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to a territory unless the state exercised strong and effective political control and, if so, only for a limited period of time, essentially an occupational force only. However, Britain's view was that
Germany was a latecomer to the continent and was assumptively unlikely to gain any possessions beyond those it already held, which were swiftly proving to be more valuable than British territories. That logic caused it to be generally assumed by Britain and France that Germany had an interest in embarrassing the other European powers on the continent and forcing them to give up their possessions if they could not muster a strong political presence. On the other side,
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power establishing some kind of base on the coast from which it was free to expand into the interior. The
Europeans did not believe that the rules of occupation demanded European hegemony on the ground. The Belgians originally wanted to include that effective occupation required provisions that "cause peace to be administered", but Britain and France were the powers that had that amendment struck out of the final document.
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The conference provided an opportunity to channel latent
European hostilities towards one another outward; provide new areas for assisting the European powers expand in the face of rising American, Russian and Japanese interests; and form constructive dialogue to limit future hostilities. In Africa,
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At the Berlin
Conference, the scope of the Principle of Effective Occupation was heavily contested between Germany and France. The Germans, who were new to the continent, essentially believed that as far as the extension of power in Africa was concerned, no colonial power should have any legal right
969:
stated that a power could acquire rights over colonial lands only if it possessed them or had effective occupation: if it had treaties with local leaders, flew its flag there, and established an administration in the territory to govern it with a police force to keep order. The colonial power could
78:
that was already in full swing. Some scholars, however, warn against an overemphasis on its role in the colonial partitioning of Africa, and draw attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after the conference. According to a 2024 study, the conference only set the borders for the Congo
1260:
sped up after the
Conference since even within areas designated as their sphere of influence, the European powers had to take effective possession by the principle of effectivity. In central Africa in particular, expeditions were dispatched to coerce traditional rulers into signing treaties, using
82:
The conference contributed to ushering in a period of heightened colonial activity by
European powers; one writer once made the point that the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 was responsible for "the old carve-up of Africa". Other writers have also laid the blame in "the partition of Africa" on the
994:
The great powers' disinclination to rule their territories is apparent throughout the protocols of the Berlin
Conference but especially in the Principle of Effective Occupation. In line with Germany and Britain's opposing views, the powers finally agreed that it could be established by a European
974:
in Africa but also for delimiting their respective overseas possessions, as effective occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling colonial boundary disputes. However, as the scope of the Berlin Act was limited to the lands that fronted on the
African coast, European powers in
291:
The
European race for colonies made Germany start launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe the brewing conflict, Belgian King Leopold II convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best interests of all
1518:
Crowe, Craven, and
Katzenellenbogen are authors who have attempted to soften the language and therefore the intent of the conference. They warn against an overemphasis on its role in the colonial partitioning of Africa, extensively justifying it by ignoring the motivations and outcomes of the
135:
Prior to the conference, European diplomats approached African rulers and the French leaders had already invaded some parts of Lagos in the same manner as they had in the Western Hemisphere, by establishing a connection to local trade networks. In the early 1800s, the European demand for
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That principle, along with others that were written at the conference, allowed the Europeans to conquer Africa but to do as little as possible to administer or control it. The principle did not apply so much to the hinterlands of Africa at the time of the conference. This gave rise to
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The properties occupied by Belgian King Leopold's International Congo Society, the name used in the General Act, were confirmed as the Society's. On 1 August 1885, a few months after the closure of the Berlin Conference, Leopold's Vice-Administrator General in the Congo,
217:
By the early 1880s, many factors including diplomatic successes, greater European local knowledge, and the demand for resources such as gold, timber, and rubber, triggered dramatically increased European involvement in the continent of Africa. Stanley's charting of the
1519:
conference by only drawing attention to bilateral agreements concluded before and after the conference, regardless of whether they were finalized and followed in practice. For example, Craven has questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference.
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theory, which basically gave any colonial power with coastal territory the right to claim political influence over an indefinite amount of inland territory. Since Africa was irregularly shaped, that theory caused problems and was later rejected.
1522:
However, the countries that ultimately participated in the Final Act ignored requirements set forth within it to establish their satellite governments, rights to the land, and trade for the benefit of their national, and domestic economies.
144:, led many European merchants into the interior markets of Africa. European spheres of power and influence were limited to coastal Africa at this time as Europeans had only established trading posts (protected by gunboats) up to this point.
1758:
79:
region (those borders were later revised). The study finds that "most of Africaâs borders were not initially formed until after the 1884â85 Berlin Conference... most did not take their final form until over two decades later."
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which, with the Berlin Conference of 1884, brought colonial imperialism to flower" and that "he primary reality of imperialism in Africa today is economic," going on to expound on the extraction of wealth from the continent.
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Other historians focus on the legal implications in international law and argue that the conference was only one of many (mostly bilateral) agreements between prospective colonists, which took place after the conference.
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later stated that from that same 1 August 1885 onwards, Leopold II was to be considered Sovereign of the new state, again an issue never discussed, let alone decided, at the Berlin Conference.
