government
2074:I.G. Farben building
1935:Two-Plus-Four Treaty
1913:The Communist regime
1847:Rhineland-Palatinate
1638:Political ideologies
1517:Rhineland-Palatinate
951:Federal Convention (
590:President of Germany
507:fundamental rights.
478:Fundamental rights (
396:German reunification
208:Commissioned by
188:Federal Social Court
184:Federal Labour Court
128:President of Germany
107:Government structure
6122:States with limited
5395:Automobile industry
4981:Carolingian dynasty
4915:History of the Huns
4142:University of Texas
3971:on 20 December 2016
3612:German military law
3487:Politics of Germany
3383:Weimar Constitution
3072:Minister of Defence
2821:, politicians like
2606:of government, the
2410:pouvoir constituant
2220:Weimar Constitution
2111:Ministerpräsidenten
2090:Ministerpräsidenten
2066:Frankfurt Documents
2056:minister-presidents
2052:Ministerpräsidenten
2006:minister-presidents
1907:Eastern Territories
1863:a referendum (1955)
1718:Politics portal
21:Weimar Constitution
6276:Anti-fascist works
5465:Telecommunications
5146:History of Prussia
5062:Revolution of 1918
5057:War guilt question
4976:Carolingian Empire
4945:Sack of Rome (410)
4854:History of Germany
4377:The New York Times
4352:hudoc.echr.coe.int
4296:hudoc.echr.coe.int
3574:Schleswig-Holstein
3477:History of Germany
3460:Post-World War II
3437:Bundesrechnungshof
3214:affirmative action
3076:Federal Chancellor
3006:Other stipulations
2934:vote of confidence
2882:Legislative branch
2796:capital punishment
2683:in the Basic Law.
2639:Federal Government
2635:head of government
2629:Cabinet of Germany
2608:Federal Chancellor
2600:
2561:, with the German
2548:Federal Chancellor
2434:Geneva Conventions
2216:
2168:Landtag of Bavaria
2107:self-determination
2026:
2018:
2010:
1998:
1981:Föderalismusreform
1978:), 2002 and 2006 (
1930:Beitrittserklärung
1903:treaty with Poland
1837:, Greater Berlin,
1704:Germany portal
1537:Schleswig-Holstein
1382:European elections
847:State Parliament (
842:Minister president
546:
476:
457:Fundamental rights
6223:
6222:
5814:
5813:
5767:
5766:
5498:
5497:
5412:Chemical Triangle
5372:
5371:
5359:Political parties
5307:Foreign relations
5244:
5243:
5171:
5170:
5082:Allied occupation
4986:Holy Roman Empire
4793:
4792:
4789:
4763:Basic Law of 1949
4607:. Full text from
4463:978-0-7190-6533-0
4271:978-0-19-885885-0
4091:978-1-107-62920-2
4027:Justin Collings,
4014:Justin Collings,
4001:Justin Collings,
3988:Justin Collings,
3941:Justin Collings,
3928:Justin Collings,
3915:Justin Collings,
3902:Justin Collings,
3447:Constitutionalism
3138:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
3051:of WWII Germany.
2772:Article 101 bans
2710:, as happened in
2544:Federal President
2446:Potsdam Agreement
2406:constituent power
2379:Elisabeth Selbert
2307:international law
2240:cannot be removed
2150:assembled at the
2078:Goethe University
1975:Verfassungsreform
1851:WĂĽrttemberg-Baden
1764:
1763:
1644:Political culture
1557:Foreign relations
1467:Baden-WĂĽrttemberg
953:Bundesversammlung
936:Political parties
531:
387:reunified Germany
383:West German state
280:
279:
6283:
6266:1949 in politics
6160:Dependencies and
5859:Sovereign states
5841:
5834:
5827:
5818:
5817:
5794:
5787:
5780:
5744:Prussian virtues
5509:
5508:
5417:Economic history
5383:
5382:
5277:
5255:
5254:
5206:Cities and towns
5182:
5181:
5162:Baden Revolution
4966:Treaty of Verdun
4935:Marcomannic Wars
4890:Migration Period
4885:Germanic peoples
4869:Military history
4844:
4843:
4820:
4813:
4806:
4797:
4796:
4788:
4774:
4710:
4703:
4696:
4687:
4686:
4680:
4643:Currie, David P.
