Empress Dowager Cixi

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with British sailors, all under British command. The Chinese were enraged at this "international joke", negotiations broke down between the two parties, and China returned the warships to Britain, where they were to be auctioned off. Scholars sometimes attribute the failure of China's foreign programmes to Cixi's conservative attitude and old methods of thinking, and contend that Cixi would learn only so much from the foreigners, provided it did not infringe upon her own power. Under the pretext that a railway was too loud and would "disturb the emperors' tombs", Cixi forbade its construction. When construction went ahead anyway in 1877 on Li Hongzhang's recommendation, Cixi asked that they be pulled by horse-drawn carts. She also refused to be driven in a motorcar, as the driver would be unable to lower himself in front of her, as custom dictated. Cixi was especially alarmed at the liberal thinking of people who had studied abroad, and saw that it posed a new threat to her power. In 1881, she put a halt to the policy of sending children abroad to study and withdrew her formerly open attitude towards foreigners.

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emperor to grow and mature together. This may also have been done as a check on the power of the eight regents. There is no evidence for this incident, however, and it is unlikely that the emperor ever would have intended Noble Consort Yi to wield political power. It is possible that the seal, allegedly given as a symbol for the child, was really just a present for Noble Consort Yi herself. Informal seals numbered in the thousands and were not considered political accoutrements, rather objects of art commissioned for pleasure by emperors to stamp on items such as paintings, or given as presents to the concubines. Upon the death of the Xianfeng Emperor, his empress was elevated to the status of empress dowager. Although her official title was "Empress Dowager Ci'an", she was popularly known as the "East Empress Dowager" because she lived in the eastern Zhongcui Palace. Noble Consort Yi was also elevated to "Empress Dowager Cixi". She was popularly known as the "West Empress Dowager" (西太后) because she lived inside the western Chuxiu Palace.

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territories to foreign powers. Many of Cixi's advisers in the imperial court insisted that the war against the foreigners be continued. They recommended that Dong Fuxiang be given responsibility to continue the war effort. Cixi was practical, however, and decided that the terms were generous enough for her to acquiesce and stop the war, at least after she was assured of her continued reign when the war was concluded. The Western powers needed a government strong enough to suppress further anti-foreign movements, but too weak to act on its own; they supported the continuation of the Qing dynasty, rather than allowing it to be overthrown. Cixi turned once more to Li Hongzhang to negotiate. Li agreed to sign the

992: 1363: 1251: 1237:, a minor scribe-official, filed a memorial accusing Prince Gong of corruption and showing disrespect to the emperor. Having built up a powerful base and a network of allies at court, Prince Gong considered the accusations insignificant. Cixi, however, took the memorial as a stepping stone to Prince Gong's removal. In April 1865, under the pretext that Prince Gong had "improper court conduct before the two empresses," among a series of other charges, the prince was dismissed from all his offices and appointments, but was allowed to retain his status as a noble. The dismissal surprised the nobility and court officials and brought about numerous petitions for his return. Prince Gong's brothers, 1003:. In Rehe Province, while waiting for an astrologically favourable time to transport the emperor's coffin back to Beijing, Cixi conspired with court officials and imperial relatives to seize power. Cixi's position as the lower-ranked empress dowager had no intrinsic political power attached to it. In addition, her son, the young emperor, was not a political force himself. As a result, it became necessary for her to ally herself with other powerful figures, including Empress Dowager Ci'an. Cixi suggested that they become co-reigning empress dowagers, with powers exceeding the eight regents; the two had long been close friends since Cixi first came to the imperial household. 1042:("death by a thousand cuts"), but Cixi declined the suggestion and ordered that Sushun be beheaded, while the other two also marked for execution, Zaiyuan and Duanhua, were given pieces of white silk for them to hang themselves with. In addition, Cixi refused outright the idea of executing the family members of the regents, as would be done in accordance with imperial tradition of an alleged usurper. Ironically, Qing imperial tradition also dictated that women and princes were never to engage in politics. In breaking with tradition, Cixi became the only empress dowager in the Qing dynasty to assume the role of regent, ruling from behind the curtains. 1280: 472: 2680: 1295:. The new empress's grandfather, Duanhua, Prince Zheng, was one of the eight regents ousted from power in the Xinyou Coup of 1861. He had been Cixi's rival during the coup and was ordered to commit suicide after Cixi's victory. As a consequence, there were tensions between Cixi and Arute, and this was often a source of irritation for Cixi. Moreover, Arute's zodiac symbol of tiger was perceived as life-threatening by the superstitious Cixi, whose own zodiac symbol was a goat. According to Cixi's belief, it was a warning from the gods that she would eventually fall prey to Arute. 1617: 1688:

States, and England. This suggestion did not reflect the policies of the countries concerned. It was Richard's (and perhaps Itō's) trick to convince China to hand over national rights. Kang nonetheless asked fellow reformers Yang Shenxiu (楊深秀) and Song Bolu (宋伯魯) to report this plan to Guangxu. On 20 September, Yang sent a memorial to this effect to the emperor. In another memorial written the next day, Song Bolu also advocated the formation of a federation and the sharing of the diplomatic, fiscal, and military powers of the four countries under a hundred-man committee.

866: 1902:, a brother of Yu Deling, to take elaborately staged shots of her and her court. They were designed to convey imperial authority, aesthetic refinement, and religious piety. As the only photographic series taken of Cixi – the supreme leader of China for more than 45 years – it represents a unique convergence of Qing court pictorial traditions, modern photographic techniques, and Western standards of artistic portraiture. The rare glass plates have been blown up into full-size images, included in the exhibition "The Empress Dowager" at the 1961: 1919: 159: 2010:. They methodically stripped the complex of its precious ornaments, then dynamited the entrance to the burial chamber, opened Cixi's coffin, threw her corpse (said to have been found intact) on the ground, and stole the jewels contained in the coffin. They also took the massive pearl that had been placed in the empress dowager's mouth to protect her corpse from decomposing (in accordance with Chinese tradition). Sun Dianying claimed the desecration was revenge for the death of his ancestor 1572:. Guangxu eventually would prefer to spend more time with Consort Zhen, neglecting his empress, much to Cixi's dismay. In 1894, Cixi degraded Consort Zhen, citing intervention in political affairs as the main reason. According to some reports, she even had her flogged. Consort Jin had also been implicated in Consort Zhen's reported influence peddling and also apparently suffered a similar punishment. A cousin of theirs, Zhirui, was banished from the capital to a military outpost. 1608:'s mother), plans included a triumphal progress along the decorated road between the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace, decorations for the Beijing city gates and monumental archways, free theatrical performances, remission of punishments and the restoration of degraded officials. However, the war between China and Japan forced the empress dowager to cancel the lavish celebrations she had planned and settle for a much smaller commemoration that was held in the Forbidden City. 2039: 5401: 5377: 5366: 5355: 5344: 5276: 1035:

emperor's procession. Cixi's early return to Beijing meant that she had more time to plan with Prince Gong and ensure that the power base of the eight regents was divided between Sushun and his allies, Zaiyuan and Duanhua. In order to remove them from power, history was rewritten: the regents were dismissed for having carried out incompetent negotiations with the "barbarians" that had caused Xianfeng to flee to Rehe Province "greatly against his will", among other charges.

1417:, and proceeded to give medical treatment accordingly. Within a few weeks, on 13 January 1875, Tongzhi died. His wife followed suit in March. Judging from a modern medical perspective, the onset of syphilis comes in stages, thus the emperor's quick death does not seem to reflect its symptoms. Therefore, most historians maintain that Tongzhi did, in fact, die from smallpox. Regardless, by 1875, Cixi was back onto the helm of imperial power. 2271: 45: 2079:

conscientious..." Backhouse and Bland told their readers that "to summarize her essence simply, she a woman and an Oriental". Backhouse was later found to have forged much of the source material used in this work. The vivid writing and lascivious details of their account provided material for many of the books over the following decades, including Chinese fiction and histories that drew on a 1914 translation.

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prowess of the West, Cixi decided that for the first time in Chinese history, China would learn from the Western powers and import their knowledge and technology. At the time, three prominent Han Chinese officials, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, had all begun industrial programs in the country's southern regions. In supporting these programmes, Cixi also decreed the opening of the

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his formal rule at age 19. Along with an entourage of court officials, Guangxu would pay visits to her every second or third day at which major political decisions would be made. Weng Tonghe observed that while the emperor dealt with day-to-day administration, the Grand Councillors gave their advice in more complex cases, and in the most complex cases of all, the advice of Cixi was sought.