230:
from European maps of the continent, delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French and Belgian control. These European nations raced to annex territory that might be claimed by rivals.
87:
holds a contrary view, although he conceded that "the Berlin Act did have a relevance to the course of the partition" of Africa. Of the fourteen countries being represented, seven of them â
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Frankema, Ewout, Jeffrey G. Williamson, and P. J. Woltjer. "An economic rationale for the West African scramble? The commercial transition and the commodity price boom of 1835â1885."
656:
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was also formed, with more economic goals but still closely related to the former society. Leopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to
1673:
Katzenellenbogen, S. (1996). "It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries.". In Nugent, P.; Asiwaju, A. I. (eds.).
300:, called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out a joint policy on the African continent.
268:
In 1882, realizing the geopolitical extent of Portuguese control on the coasts, but seeing penetration by France eastward across Central Africa toward Ethiopia, the Nile, and the
2641:
2435:
Katzenellenbogen, S. 1996. It didn't happen at Berlin: Politics, economics and ignorance in the setting of Africa's colonial boundaries. In Nugent, P. and Asiwaju, A. I. (Eds.),
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De Belgische Koloniën - Documentaire over het Belgisch Koloniaal Rijk (English: The Belgian Colonies - Documentary on the Belgian Colonial Empire) timestamp 10:40 to 10:52)
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numerous instances later claimed rights over interior lands without demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation, as articulated in Article 35 of the Final Act.
991:
had large territorial holdings there and wanted to keep them while it minimised its responsibilities and administrative costs. In the end, the British view prevailed.
2237:
Adem, Gurminder K. Bhambra, Yolande Bouka, Randolph B. Persaud, Olivia U. Rutazibwa, Vineet Thakur, Duncan Bell, Karen Smith, Toni Haastrup, Seifudein (3 July 2020).
1040:). All of the countries attending the conference, except for Britain, endorsed Portugal's ambitions, and just over five years later, in 1890, the British government
1962:
1062:, determined which part belonged to whom. France would own territory to the north of the line, and Britain would own territory to the south of it. The basin of the
1608:
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colonialism was introduced across nearly all the continent. When African independence was regained after World War II, it was in the form of fragmented states.
788:(also called "International Congo Society"), as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs". The first name of this Society had been the "
170:
From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo not as a reporter but as Leopold's agent, with the secret mission to organise what would become known as the
2587:
The Power of Geographical Imaginaries in the European International Order: Colonialism, the 1884â85 Berlin Conference, and Model International Organizations
597:
837:
The Principle of Effective Occupation (based on effective occupation, see below) was introduced to prevent powers from setting up colonies in name only.
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741:
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powers. Thus, an international prohibition of the slave trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European members. In his novella
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Any fresh act of taking possession of any portion of the African coast would have to be notified by the power taking possession, or assuming a
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also make use of the colony economically. That principle became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial
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1603:
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By 1902, 90% of all the land that makes up Africa was under European control. Most of the Sahara was French, but after the quelling of the
2757:
1826:
Cornelis, S. (1991). "Stanley au service de LĂ©opold II: La fondation de l'Ătat IndĂ©pendant du Congo (1878â1885)". In Cornelis, S. (ed.).
988:
559:
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varied per nation, but these 14 countries sent representatives to attend the Berlin Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act:
17:
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123:
2713:
804:", a name that in fact was not in use at the time of the conference and does not appear in the General Act. The Belgian official
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incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly acted on by the French military, which took control of what is now the
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in East Africa. The way to do it was to "liberate Africa" by the introduction of "commerce, Christianity" and civilization.
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was dispatched to central Africa, travelled into the western Congo basin, and raised the French flag over the newly founded
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2504:
272:, Britain saw its vital trade route through Egypt to India threatened. Because of the collapsed Egyptian financing and a
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soon after the closure of the Berlin Conference in August 1885. French agents discovered Leopold's plans, and in response
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2012:
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The following states were annexed by the British Empire roughly a decade after (see below for more information):
710:
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104:
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European claims in Africa, 1913. Today's boundaries, which are largely a legacy of the colonial era, are shown.
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Definition of regions in which each European power had an exclusive right to pursue the legal ownership of land
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Bismarck at the crossroads: the reorientation of German foreign policy after the Congress of Berlin, 1878â1880
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Stengers, Jean, "Sur l'aventure congolaise de Joseph Conrad". In Quaghebeur, M. and van Balberghe, E. (eds),
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901:
3037:
2521:
2301:
1331:, involved in colonial conflicts with Spain and France, which conquered the nation in the early 20th century.
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Craven, M. 2015. "Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 and the logic of free trade."
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2943:
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The invention of a tradition: Westlake, the Berlin Conference and the historicisation of international law
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Uniquely, the United States reserved the right to decline or to accept the conclusions of the conference.
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Papier Blanc, Encre Noire: Cent Ans de Culture Francophone en Afrique Centrale (ZaĂŻre, Rwanda et Burundi)
403:
160:
1937:
1547:
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1927:
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Slave traders and their captives bound in chains and collared with 'taming sticks'. From Livingstone's
1368:
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3337:
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1364:
716:
422:
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in which hundreds of British subjects were murdered or injured, Britain intervened in the nominally
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Förster, Susanne, et al. "Negotiating German colonial heritage in Berlin's Afrikanisches Viertel."