4632:
4623:
4614:
4594:
4585:
4572:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4535:
4526:. Archived from
4516:
4510:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4447:
4441:
4440:
4416:
4410:
4409:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4369:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4288:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4254:Scales of Memory
4245:
4239:
4237:
4235:
4233:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4191:
4185:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4155:
4153:
4132:
4126:
4125:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4102:
4096:
4095:
4077:
4071:
4068:Naval Law Review
4053:
4047:
4046:
4038:
4032:
4025:
4019:
4012:
4006:
3999:
3993:
3986:
3980:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3970:
3963:
3952:
3946:
3939:
3933:
3926:
3920:
3913:
3907:
3900:
3894:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3858:
3852:
3834:
3828:
3827:
3819:
3813:
3811:
3800:
3794:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3774:
3768:
3763:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3737:
3730:
3724:Herbert, Georg.
3721:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3650:
3633:
3631:
3621:
3615:
3608:
3602:
3591:
3585:
3568:, Lower Saxony,
3560:The others were
3558:
3552:
3550:
3543:
3537:
3530:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3301:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3099:Wehrbeauftragter
3091:Wehrbeauftragter
3083:Wehrbeauftragter
2973:Gerhard Schröder
2779:Volksgerichtshof
2674:
2619:Executive branch
2270:
2038:
2004:The West German
1988:Drafting process
1983:
1977:
1963:
1957:
1948:
1932:
1900:
1819:
1813:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1775:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1720:
1716:
1715:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1682:Social Democracy
1558:
931:Electoral system
924:
867:Regierungsbezirk
822:
752:
681:Federal agencies
559:
558:
534:
529:
521:
515:
514:
483:
418:aspired for.
363:The German word
340:
323:
291:
271:
263:
262:
247:
246:
67:
44:
32:
31:
6291:
6290:
6286:
6285:
6284:
6282:
6281:
6280:
6226:
6225:
6224:
6219:
6203:
6161:
6155:
6141:Northern Cyprus
6123:
6117:
6033:North Macedonia
5854:
5845:
5815:
5810:
5797:
5790:
5783:
5776:
5763:
5627:
5578:Life expectancy
5494:
5368:
5339:Law enforcement
5275:
5240:
5167:
5134:
5113:
5097:Divided Germany
5067:Weimar Republic
4995:
4961:Frankish Empire
4949:
4873:
4839:
4833:
4824:
4794:
4787:
4767:
4717:
4714:
4678:
4630:
4621:
4612:
4592:
4583:
4570:
4557:Official text:
4549:
4544:
4543:
4533:
4531:
4518:
4517:
4513:
4507:Wayback Machine
4498:
4494:
4488:
4485:Wayback Machine
4475:
4471:
4464:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4405:Wayback Machine
4395:
4391:
4381:
4379:
4371:
4370:
4366:
4356:
4354:
4346:
4345:
4341:
4314:
4310:
4300:
4298:
4290:
4289:
4285:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4246:
4242:
4231:
4229:
4220:
4218:
4214:
4204:
4202:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4177:
4175:
4166:
4164:
4160:
4151:
4149:
4134:
4133:
4129:
4118:
4114:
4103:
4099:
4092:
4078:
4074:
4064:Wayback Machine
4054:
4050:
4039:
4035:
4026:
4022:
4013:
4009:
4000:
3996:
3987:
3983:
3974:
3972:
3968:
3961:
3955:Jutta Limbach,
3953:
3949:
3940:
3936:
3927:
3923:
3914:
3910:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3886:
3876:
3874:
3859:
3855:
3845:Wayback Machine
3835:
3831:
3820:
3816:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3787:
3785:
3776:
3775:
3771:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3728:
3722:
3718:
3708:
3706:
3699:NUJS Law Review
3691:
3687:
3676:
3672:
3662:
3660:
3652:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3618:
3609:
3605:
3592:
3588:
3559:
3555:
3548:Geltungsbereich
3544:
3540:
3531:
3527:
3522:
3423:
3336:
3324:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3285:
3262:
3216:was allowed in
3198:
3190:eternity clause
3178:
3173:
3150:Weimar Republic
3126:
3103:reserve officer
3093:is a soldiers'
3013:
3008:
2995:
2938:Weimar Republic
2926:
2924:Early elections
2914:
2908:
2895:
2889:
2884:
2858:double jeopardy
2788:
2734:
2728:
2716:Weimar Republic
2712:Germany in 1933
2658:
2652:
2647:
2645:Judicial branch
2631:
2623:Main articles:
2621:
2592:
2586:
2521:
2513:Berlin Republic
2464:Cold-war Allies
2393:
2387:
2340:Weimar Republic
2319:
2286:Reichspräsident
2281:Bundespräsident
2273:right to resist
2267:Machtergreifung
2248:Reichspräsident
2184:
2176:legal nonentity
2039:
2033:
1990:
1939:Berlin Republic
1771:
1760:
1731:
1727:Other countries
1710:
1709:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1687:
1686:
1652:
1639:
1631:
1630:
1612:
1604:
1571:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1548:
1547:
1546:
1462:
1453:
1445:
1444:
1443:
1442:
1386:
1378:
1377:
1126:
1118:
1117:
1019:
993:
967:
959:
926:
922:
914:
913:
862:
824:
820:
812:
811:
803:
763:
754:
750:
742:
741:
724:
694:
686:
685:
665:
616:
608:
607:
584:
576:
575:
561:
556:
554:
532:
528:
519:
513:
501:Eternity Clause
479:
465:
459:
451:eternity clause
400:German question
375:Fundamental Law
356:. In 1990, the
346:Geltungsbereich
336:
319:
287:
260:
244:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
142:
50:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6289:
6279:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6246:1949 documents
6243:
6238:
6221:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6215:European Union
6211:
6209:
6208:Other entities
6205:
6204:
6202:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6165:
6163:
6162:other entities
6157:
6156:
6154:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6127:
6125:
6119:
6118:
6116:
6115:
6110:
6108:United Kingdom
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6045:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5975:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5921:Czech Republic
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5862:
5860:
5856:
5855:
5844:
5843:
5836:
5829:
5821:
5812:
5811:
5809:
5808:
5803:
5796:
5795:
5788:
5781:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5676:
5675:Cultural icons
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5648:
5643:
5637:
5635:
5629:
5628:
5626:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5554:
5553:
5548:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5512:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5455:Stock exchange
5452:
5447:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5397:
5392:
5386:
5380:
5374:
5373:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5366:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5269:
5264:
5258:
5252:
5246:
5245:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5238:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5203:
5202:
5201:
5196:
5185:
5179:
5173:
5172:
5169:
5168:
5166:
5165:
5159:
5153:
5148:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5132:
5127:
5121:
5119:
5115:
5114:
5112:
5111:
5110:
5109:
5104:
5094:
5092:Denazification
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4963:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4950:
4948:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4874:
4872:
4871:
4866:
4864:Historiography
4861:
4856:
4850:
4848:
4841:
4835:
4834:
4823:
4822:
4815:
4808:
4800:
4791:
4790:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4722:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4712:
4705:
4698:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4672:
4662:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4624:
4615:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4586:
4573:
4548:
4547:External links
4545:
4542:
4541:
4530:on 15 May 2013
4524:dukeupress.edu
4511:
4492:
4469:
4462:
4442:
4435:
4429:. p. 39.
4411:
4398:Article 20 (2)
4389:
4364:
4339:
4322:SMU Law Review
4308:
4283:
4270:
4240:
4212:
4186:
4158:
4127:
4112:
4097:
4090:
4072:
4048:
4033:
4020:
4007:
3994:
3981:
3947:
3934:
3921:
3908:
3895:
3884:
3853:
3829:
3814:
3795:
3769:
3764: (GG)
3749:
3716:
3685:
3670:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3616:
3603:
3599:Canons Regular
3586:
3553:
3538:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3458:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3422:
3419:
3418:
3417:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3397:
3391:
3380:
3374:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3350:
3349:
3348:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3323:
3320:
3319:
3318:
3278:
3275:978-0822352662
3261:
3258:
3227:postal service
3218:women's rights
3197:
3194:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3125:
3122:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
2994:
2991:
2925:
2922:
2910:Main article:
2907:
2904:
2891:Main article:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2787:
2784:
2776:, such as the
2730:Main article:
2727:
2724:
2703:
2702:
2695:
2692:
2654:Main article:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2620:
2617:
2613:reserve powers
2588:Main article:
2585:
2582:
2520:
2517:
2442:Denazification
2440:and the total
2389:Main article:
2386:
2383:
2318:
2312:
2196:Herrenchiemsee
2183:
2180:
2031:
1989:
1986:
1917:free elections
1762:
1761:
1759:
1758:
1751:
1744:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1721:
1707:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1611:
1610:
1603:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1570:
1569:
1561:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1458:State Politics
1454:
1451:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1440:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1375:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1127:
1125:
1124:
1116:
1115:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1001:
1000:
999:
992:
991:
986:
981:
975:
974:
973:
966:
965:
958:
957:
948:
943:
938:
933:
927:
920:
919:
916:
915:
912:
911:
910:
909:
898:Municipality (
895:
886:
885:
884:
870:
861:
860:
859:
858:
844:
838:
837:
825:
818:
817:
814:
813:
810:
809:
802:
801:
795:
794:
789:
784:
779:
777:Administrative
774:
768:
767:
766:Federal courts
762:
761:
755:
748:
747:
744:
743:
740:
739:
732:
723:
722:
715:
714:
713:
708:
706:constituencies
695:
692:
691:
688:
687:
684:
683:
678:
677:
676:
664:
663:
652:
651:
643:
642:
631:
630:
617:
614:
613:
610:
609:
606:
605:
594:
593:
585:
582:
581:
578:
577:
574:
573:
568:
562:
552:
551:
548:
547:
537:
536:
524:
523:
512:
509:
461:Main article:
458:
455:
408:European Union
278:
277:
256:
255:
240:
239:
235:
234:
229:
225:
224:
219:
215:
214:
209:
205:
204:
199:
193:
192:
165:
159:
158:
153:
147:
146:
137:
131:
130:
125:
119:
118:
115:
109:
108:
104:
103:
95:
89:
88:
85:
79:
78:
73:
69:
68:
61:
60:Original title
57:
56:
52:
51:
45:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6288:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6233:
6231:
6216:
6213:
6212:
6210:
6206:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6180:
6177:
6175:
6174:Faroe Islands
6172:
6170:
6167:
6166:
6164:
6158:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6146:South Ossetia
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6120:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6069:
6066:
6064:
6061:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6041:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5993:Liechtenstein
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5863:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5849:
5848:Constitutions
5842:
5837:
5835:
5830:
5828:
5823:
5822:
5819:
5807:
5804:
5802:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5789:
5786:
5782:
5779:
5775:
5774:
5770:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5649:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5638:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5618:Social issues
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5546:Ethnic groups
5544:
5543:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5513:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5501:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5444:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5406:
5403:
5402:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5393:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5375:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5247:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5191:
5190:
5187:
5186:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5174:
5163:
5160:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5125:Reunification
5123:
5122:
5120:
5116:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5100:
5099:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5047:German Empire
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5002:
4998:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4964:
4962:
4959:
4958:
4956:
4952:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4880:
4876:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4836:
4832:
4828:
4821:
4816:
4814:
4809:
4807:
4802:
4801:
4798:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4772:
4771:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4761:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4723:
4720:
4711:
4706:
4704:
4699:
4697:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4666:
4663:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4641:
4640:
4639:
4636:
4628:
4625:
4619:
4616:
4610:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4598:
4591:
4587:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4555:
4554:
4551:
4550:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4508:
4504:
4501:
4496:
4486:
4482:
4479:
4473:
4465:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4446:
4438:
4436:0-7190-4961-X
4432:
4428:
4424:
4423:
4415:
4406:
4402:
4399:
4393:
4378:
4374:
4368:
4353:
4349:
4343:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4312:
4297:
4293:
4287:
4273:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4200:
4196:
4190:
4173:
4169:
4162:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4138:
4131:
4123:
4116:
4108:
4101:
4093:
4087:
4083:
4076:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4058:
4052:
4044:
4037:
4030:
4024:
4017:
4011:
4004:
3998:
3991:
3985:
3967:
3960:
3959:
3951:
3944:
3938:
3931:
3925:
3918:
3912:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3888:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3850:
3849:Tone Magazine
3846:
3842:
3838:
3833:
3825:
3818:
3809:
3805:
3799:
3783:
3779:
3773:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3734:
3727:
3720:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3689:
3681:
3674:
3659:
3655:
3649:
3645:
3628:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3607:
3600:
3596:
3590:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3549:
3542:
3535:
3529:
3525:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3432:Bremen clause
3430:
3428:
3425:
3424:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3290:
3289:
3279:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3263:
3257:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3237:
3235:
3230:
3228:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3207:
3206:reunification
3202:
3193:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3168:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3121:
3117:
3115:
3111:
3110:Hellmuth Heye
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3044:
3043:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3031:
3025:
3023:
3018:
3003:
3001:
3000:FĂĽhrerprinzip
2990:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2956:
2951:
2950:Rainer Barzel
2947:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2921:
2919:
2913:
2903:
2901:
2894:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2872:Habeas corpus
2869:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2823:Thomas Dehler
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2733:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2700:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2681:human dignity
2678:
2673:
2672:
2665:
2663:
2657:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2626:
2616:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2602:In Germany's
2596:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2574:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2516:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2500:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2415:
2414:German people
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2328:
2326:
2325:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2276:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2249:
2243:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2228:republicanism
2225:
2224:human dignity
2221:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2188:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2153:
2152:Museum Koenig
2149:
2145:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2045:
2036:
2030:
2022:
2014:
2007:
2002:
1994:
1985:
1982:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1946:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:this limited
1893:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1781:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1745:
1743:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1694:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1552:
1551:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1532:Saxony-Anhalt
1530:
1528:
1525:
1523:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
998:
995:
994:
990:
987:
985:
982:
980:
977:
976:
972:
969:
968:
964:
961:
960:
956:
954:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
928:
925:
918:
917:
908:
905:
904:
903:
901:
896:
894:
892:
887:
883:
880:
879:
878:
876:
871:
869:
868:
864:
863:
857:
854:
853:
852:
850:
845:
843:
840:
839:
836:
835:
833:
827:
826:
823:
816:
815:
808:
805:
804:
800:
797:
796:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
769:
765:
764:
760:
757:
756:
753:
746:
745:
738:
737:
733:
731:
730:
726:
725:
721:
720:
716:
712:
709:
707:
704:
703:
702:
701:
697:
696:
690:
689:
682:
679:
675:
672:
671:
670:
667:
666:
661:
657:
656:Robert Habeck
654:
653:
650:
649:
645:
644:
640:
636:
633:
632:
628:
624:
623:
619:
618:
612:
611:
603:
599:
596:
595:
592:
591:
587:
586:
583:Head of State
580:
579:
572:
569:
567:
564:
563:
560:
555:Constitution
550:
549:
543:
539:
538:
535:
526:
525:
522:
517:
516:
508:
504:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
474:
469:
464:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
435:republicanism
432:
428:
423:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
367:
361:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
334:
330:
326:
322:
317:
313:
308:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
285:
276:
272:
270:
269:
257:
254:
250:
241:
236:
233:
230:
226:
223:
220:
216:
213:
210:
206:
203:
200:
198:
194:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
166:
164:
160:
157:
154:
152:
148:
145:
141:
138:
136:
132:
129:
126:
124:
123:Head of state