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best friend, the emperor managed to escape the palace in search of pleasure in the unrestricted parts of Beijing. For several evenings, Tongzhi disguised himself as a commoner and secretly spent the nights in the brothels of Beijing. His sexual habits became common talk among court officials and commoners, and there are many records of the emperor's escapades.

907:, Xianfeng's first and only surviving son. On the same day, she was elevated to the fourth rank of consorts as "Consort Yi". In 1857, when her son reached his first birthday, Consort Yi was elevated to the third rank of imperial consort as "Noble Consort Yi". This rank placed her second only to Empress Niohuru among the women within Xianfeng's 1122:

instruction of the empresses dowager at audiences and imperial orders would be drawn up accordingly, with drafts having to be approved by the empresses dowager before edicts were issued. The most important role of the empresses dowager during the regency was to apply their seals to edicts, a merely mechanical role in a complex bureaucracy.

1771:, and the entire imperial court was forced to retreat as the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing. Because moderates at the Qing imperial court tried to appease the foreigners by moving the Muslim Kansu Braves out of their way, the allied army was able to march into Beijing and seize the capital. 1242:

would never return to political prominence again, and neither would the liberal and pro-reform policies of his time. Prince Gong's demotion revealed Cixi's iron grip on politics, and her lack of willingness to give up absolute power to anyone – not even Prince Gong, her most important ally in the Xinyou Coup.

1374:, destroyed by the English and French in the Second Opium War, would be completely rebuilt under the pretext that it was a gift to Cixi and Ci'an. Historians also suggest that it was an attempt to drive Cixi from the Forbidden City so that he could rule without interference in policy or his private affairs. 1541:

Prince Chun and Weng Tonghe, each with a different motive, requested that Guangxu's accession be postponed until a later date. Cixi, with her reputed reluctance, accepted the "advice" and legitimised her continued rule through a new legal document that allowed her to "aid" Guangxu in his rule indefinitely.

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recalled that "every visitor to the Summer Palace is shown the beautiful lakeside pavilion in the shape of an elegant marble pleasure boat and told how Cixi spent funds destined for the imperial navy on such extravagant fripperies – which ultimately led to Japan's victory over China in

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Cixi stated that "I have always been of the opinion, that the allied armies had been permitted to escape too easily in 1860. Only a united effort was then necessary to have given China the victory. Today, at last, the opportunity for revenge has come", and said that millions of Chinese would join the

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During the war, Cixi displayed concern about China's situation and foreign aggression, saying, "Perhaps their magic is not to be relied upon; but can we not rely on the hearts and minds of the people? Today China is extremely weak. We have only the people's hearts and minds to depend upon. If we cast

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was xenophobic and friendly with Dong Fuxiang. Zaiyi wanted artillery for Dong's troops to destroy the legations. Ronglu blocked the transfer of artillery to Zaiyi and Dong, preventing them from destroying the legations. When artillery was finally supplied to the imperial army and Boxers, it was done

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was invited to Beijing by the reformist Kang Youwei. Richard suggested that China should hand over some political power to Itō in order to help push the reforms further. On 18 September, Richard convinced Kang to adopt a plan by which China would join a federation composed of China, Japan, the United

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In spite of her residence for a period of time at the Summer Palace, which had been constructed with the official intention of providing her a suitable place to live after retiring from political affairs, Cixi continued to influence the decisions and actions of the Guangxu Emperor even after he began

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The imperial treasury was almost depleted at the time from internal strife and foreign wars, and as a result, Tongzhi asked the Board of Finance to forage for the necessary funds. In addition, he encouraged members of the nobility and high officials to donate funds from their personal resources. Once

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and Prince Chun, both sought their brother's reinstatement. Prince Gong himself, in an audience with Cixi and Ci'an, burst into tears. Bowing to popular pressure, Cixi allowed Prince Gong to return to his position as the head of the Zongli Yamen, but rid him of his title of prince regent. Prince Gong

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in the wake of an incoming Taiping army instead of trying to defend the city. A number of reforms were implemented, such as the development of the Zongli Yamen, an official foreign ministry to deal with international affairs, the restoration of regional armies and regional strongmen, modernization of

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bit by bit. Internally, both the national bureaucracy and regional authorities were infested with corruption. 1861 happened to be the year of official examinations, whereby officials of all levels presented their political reports from the previous three years. Cixi decided that the time was ripe for

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in the imperial household, Noble Consort Yi was known for her ability to read and write Chinese. This skill granted her numerous opportunities to help the ailing emperor in the governing of the Chinese state on a daily basis. On various occasions, the Xianfeng Emperor had Noble Consort Yi read palace

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Guangxu technically gained the right to rule at the age of 16 in 1887 after Cixi issued an edict to arrange a ceremony to mark his accession. Because of her prestige and power, however, court officials voiced their opposition to Guangxu's personal rule, citing the emperor's youth as the main reason.