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361:
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3139:
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and Miltou, was designated to be French, and the area to the south would be German, later called
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Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa conference 1884â1885 and the onset of partition
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1842:
Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884â1885 and the Onset of Partition
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63:
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in Africans a great world movement of modern times is "the partitioning of Africa after the
3317:
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Fondation de l'Ătat IndĂ©pendant du Congo: Un chapitre de l'histoire du partage de l'Afrique
1582:
1378:
852:
602:
570:
515:
502:
156:
2558:
Shepperson, George. "The Centennial of the West African Conference of Berlin, 1884â1885."
1759:"Endogenous Colonial Borders: Precolonial States and Geography in the Partition of Africa"
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would be British, with the French taking the basin of Lake Chad. Furthermore, between the
8:
3129:
2938:
2892:
2863:
1980:"Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 and the logic of free trade"
1699:"Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884â1885 and the logic of free trade"
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1149:
1071:
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but recently, scholars have questioned the legal and economic impact of the conference.
303:
The conference opened on 15 November 1884 and closed on 26 February 1885. The number of
47:, concluded on 26 February 1885 with the signature of a General Act regulating European
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348:
280:
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1488:
3249:
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3032:
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2312:
2257:
2154:
2143:
1989:
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1504:
1500:
1420:
1345:, founded with the support of the United States for freed slaves to return to Africa.
1306:
1041:
1021:
797:
776:
767:
746:
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344:
304:
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195:
187:
59:
3244:
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2800:
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1712:
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1512:
1450:
1382:
1356:
1141:
1087:
978:
801:
586:
511:
398:
273:
254:
199:
171:
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Matua, Maka Wu (1995). "Why Redraw the Map of Africa: A Moral and Legal Inquiry".
1950:
3224:
3219:
2887:
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2727:
2415:
2307:
2213:"BBC - History - British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"
2188:"BBC - History - British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"
2013:"BBC â History â British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"
1465:
1109:
1079:
378:
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88:
84:
52:
790:
International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa
292:
three countries. Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal,
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L'Europe coloniale et le grand tournant de la ConfĂ©rence de Berlin (1884â1885)
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Historians have long marked the Berlin Conference as the formalisation of the
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goals, with the "African Society" serving primarily as a philanthropic front.
3291:
3161:
3156:
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were united by co-option of the intervening territory (the land later became
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112:
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was created from a revision of this article dated 11 December 2017
2602:
2536:
1389:
1374:
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The first reference in an international act to the obligations attaching to
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Partly to gain public acceptance, the conference resolved to end slavery by
32:
This article is about the conference from 1884 to 1885. For other uses, see
1294:
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841:
721:
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480:
141:
48:
2516:
Mulligan, William. "The Anti-slave Trade Campaign in Europe, 1888â90." in
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1312:
Within a few years, Africa was at least nominally divided up south of the
1140:: Italy was to own what lies north of a line from the intersection of the
3276:
3239:
3209:
3173:
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3089:
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2404:
Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds.
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Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds.
1453:, the Sudan remained firmly under joint BritishâEgyptian rulership, with
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sarcastically referred to one of the participants at the conference, the
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100:
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1535:
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to join him in researching and "civilising" the continent. In 1878, the
2909:
2875:
2479:
1051:
1000:
812:
269:
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1396:, carved out of the former Majeerteen Sultanate, which ruled northern
1367:
of 1895â1896 but fell to Italian occupation in 1936 defeat during the
2924:
1244:
1131:
1104:: The area to the north of a line, formed by the intersection of the
1059:
1830:. Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa. pp. 41â60 (53â54).
1472:
was conquered by Italy in 1911, and Morocco was divided between the
868:
2518:
A Global History of Anti-slavery Politics in the Nineteenth Century
1956:
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1033:
1017:
2572:(Cambridge University Press, 2012). 289 pp. ISBN 978-0-521-19421-1
2540:
1655:
Bruce Gilley: In Defense of German Colonialism, September 1, 2022
1625:
1623:
1499:
One of the chief stated justifications "was a desire to stamp out
210:. It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its old ally,
2461:, Paris, Le Manuscrit, coll. "Carrefours d'empires", 2013, 380 p.
1908:"The Conference of Berlin and British 'New' Imperialism, 1884â85"
1503:
once and for all". Before he died in 1873, Christian missionary,
1397:
1360:
1342:
1328:
1240:
465:
96:
2302:"The Realities in Africa: European Profit or Negro Development?"
178:
sent its own explorers to Africa. In 1881, French naval officer
1648:
1620:
1313:
1277:
were overrun by the French in several wars by the beginning of
1270:
1083:
1055:
1037:
1029:
1016:: The Portuguese government presented a project, known as the "
242:
261:, an event that upset Bismarck's carefully laid plans and led
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1274:
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that demanded the Portuguese withdraw from the disputed area.