120:
116:
114:
110:
105:
102:
99:
96:
94:
90:
86:
84:
80:
77:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
53:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
6251:West Germany
6151:Transnistria
6113:Vatican City
5950:
5792:Bibliography
5666:Coat of arms
5646:Architecture
5623:Trade unions
5603:Prostitution
5563:Homelessness
5526:Demographics
5475:Trade unions
5442:
5432:German model
5405:Central bank
5349:Conservatism
5312:Human rights
5297:Court system
5292:Constitution
5291:
5272:
5118:Contemporary
5107:West Germany
5102:East Germany
5077:World War II
5072:Nazi Germany
5012:18th-century
4971:East Francia
4925:Cimbrian War
4770:East Germany
4768:
4762:
4679:(in English)
4637:
4631:(in English)
4622:(in English)
4613:(in English)
4599:
4593:(in English)
4584:(in English)
4552:
4532:. Retrieved
4528:the original
4523:
4514:
4495:
4489:(in English)
4472:
4452:
4445:
4421:
4414:
4408:(in English)
4392:
4380:. Retrieved
4376:
4367:
4355:. Retrieved
4351:
4342:
4325:
4321:
4311:
4299:. Retrieved
4295:
4286:
4275:, retrieved
4253:
4243:
4230:. Retrieved
4215:
4203:. Retrieved
4189:
4176:. Retrieved
4161:
4150:, retrieved
4136:
4130:
4121:
4115:
4106:
4100:
4081:
4075:
4067:
4051:
4042:
4036:
4028:
4023:
4015:
4010:
4002:
3997:
3989:
3984:
3973:, retrieved
3966:the original
3957:
3950:
3942:
3937:
3929:
3924:
3916:
3911:
3903:
3898:
3887:
3875:. Retrieved
3866:
3856:
3848:
3832:
3823:
3817:
3798:
3788:30 September
3786:. Retrieved
3772:
3765:
3757:Art. 79
3752:
3740:. Retrieved
3719:
3707:. Retrieved
3702:
3698:
3688:
3679:
3673:
3661:. Retrieved
3657:
3648:
3624:
3619:
3606:
3589:
3556:
3541:
3528:
3506:
3453:World War II
3400:Enabling Act
3296:. Retrieved
3283:
3266:
3253:
3245:
3241:
3238:
3231:
3210:
3203:
3199:
3179:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3127:
3118:
3098:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3080:
3053:
3046:
3040:
3034:
3028:
3026:
3014:
2996:
2985:then called
2983:Horst Köhler
2981:. President
2976:
2970:
2959:
2946:Willy Brandt
2943:
2927:
2917:
2915:
2896:
2865:
2841:SchluĂźstrich
2840:
2834:
2819:West Germany
2814:
2800:
2789:
2778:
2771:
2765:
2758:
2735:
2726:Other courts
2720:Nazi Germany
2708:Enabling act
2704:
2685:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2632:
2601:
2575:
2562:
2552:
2541:
2522:
2503:
2498:
2495:
2489:
2486:Basic Treaty
2482:Eastern Bloc
2475:
2471:
2468:puppet state
2451:
2438:Nazi Germany
2419:
2409:
2402:Bundesländer
2401:
2394:
2367:
2351:
2349:
2332:West Germany
2329:
2322:
2320:
2315:
2304:
2301:
2296:
2290:
2285:
2279:
2277:
2246:
2244:
2217:
2175:
2171:
2159:
2143:
2140:
2134:
2115:
2110:
2102:
2089:
2087:
2081:
2069:
2060:
2051:
2049:
2041:
2028:
1955:Bundesländer
1951:
1911:
1892:Basic Treaty
1888:
1876:German Reich
1860:
1843:Lower Saxony
1828:
1824:
1823:
1782:
1765:
1662:Conservatism
1607:
1566:
1502:Lower Saxony
1457:
1436:
1381:
1371:
1121:
1111:
962:
952:
899:
890:
874:
866:
848:
831:
828:
821:Subdivisions
807:Other courts
799:Joint Senate
735:
728:
717:
698:
646:
620:
588:
571:Human rights
553:
530:Politics of
518:
505:
477:
424:
420:
378:
374:
370:
365:
364:
362:
309:
301:constitution
283:
281:
264:
72:Jurisdiction
29:
6241:1949 in law
6189:Isle of Man
6124:recognition
6093:Switzerland
6028:Netherlands
5593:Pornography
5568:Immigration
5531:Drug policy
5443:Mittelstand
5390:Agriculture
5354:Nationalism
5327:Transgender
5211:Earthquakes
5158:, 1583-1588
5156:Cologne War
5052:World War I
4954:Middle Ages
4940:Gothic Wars
4638:Other links
4571:(in German)
4205:22 November
3804:"Basic Law"
3630:(in German)
3582:West Berlin
3564:, Hamburg,
3534:West Berlin
3492:Rechtsstaat
3298:14 November
3161:other votes
3146:Brandenburg
3130:referendums
3107:Vizeadmiral
3058:becoming a
2962:Helmut Kohl
2836:Rechtsstaat
2815:Grundgesetz
2691:beforehand.
2573:structure.
2533:legislative
2504:Volkskammer
2353:Rechtsstaat
2200:Herreninsel
2122:Herreninsel
2035:Karl Arnold
1871:Saar Treaty
1833:, Bavaria,
1768:irredentist
1482:Brandenburg
1241:1932 (July)
941:Referendums
856:composition
693:Legislature
635:Olaf Scholz
557:(Basic Law)
489:Grundrechte
447:rule of law
379:Grundgesetz
366:Grundgesetz
354:West Berlin
329:Grundgesetz
6230:Categories
6063:San Marino
6023:Montenegro
6003:Luxembourg
5983:Kazakhstan
5886:Azerbaijan
5754:Television
5739:Philosophy
5714:Literature
5573:Irreligion
5558:Healthcare
5521:Corruption
5287:Chancellor
5276:(military)
5273:Bundeswehr
4669:JurisPedia
4609:Wikisource
4328:(2): 461.
4152:7 December
3975:7 December
3867:www.hdg.de
3640:References
3260:Literature
3171:Amendments
3068:Bundeswehr
3056:Reichswehr
3042:Reichswehr
3036:Bundeswehr
3030:Bundeswehr
2900:Chancellor
2805:, forbids
2803:fair trial
2677:Bundeswehr
2584:Presidency
2539:branches.
2477:Ostpolitik
2236:federalism
2138:(states).