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Empress Arute was well received by both Tongzhi and Ci'an. Her personal consultants once warned her to be more agreeable and docile to Cixi, who was truly the one in power. Arute replied, "I am a principal consort, having been carried through the front gate with pomp and circumstance, as mandated by

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Uneasy about Tongzhi's neglect of national affairs, the emperor's uncles Prince Gong and Prince Chun, along with other senior court officials, submitted a joint memorandum asking the emperor to cease the construction of the Summer Palace, among other recommendations. Tongzhi, unwilling to submit to

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China's "learn from foreigners" programme quickly met with impediments. The Chinese military institutions were in desperate need of reform. Cixi's solution, under the advice of officials at court, was to purchase seven British warships. When the warships arrived in China, however, they were staffed

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Tensions grew between the two empresses dowager and the eight regents, who were led by Sushun. The regents did not appreciate Cixi's interference in political affairs, and their frequent confrontations with the empresses dowager left Ci'an frustrated. Ci'an often refused to come to court audiences,

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Xianfeng's heir was his five-year-old son with Noble Consort Yi. It is commonly assumed that on his deathbed, Xianfeng summoned his empress and Noble Consort Yi and gave each of them a stamp. He hoped that when his son ascended the throne, the two women would cooperate in harmony and help the young

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These abrupt reforms, however, came without building support either at court or in the bureaucracy. Cixi, whether concerned that they would check her power or fearful that they would lead to disorder, stepped in to prevent them from going further. Some government and military officials warned Cixi

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was said to be the strongest navy in East Asia. Before her nephew Guangxu took over the throne in 1889, Cixi wrote out explicit orders that the navy should continue to develop and expand gradually. However, after Cixi went into retirement, all naval and military development came to a drastic halt.

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For many years, the mainstream view of Cixi was that she was a devious despot who contributed in no small part to China's slide into corruption, chaos, and revolution. Cixi used her power to accumulate vast quantities of money, bullion, antiques and jewelry, using the revenues of the state as her

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When Cixi received an ultimatum demanding that China surrender total control over all its military and financial affairs to foreigners, she defiantly stated before the Grand Council, "Now they have started the aggression, and the extinction of our nation is imminent. If we just fold our arms and

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that is part of the Summer Palace. However, extensive research by Chinese historians suggests that Cixi was not the cause of the Chinese navy's decline. In actuality, China's defeat was caused by Guangxu's lack of interest in developing and maintaining the military. His close adviser, Grand Tutor

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The sudden death of Ci'an in April 1881 brought Cixi a new challenge. Ci'an had taken little interest in running state affairs, but was the decision-maker in most family affairs. As the empress of the Xianfeng Emperor, she took seniority over Cixi, despite being two years her junior. Some believe

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The young emperor, who could no longer cope with his grief and loneliness, grew more and more ill-tempered. He began to treat his servants with cruelty and punished them physically for minor offences. Under the joined influence of court eunuchs and Zaicheng, Prince Gong's eldest son and Tongzhi's

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Cixi, unsatisfied with her tomb, ordered its destruction and reconstruction in 1895. The new tomb was a complex of temples, gates, and pavilions, covered with gold leaf, and with gold and gilded-bronze ornaments hanging from the beams and the eaves. In July 1928, Cixi's tomb was plundered by the

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In an attempt to woo foreigners, Cixi also invited the wives of the diplomatic corps to a tea in the Forbidden City soon after her return, and in time, would hold summer garden parties for the foreign community at the Summer Palace. In 1903, she acquiesced to the request of Sarah Conger, wife of

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Tongzhi died without a male heir, a circumstance that created an unprecedented succession crisis in the dynastic line. Members of the generation above were considered unfit, as they could not, by definition, be the successor of their nephew. Therefore, the new emperor had to be from a generation