137:
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Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law
2239:"Why Is Mainstream International Relations Blind to Racism?"
1118:: The separation came in the form of a line passing through
1424:
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in South Africa in 1879, moved on to annex the independent
1063:
214:, to block off the Congo Society's access to the Atlantic.
1926:. Taipei: Department of History and Research Institute of
1483:
800:, announced that the territory was henceforth called "the
2532:
2437:
African boundaries: Barriers, conduits and opportunities
1988:. Lril.oxfordjournals.org. 10 March 2015. Archived from
1882:"The Berlin Conference: Where a Continent Was Colonized"
1675:
African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities
1573:
Some have argued the conference central to imperialism.
1464:
The Boer republics were conquered by the British in the
1020:", or the "Rose-Coloured Map", in which the colonies of
198:
in the area, long held through the mostly defunct proxy
2712:
2175:
Lord Cromer: Victorian Imperialist, Edwardian Proconsul
1811:
The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo
1757:
Paine, Jack; Qiu, Xiaoyan; Ricart-Huguet, Joan (2024).
1609:
Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
1381:, founded in the early 18th century, it was annexed by
29:
1884â1885 European regulation of colonisation in Africa
1400:
until the 20th century, when it was incorporated into
115:â came home without any formal possessions in Africa.
2511:
Archives of Empire: Volume 2. The Scramble for Africa
2480:
The Conference at Berlin on the West-African Question
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and down from Egypt and conquered states such as the
858:
202:, also claimed the area, based on old treaties with
2289:
1269:, in 1891. Bedouin- and Berber-ruled states in the
893:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
43:of 1884â1885 met on 15 November 1884 and, after an
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131:and other imperial powers at the Berlin Conference
2041:." EXPLORING Novels, Online Edition. Gale, 2003.
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1457:being under British occupation before becoming a
140:, which was then often used in the production of
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2457:Lorin, Amaury, and de Gemeaux, Christine, eds.,
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1086:in Sudan, which would be British. In reality, a
550:
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982:Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913
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1090:200 km wide was put in place between the
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2391:The Berlin West African Conference, 1884â1885
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2061:. 2 Vols. Brussels: Labor. Vol. 1, pp. 15â34.
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1921:
1911:
1741:The Berlin West African Conference, 1884â1885
1316:. By 1895, the only independent states were:
1261:force if necessary, such as was the case for
2520:(Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2013). 149â170
2330:Aghie, Antony (2004). Landauer, Carl (ed.).
2262:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1963:
1868:European Alliances and Alignments: 1871â1890
1855:European Alliances and Alignments: 1871â1890
762:The General Act fixed the following points:
1828:H.M. Stanley: Explorateur au Service du Roi
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1634:, by Keith, Arthur Berriedale, 1919, p. 52.
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2113:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
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2494:International Journal of Heritage Studies
2141:de Blij, H. J.; Muller, Peter O. (1997).
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1359:, which fended off Italian invasion from
953:Learn how and when to remove this message
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265:to join the European invasion of Africa.
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2145:Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts
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1604:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889â90
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823:and east of it in an area south of 5° N.
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74:can be seen as the formalisation of the
2347:Prelude to the Partition of West Africa
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2070:
1734:
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1484:Motives and David Livingstone's crusade
834:rivers were made free for ship traffic.
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2509:Harlow, Barbara, and Mia Carter, eds.
2149:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
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786:International Association of the Congo
412:Gabriel August van der Straten-Ponthoz
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151:, who had founded and controlled the
2614:General Act of the Berlin Conference
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2101:Moniteur Belge / Belgisch Staatsblad
1905:
1752:
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1725:
1631:The Belgian Congo and the Berlin act
1530:
891:adding citations to reliable sources
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194:, which had essentially abandoned a
83:doors of the Berlin Conference. But
3323:19th-century diplomatic conferences
2714:International relations (1814â1919)
1965:General-Akte der Berliner Konferenz
1899:
1427:republic founded by Dutch settlers.
811:The 14 signatory powers would have
283:, which it controlled for decades.
222:Basin (1874â1877) removed the last
24:
2638:
2465:
2383:London Review of International Law
2369:. London: Longman, 1974, 4th edn.
2103:. Brussels. 1885â1886. p. 22.
2004:
1985:London Review of International Law
1873:
1704:London Review of International Law
34:Berlin Conference (disambiguation)
25:
3374:
3313:Diplomatic conferences in Germany
2596:
2439:. pp. 21â34. London: Pinter.
2412:; 30 topical chapters by experts.
2010:
1906:Wang, Shih-tsung (31 July 1998).
1763:American Political Science Review
1747:
1677:. London: Pinter. pp. 21â34.
1581:wrote in 1948 that alongside the
1441:(Transvaal), also a Boer republic
1293:and, having already defeated the
967:principle of effective occupation
859:Principle of effective occupation
153:International African Association
2650:
2570:Belgium and the Congo, 1885â1980
2552:How Europe Underdeveloped Africa
2408:(Oxford University Press, 1988)
2177:(Oxford University Press, 2005).