1806:annexation
1677:Liberalism
1648:Federalism
1256:1933 (Nov)
1251:1933 (Mar)
1246:1932 (Nov)
1226:1924 (Dec)
1221:1924 (May)
1136:1867 (Aug)
1131:1867 (Feb)
946:Coalitions
873:District (
443:federalism
275:Wikisource
273:at German
253:Wikisource
228:Supersedes
197:Federalism
156:Chancellor
87:8 May 1949
6179:Gibraltar
5998:Lithuania
5709:Libraries
5689:Festivals
5536:Education
5480:Transport
5445:companies
5364:President
5302:Elections
5267:Bundesrat
5262:Bundestag
5231:Mountains
5199:Districts
5177:Geography
4910:Visigoths
4847:Overviews
4553:Full text
4334:1066-1271
3663:6 January
3288:June 2022
3186:Bundesrat
3182:Bundestag
3114:Wehrmacht
3095:ombudsman
3064:President
3048:Wehrmacht
2987:elections
2978:Bundesrat
2930:president
2906:Bundesrat
2893:Bundestag
2887:Bundestag
2699:Bundestag
2567:Bundesrat
2555:Bundestag
2529:executive
2502:1990 the
2324:Sonderweg
2316:Sonderweg
2257:Reichstag
2103:Basic Law
1945:Bundestag
1841:, Hesse,
1773:‹See Tfd›
1672:Far-right
1657:Communism
1542:Thuringia
923:Elections
751:Judiciary
719:Bundesrat
700:Bundestag
615:Executive
481:‹See Tfd›
431:democracy
371:Basic Law
338:‹See Tfd›
321:‹See Tfd›
299:) is the
289:‹See Tfd›
238:Full text
218:Author(s)
163:Judiciary
151:Executive
144:Bundesrat
140:Bundestag
6199:Svalbard
6184:Guernsey
6131:Abkhazia
6078:Slovenia
6073:Slovakia
6048:Portugal
5906:Bulgaria
5801:Category
5719:Internet
5704:Language
5694:Folklore
5613:Religion
5588:Pensions
5583:Naturism
5460:Taxation
5344:Lobbying
5317:Intersex
5250:Politics
4859:Timeline
4838:General
4831:articles
4657: :
4645:(1994):
4503:Archived
4481:Archived
4401:Archived
4232:29 April
4226:Archived
4199:Archived
4178:29 April
4172:Archived
4146:archived
4060:Archived
3871:Archived
3841:Archived
3808:Archived
3782:Archived
3733:Archived
3709:16 April
3322:See also
3225:and the
3223:railways
3184:and the
2752:and the
2537:judicial
2432:and the
2208:Chiemsee
2206:lake of
2204:Bavarian
2157:Trizonal
2126:Chiemsee
2032:—
1811:de facto
1794:Beitritt
1776:German:
1626:Passport
1522:Saarland
900:Gemeinde
772:Ordinary
135:Chambers
113:Branches
83:Ratified
55:Overview
6103:Ukraine
6053:Romania
6013:Moldova
5971:Ireland
5966:Iceland
5961:Hungary
5951:Germany
5946:Georgia
5936:Finland
5931:Estonia
5926:Denmark
5911:Croatia
5896:Belgium
5891:Belarus
5881:Austria
5876:Armenia
5871:Andorra
5866:Albania
5778:Outline
5684:Fashion
5671:Cuisine
5633:Culture
5598:Poverty
5541:Germans
5504:Society
5485:Welfare
5470:Tourism
5427:Exports
5400:Banking
5378:Economy
5282:Cabinet
5221:Islands
5216:Geology
5139:Regions
4905:Teutons
4878:Ancient
4840:History
4827:Germany
4661:, 1994:
4651:Chicago
3385:(1919)
3355:(1849)
3342:(1815)
3204:During
3196:History
3176:Process
2571:federal
2499:de jure
2490:de jure
2472:de jure
2251:in the
2164:Bavaria
2130:Bavaria
2124:in the
2095:Koblenz
1970:Hamburg
1898:de jure
1839:Hamburg
1817:de jure
1800:de jure
1787:de jure
1492:Hamburg
1472:Bavaria
849:Landtag
830:State (
711:members
669:Cabinet
533:Germany
416:Austria
303:of the
98:Federal
6194:Jersey
6136:Kosovo
6098:Turkey
6088:Sweden
6068:Serbia
6058:Russia
6043:Poland
6038:Norway
6018:Monaco
5988:Latvia
5956:Greece
5941:France
5916:Cyprus
5852:Europe
5806:Portal
5661:Cinema
5641:Anthem
5608:Racism
5422:Energy
5236:Rivers
5194:States
5164:, 1848
5000:Modern
4829:
4460:
4433:
4382:13 May
4357:13 May
4332:
4301:13 May
4277:13 May
4268:
4088:
3562:Bremen
3421:Others
3416:(1968)
3410:(1949)
3402:(1933)
3396:(1933)
3379:(1871)
3368:(1867)
3315:
3311:
3307:
3286:
3273:
3254:Länder
3157:Hitler
3142:Berlin
3033:. The
2918:Länder
2766:Länder
2748:, the
2744:, the
2740:, the
2563:Länder
2535:, and
2426:Allies
2344:Hitler
2334:, the
2261:Hitler
2172:Länder
2166:. The
2160:Länder
2144:Länder
2135:Länder
2082:Länder
2061:Länder
1966:Bremen
1961:Länder
1869:. The
1853:, and
1835:Bremen
1600:Russia
1575:France
1527:Saxony
1487:Bremen
1477:Berlin
792:Social
787:Labour
782:Fiscal
674:Scholz
485:German
473:Berlin
342:German
325:German
293:German
93:System
6169:Ă…land
6083:Spain
6008:Malta
5978:Italy
5785:Index
5749:Sport
5734:Names
5729:Music
5724:Media
5679:Dance
5551:Women
5516:Crime
5490:Women
5226:Lakes
4900:Goths
4534:4 May
3969:(PDF)
3962:(PDF)
3877:4 May
3742:6 May
3736:(PDF)
3729:(PDF)
3566:Hesse
3520:Notes
3451:Post-
3317:968).