1534:
1431:
1413:
1388:
1373:
1349:
1335:
1321:
1078:, the border would pass between
867:
855:is contained in the Berlin Act.
844:, to the other signatory powers.
729:
703:
676:
638:
612:
579:
552:
525:
490:
458:
431:
397:
371:
326:
58:The conference was organized by
3333:1885 in international relations
3328:1884 in international relations
3298:European colonisation of Africa
2338:
2323:
2270:
2230:
2205:
2180:
2167:
2121:
2093:
2064:
2051:
1972:
1860:
1847:
1834:
1130:, going up to the extremity of
1058:, on the northeastern coast of
878:needs additional citations for
51:and trade in Africa during the
2513:(Duke University Press, 2020).
1932:
1922:
1912:
1800:
1787:
1637:
757:
13:
1:
3084:KronstadtâToulon naval visits
3038:1917 Franco-Russian agreement
3028:JapanâKorea Annexation Treaty
2562:46#1 (1985), pp. 37â48.
2537:Institute of European History
2533:EGO â European History Online
2393:. New York: Longmans, Green.
2334:. Cambridge University Press.
2075:. Brussels. pp. 177â189.
1614:
1082:, which would be French, and
286:
118:
2944:Second Industrial Revolution
2818:League of the Three Emperors
2618:South African History Online
2311:. Vol. 21, no. 4.
1281:. The British moved up from
1160:
7:
2974:Treaty of Versailles (1871)
2591:International Organization.
2539:. Retrieved 25 March 2021 (
2501:Journal of Economic History
2484:Political Science Quarterly
1597:
1513:Arab-controlled slave trade
1148:to the intersection of the
657:AntÎnio José da Serra Gomes
408:International Congo Society
404:International Congo Society
241:, using a claim of another
161:International Congo Society
10:
3379:
3023:JapanâKorea Treaty of 1905
2356:
2129:States and Power in Africa
1928:National Taiwan University
1369:Second Italo-Ethiopian War
652:Portuguese colonial empire
233:France moved to take over
31:
3182:
3046:
2959:
2844:European balance of power
2836:
2771:
2720:
2478:Leon, Daniel De (1886). "
2444:Brazza, A Life for Africa
2345:Hargreaves, John (1963).
1964:
1772:10.1017/S0003055424000054
1743:. London: Longmans Green.
1365:First Italo-Ethiopian War
1007:
668:AntĂłnio de Serpa Pimentel
423:Auguste, Baron Lambermont
237:, one of the last of the
3135:Venezuela Naval Blockade
2806:Anglo-Russian Convention
2442:Petringa, Maria (2006).
2401:(1981, New ed. edition).
2389:Crowe, Sybil E. (1942).
2297:Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt
2071:Thomson, Robert (1933).
1793:Chamberlain, Muriel E.,
503:American colonial empire
384:Austrian colonial empire
18:Berlin Conference (1884)
3140:Alaska boundary dispute
2813:Anglo-Japanese Alliance
2796:Franco-Russian Alliance
2603:"The Berlin Conference"
2367:The Scramble for Africa
2047:(subscription required)
1795:The Scramble for Africa
717:Swedish colonial empire
593:Italian colonial empire
566:British colonial empire
518:(as Technical Adviser)
452:, 1st Count of Benomar
450:Francisco Merry y Colom
445:Spanish colonial empire
155:the same year, invited
3358:19th century in Berlin
3059:Unification of Germany
3006:TaftâKatsura agreement
2646:
2626:Listen to this article
2363:Chamberlain, Muriel E.
2043:Discovering Collection
1913:æææè°èè±ćăæ°ćžć䞻矩ă,1884â85
1527:Analysis by historians
1511:crusade to defeat the
1496:
1449:and the ending of the
1439:South African Republic
1249:
1050:: A line running from
983:
539:French colonial empire
471:Danish colonial empire
391:von SĂĄrvĂĄr-FelsĆvidĂ©k
340:German colonial empire
224:
132:
3145:First Moroccan Crisis
2859:Spread of nationalism
2823:Eight-Nation Alliance
2645:
2585:Yao, Joanne (2022). "
2527:Nuzzo, Luigi (2012),
2496:22.7 (2016): 515â529.
2037:"Historical Context:
1943:on 13 September 2020.
1739:Crowe, S. E. (1942).
1491:
1291:Sultanate of Zanzibar
1168:
981:
630:Philip van der Hoeven
625:Dutch colonial empire
357:Heinrich von Kusserow
298:Chancellor of Germany
247:Republic of the Congo
204:Restoration-era Spain
149:Leopold II of Belgium
126:
72:General Act of Berlin
68:Leopold II of Belgium
64:chancellor of Germany
3150:Algeciras Conference
3130:Annexation of Hawaii
3069:Great Eastern Crisis
3064:Unification of Italy
3054:Formation of Romania
2871:FrenchâGerman enmity
2677:More spoken articles
2421:King Leopold's Ghost
1870:(1950), pp. 251â280.
1857:(1950), pp. 217â220.
1853:Langer, William L.,
1583:Atlantic slave trade
1459:British protectorate
1385:in the 20th century.
1379:Majeerteen Sultanate
887:improve this article
853:spheres of influence
571:Edward Baldwin Malet
516:Henry Morton Stanley
157:Henry Morton Stanley
66:, at the request of
3215:PhilippineâAmerican
3200:First Sino-Japanese
3033:Racconigi agreement
2979:Treaty of Frankfurt
2939:Great Rapprochement
2893:Scramble for Africa
2475:(Klosterman, 2012).
2131:. Ch. 3, pp. 71â72.
1969:, 26 February 1885.
1718:10.1093/lril/lrv002
1697:Craven, M. (2015).
1587:Franco-Prussian War
1568:Scramble for Africa
1468:from 1899 to 1902.
1258:Scramble for Africa
1239: Independent (
1150:15th parallel north
1042:issued an ultimatum
902:"Berlin Conference"
690:Russian colonialism
544:Alphonse de Courcel
257:became part of the
186:in what is now the
76:Scramble for Africa
3074:Congress of Berlin
2991:Reinsurance Treaty
2969:Congress of Vienna
2949:Industrial warfare
2915:Scramble for China
2647:
2568:Vanthemsche, Guy.
2279:Harvard Law School
1992:on 16 October 2015
1546:. You can help by
1497:
1402:Italian Somaliland
1394:Sultanate of Hobyo
1250:
1154:21st meridian east
1146:17th meridian east
1106:14th meridian east
984:
349:Paul von Hatzfeldt
319:Plenipotentiaries
281:Khedivate of Egypt
133:
127:Cartoon depicting
3285:
3284:
3254:Albanian Revolts
3111:German Naval Laws
3095:Naval arms races
3079:Berlin Conference
3011:Hague Conventions
2643:
2503:(2018): 231â267.
2471:Craven, Matthew.
2452:978-1-4259-1198-0
2127:Herbst, Jeffrey.
2039:Heart of Darkness
2017:bbc.co.uk/history
1936:). Archived from
1880:Rosenberg, Matt.
1564:
1563:
1505:David Livingstone
1421:Orange Free State
1307:Orange Free State
1074:degrees north in
963:
962:
955:
937:
798:Francis de Winton
777:Heart of Darkness
752:
751:
747:Mehmed Said Pasha
598:Edoardo de Launay
345:Otto von Bismarck
305:plenipotentiaries
294:Otto von Bismarck
274:subsequent mutiny
188:Republic of Congo
60:Otto von Bismarck
41:Berlin Conference
16:(Redirected from
3370:
3363:1880s in Prussia
3343:1885 conferences
3338:1884 conferences
3205:SpanishâAmerican
3125:Fashoda Incident
3001:Treaty of Björkö
2986:Treaty of Berlin
2920:Open Door Policy
2854:Eastern question
2801:Entente Cordiale
2707:
2700:
2693:
2684:
2683:
2667:
2665:
2654:
2653:
2644:
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2632:
2627:
2416:Hochschild, Adam
2351:
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1635:
1627:
1579:W. E. B. Du Bois
1575:African-American
1559:
1556:
1538:
1531:
1437:
1435:
1434:
1419:
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1416:
1392:
1377:
1357:Ethiopian Empire
1355:
1353:
1352:
1341:
1339:
1338:
1327:
1325:
1324:
1248:
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1234:
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1201:
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1183:
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1174:
1142:Tropic of Cancer
1014:PortugalâBritain
958:
951:
947:
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938:
936:
895:
871:
863:
802:Congo Free State
735:
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512:Henry S. Sanford
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310:
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200:Kingdom of Kongo
180:Pierre de Brazza
172:Congo Free State
21:
3378:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3308:1885 in Germany
3303:1884 in Germany
3288:
3287:
3286:
3281:
3220:Boxer Rebellion
3178:
3042:
2996:Treaty of Paris
2961:
2955:
2888:New Imperialism
2849:Ottoman decline
2832:
2779:Triple Alliance
2767:
2728:Austria-Hungary
2716:
2711:
2681:
2680:
2669:
2663:
2661:
2658:This audio file
2655:
2648:
2639:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2599:
2575:Waller, Bruce.
2468:
2466:Further reading
2359:
2354:
2343:
2339:
2328:
2324:
2308:Foreign Affairs
2294:
2290:
2275:
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2255:
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2065:
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2052:
2046:
2036:
2032:
2022:
2020:
2009:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1961:
1957:
1945:Also available
1940:
1917:
1904:
1900:
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1755:
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1726:
1695:
1682:
1671:
1660:
1653:
1649:
1642:
1638:
1628:
1621:
1617:
1600:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1544:needs expansion
1529:
1507:, called for a
1486:
1466:Second Boer War
1447:Mahdi rebellion
1432:
1430:
1414:
1412:
1350:
1348:
1336:
1334:
1322:
1320:
1267:King of Katanga
1236:
1235:
1227:
1226:
1218:
1217:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1189:
1181:
1180:
1172:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1116:BritainâGermany
1110:German Cameroon
1098:meridians east.