3292:(PDF)
2527:into
1831:Baden
1595:China
1580:Italy
1497:Hesse
875:Kreis
660:GrĂĽne
5699:Flag
5656:Arts
5322:LGBT
4781:1968
4776:1949
4667:(on
4577:HTML
4559:HTML
4536:2018
4458:ISBN
4431:ISBN
4384:2024
4359:2024
4330:ISSN
4303:2024
4279:2024
4266:ISBN
4234:2014
4207:2012
4180:2014
4154:2016
4086:ISBN
3977:2016
3879:2018
3790:2015
3744:2014
3711:2024
3665:2020
3595:Herr
3300:2022
3271:ISBN
3144:and
2862:U.S.
2847:who
2829:and
2809:and
2627:and
2336:Nazi
2234:and
2190:The
2088:The
1968:and
1919:the
1621:Visa
1437:2024
1431:2019
1426:2014
1421:2009
1416:2004
1411:1999
1406:1994
1401:1989
1396:1984
1391:1979
1372:Next
1366:2021
1361:2017
1356:2013
1351:2009
1346:2005
1341:2002
1336:1998
1331:1994
1326:1990
1321:1987
1316:1983
1311:1980
1306:1976
1301:1972
1296:1969
1291:1965
1286:1961
1281:1957
1276:1953
1271:1949
1266:1938
1261:1936
1236:1930
1231:1928
1216:1920
1211:1919
1206:1912
1201:1907
1196:1903
1191:1898
1186:1893
1181:1890
1176:1887
1171:1884
1166:1881
1161:1878
1156:1877
1151:1874
1146:1871
1141:1868
1112:2022
1106:2017
1101:2012
1096:2010
1091:2009
1086:2004
1081:1999
1076:1994
1071:1989
1066:1984
1061:1979
1056:1974
1051:1969
1046:1964
1041:1959
1036:1954
1031:1949
1015:1957
1010:1953
1005:1949
989:1932
984:1925
979:1919
907:list
882:list
832:Land
627:list
445:and
312:Bonn
282:The
5850:of
5651:Art
5334:Law
4655:Ill
4590:PDF
4581:PDF
4563:PDF
4258:doi
3705:(3)
3165:the
2878:.
2845:GDR
2817:in
2798:.
2375:SPD
2371:CDU
2263:'s
1984:).
1590:USA
891:Amt
639:SPD
602:SPD
503:).
373:or
251:at
202:Yes
170::
6232::
4677:.
4671:).
4653:,
4649::
4629:.
4620:.
4611:.
4579:,
4565:,
4561:,
4522:.
4425:.
4375:.
4350:.
4326:53
4324:.
4320:.
4294:.
4264:,
4252:,
4224:.
4170:.
4144:,
4140:,
4066:,
3869:.
3865:.
3847:.
3839:.
3701:.
3697:.
3656:.
3313:p.
3305:28
3256:.
3136:.
3116:.
3024:.
2782:.
2769:.
2722:.
2531:,
2230:,
1646:/
1585:UK
487::
441:,
437:,
433:,
344::
327::
307:.
295::
5840:e
5833:t
5826:v
4819:e
4812:t
4805:v
4773::
4709:e
4702:t
4695:v
4538:.
4466:.
4439:.
4386:.
4361:.
4336:.
4305:.
4260::
4236:.
4209:.
4182:.
4094:.
3881:.
3792:.
3746:.
3713:.
3703:3
3667:.
3632:.
3614:.
3302:.
3277:.
3085:(
2408:(
2400:(
2295:(
2068:(
2054:(
1755:e
1748:t
1741:v
1668:)
1664:(
955:)
902:)
893:)
877:)
851:)
834:)
662:)
658:(
641:)
637:(
629:)
625:(
604:)
600:(
286:(
117:3
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.