1010:
959:
948:
942:
939:
896:
894:
884:
872:
861:
815:throughout the
760:
730:
728:
704:
702:
677:
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639:
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430:
421:
414:
396:
379:Austria-Hungary
372:
370:
359:
355:
351:
347:
327:
325:
316:Colonial empire
289:
259:Triple Alliance
226:terra incognita
208:Catholic Church
196:colonial empire
121:
89:Austria-Hungary
85:Wm. Roger Louis
53:New Imperialism
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3376:
3366:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3353:1884 in Africa
3350:
3348:1885 in Africa
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3283:
3282:
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3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3252:
3247:
3237:
3232:
3230:Russo-Japanese
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3195:Anglo-Egyptian
3192:
3186:
3184:
3180:
3179:
3177:
3176:
3171:
3169:Bosnian Crisis
3166:
3165:
3164:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3118:Austro-Italian
3115:
3114:
3113:
3108:
3093:
3086:
3081:
3076:
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3048:
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3018:
3016:Martens Clause
3008:
3003:
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2922:
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2912:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2898:Egyptian Lever
2885:
2883:Pax Britannica
2880:
2879:
2878:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2864:Sovereign debt
2861:
2856:
2846:
2840:
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2834:
2833:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
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2798:
2791:Triple Entente
2788:
2787:
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2775:
2773:
2769:
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2766:
2765:
2760:
2758:United Kingdom
2755:
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2637:
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2598:
2597:External links
2595:
2594:
2593:
2583:
2573:
2566:
2556:
2547:Rodney, Walter
2544:
2525:
2514:
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2288:
2269:
2243:Foreign Policy
2229:
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2092:
2063:
2050:
2030:
2003:
1971:
1955:
1933:ćç«èșçŁć€§ćžæ·ćČćžçł»æšç 究æ
1898:
1872:
1859:
1846:
1833:
1815:
1807:Acherson, Neal
1799:
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1555:September 2020
1541:
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1451:Fashoda crisis
1443:
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1406:
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1099:
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3160:
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2828:Balkan League
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2784:Dual Alliance
2782:
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2763:United States
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2430:0-395-75924-2
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2399:0-8371-3287-8
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2375:0-582-36881-2
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2299:(July 1943).
2298:
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2273:
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2259:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2218:
2217:www.bbc.co.uk
2214:
2208:
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2192:www.bbc.co.uk
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2160:9780471119463
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2074:
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2060:
2054:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2018:
2014:
2011:David, Saul.
2007:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1975:
1968:
1959:
1952:
1948:
1939:
1929:
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1902:
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1549:
1545:
1542:This section
1540:
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1318:
1317:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1301:republics of
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1287:Mahdist State
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1233:
1224:
1215:
1214:Great Britain
1205:
1196:
1187:
1178:
1167:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
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1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1088:no man's land
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
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935:
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928:
925:
921:
918:
914:
911:
907:
904: â
903:
899:
898:Find sources:
892:
888:
882:
881:
876:This article
874:
870:
865:
864:
856:
854:
846:
843:
839:
836:
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829:
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822:
818:
814:
810:
807:
803:
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794:
791:
787:
783:
782:Joseph Conrad
779:
778:
773:
769:
765:
764:
763:
755:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
727:
726:
723:
720:
718:
715:
712:
711:SwedenâNorway
700:
699:
696:
695:Pyotr Kapnist
693:
691:
688:
685:
673:
672:
669:
663:
658:
655:
653:
650:
647:
635:
634:
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572:
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537:
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522:
521:
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498:United States
488:
487:
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477:
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467:
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353:Clemens Busch
350:
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322:
318:
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213:
212:Great Britain
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
168:
166:
165:imperialistic
162:
158:
154:
150:
145:
143:
139:
130:
125:
116:
114:
113:United States
110:
106:
105:Sweden-Norway
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
80:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
35:
27:
19:
3103:
3099:Anglo-German
3088:
3078:
2960:Treaties and
2721:Great powers
2607:
2590:
2576:
2569:
2559:
2550:
2529:Colonial Law
2517:
2510:
2500:
2493:
2486:
2483:
2472:
2458:
2443:
2436:
2419:
2405:
2390:
2381:
2366:
2349:. Macmillam.
2346:
2340:
2331:
2325:
2306:
2291:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2246:. Retrieved
2242:
2232:
2220:. Retrieved
2216:
2207:
2195:. Retrieved
2191:
2182:
2174:
2173:Roger Owen,
2169:
2144:
2136:
2128:
2123:
2100:
2095:
2072:
2066:
2058:
2053:
2038:
2033:
2023:19 September
2021:. Retrieved
2016:
2006:
1996:24 September
1994:. Retrieved
1990:the original
1983:
1974:
1958:
1938:the original
1901:
1891:19 September
1889:. Retrieved
1885:
1875:
1867:
1862:
1854:
1849:
1841:
1836:
1827:
1810:
1802:
1794:
1789:
1762:
1740:
1708:
1702:
1674:
1650:
1639:
1630:
1592:
1572:
1565:
1552:
1548:adding to it
1543:
1521:
1517:
1508:
1498:
1493:
1463:
1444:
1407:
1311:
1295:Zulu Kingdom
1283:South Africa
1255:
1251:
1138:FranceâItaly
1137:
1115:
1101:
1054:in Niger to
1047:
1013:
997:
993:
985:
966:
964:
949:
940:
930:
923:
916:
909:
897:
885:Please help
880:verification
877:
850:
842:protectorate
805:
775:
761:
753:
722:Gillis Bildt
302:
290:
267:
249:in 1881 and
232:
216:
169:
146:
142:luxury goods
134:
81:
71:
62:, the first
57:
49:colonization
40:
38:
26:
3318:Imperialism
3277:World War I
3240:Balkan Wars
3225:Second Boer
3210:Banana Wars
3174:July Crisis
3105:Dreadnought
3090:Weltpolitik
2934:Pan-Slavism
2608:In Our Time
2248:13 November
2222:13 November
2197:13 November
1949:, original
1279:World War I
972:sovereignty
821:Lake Malawi
819:as well as
817:Congo Basin
806:Law Gazette
758:General Act
660: [
620:Netherlands
601: [
479: [
415: [
360: [
220:Congo River
190:. Finally,
184:Brazzaville
101:Netherlands
45:adjournment
3292:Categories
2962:agreements
2910:Great Game
2876:Revanchism
2673:Audio help
2664:2017-12-11
1920:(Report).
1615:References
1577:historian
1026:Mozambique
1001:hinterland
913:newspapers
813:free trade
287:Conference
270:Suez Canal
129:Leopold II
119:Background
111:, and the
2925:Meiji era
2772:Alliances
2535:, Mainz:
2386:3, 31â59.
2317:0015-7120
2109:cite book
2081:cite book
1886:ThoughtCo
1781:0003-0554
1711:: 31â59.
1509:worldwide
1494:Narrative
1480:in 1912.
1461:in 1914.
1303:Transvaal
1161:Aftermath
1132:Lake Chad
1122:, on the
1060:Lake Chad
943:June 2021
476:Emil Vind
253:in 1884.
55:period.
2675: ·
2555:(1972) â
2418:(1999).
2365:(2014).
2258:cite web
1866:Langer,
1765:: 1â20.
1598:See also
1305:and the
1289:and the
1273:and the
1245:Ethiopia
1232:Portugal
1152:and the
1144:and the
1076:latitude
1034:Zimbabwe
1018:Pink Map
646:Portugal
206:and the
192:Portugal
2905:In Asia
2738:Germany
2662: (
2633:minutes
2579:(1974)
2357:Sources
1844:(1988).
1813:(1999).
1797:(1999).
1501:slavery
1478:Spanish
1398:Somalia
1363:in the
1361:Eritrea
1343:Liberia
1329:Morocco
1241:Liberia
1186:Germany
1177:Belgium
1080:OuaddaĂŻ
989:Britain
927:scholar
772:Islamic
768:African
466:Denmark
334:Germany
278:Ottoman
263:Germany
235:Tunisia
97:Denmark
3263:Second
3250:Second
3047:Events
2837:Trends
2753:Russia
2733:France
2605:, BBC
2581:online
2564:online
2560:Phylon
2522:online
2505:online
2450:
2428:
2410:online
2397:
2373:
2315:
2157:
1916:]
1779:
1474:French
1436:
1418:
1354:
1340:
1326:
1314:Sahara
1271:Sahara
1237:
1230:
1228:
1221:
1219:
1212:
1210:
1204:France
1202:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1184:
1182:
1175:
1173:
1084:Darfur
1056:Maroua
1038:Malawi
1036:, and
1030:Zambia
1022:Angola
1008:Agenda
929:
922:
915:
908:
900:
734:
708:
684:Russia
681:
643:
617:
584:
557:
533:France
530:
495:
463:
436:
376:
331:
296:, the
251:Guinea
243:piracy
176:France
107:, the
99:, the
93:Russia
70:. The
3268:Third
3258:First
3245:First
2748:Japan
2743:Italy
2019:. BBC
1941:(PDF)
1918:(PDF)
1910:[
1470:Libya
1455:Egypt
1383:Italy
1275:Sahel
1263:Msiri
1223:Italy
1195:Spain
1128:Dekoa
1124:Benue
934:JSTOR
920:books
832:Congo
828:Niger
664:]
605:]
587:Italy
483:]
439:Spain
419:]
364:]
313:State
255:Italy
138:ivory
3183:Wars
2489:(1).
2448:ISBN
2426:ISBN
2395:ISBN
2371:ISBN
2313:ISSN
2285:(4).
2264:link
2250:2022
2224:2022
2199:2022
2155:ISBN
2115:link
2087:link
2025:2017
1998:2018
1951:here
1947:here
1893:2017
1777:ISSN
1476:and
1425:Boer
1423:, a
1299:Boer
1256:The
1243:and
1120:Yola
1096:23rd
1094:and
1092:21st
1072:15th
1070:and
1068:11th
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1024:and
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830:and
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