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in 1638. Puyi had Cixi's remains reburied. The Eastern Mausoleum together with other Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties are now protected legally by central and local governments and a systems of protection and management put in place to improve the conservation and management of the

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In January 1902, Cixi, Guangxu, the empress and the rest of the court made a ceremonious return to Beijing. At the railhead at Chengtingfu, Cixi and the court boarded a 21-car train to convey them the rest of the way to the capital. In Beijing, many of the legation women turned out to watch the

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On 5 March 1889, Cixi retired from her second regency, but nonetheless served as the effective head of the imperial family. Many officials felt and showed more loyalty to the empress dowager than they did to the emperor, owing in part to her seniority and in part to her personalised approach to

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China's defeat in the Second Opium War of 1856–60 was a wake-up call. Military strategies were outdated, both on land and sea and in terms of weaponry. Sensing an immediate threat from foreigners and realising that China's agricultural-based economy could not hope to compete with the industrial

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and a complex series of procedures in order to deal with affairs of state. When state documents came in, they were to be first forwarded to the empresses dowager, then referred back to Prince Gong and the Grand Council. Having discussed the matters, Prince Gong and his colleagues would seek the

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claimed in his own report that Kang was a dreamer who had been seduced by Timothy Richard's sweet words. Bourne thought Richard was a plotter. The British and U.S. governments were unaware of the "federation" plot, which seems to have been Richard's personal idea. Because Richard's partner Itō

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Despite, or perhaps because of, the pressure and stress put upon the young emperor, he despised learning for the majority of his life. According to Weng Tonghe's diary, Tongzhi could not read a memorandum in full sentences by the age of 16. Worried about her son's inability to learn, Cixi only

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Another significant challenge Cixi faced was the increasingly decrepit state of the Manchu elites. Since the beginning of Qing rule over China in 1644, most major positions at court had been held by Manchus. Cixi, again in a reversal of imperial tradition, entrusted the country's most powerful

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as the allied forces invaded the city. After the fall of Beijing, the Eight-Nation Alliance negotiated a treaty with the Qing government, sending messengers to the empress dowager in Xi'an. Included in the terms of the agreement was a guarantee that China would not have to give up any further

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broke out in northern China. Perhaps fearing further foreign intervention, Cixi threw her support to these anti-foreign bands by making an official announcement of her support for the movement and a formal declaration of war on the Western powers. The general Ronglu deliberately sabotaged the

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China. During this period, Cixi was continuously called upon to arbitrate policy-making, and the emperor was sometimes even bypassed in decision-making processes. Cixi eventually was given copies of the secret palace memorials as well, a practice that was carried on until 1898, when it became

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When Xianfeng's funeral procession left for Beijing, Cixi took advantage of her alliances with Princes Gong and Chun. She and her son returned to the capital before the rest of the party, along with Zaiyuan and Duanhua, two of the eight regents, while Sushun was left to accompany the deceased

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of 1898, but feared that sudden implementation, without bureaucratic support, would be disruptive and that the Japanese and other foreign powers would take advantage of any weakness. She placed the Guangxu Emperor, who, she thought, had tried to assassinate her, under virtual house arrest for

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By the mid-1970s, views among scholars began to change. Sue Fawn Chung's doctoral dissertation at University of California, Berkeley, was the first study in English to use court documents rather than popular histories and hearsay. Despite this, writers such as Jung Chang have criticized this

1090:, the political and governmental hub during this era, Cixi, nominally along with Ci'an, issued two imperial edicts on behalf of the boy emperor. The first stated that the two empresses dowager were to be the sole decision-makers "without interference," and the second changed the emperor's 1221:

and other Han Chinese officers who fought against the Taiping rebels, were rewarded with auspicious decorations and titles. With the Taiping rebel threat receding, Cixi focused her attention on new internal threats to her power. Of special concern was the position of Prince Gong, who was

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contributed to Cixi's reputation with its back-door gossip, much of which came from palace eunuchs. Their portrait included contradictory elements, writes one recent study, "on the one hand... imperious, manipulative, and lascivious" and on the other "ingenuous, politically shrewd, and

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Seeing the mayhem unfold from behind the scenes, Cixi and Ci'an made an unprecedented appearance at court directly criticising Tongzhi for his wrongful actions and asked him to withdraw the edict; Cixi said that "without Prince Gong, the situation today would not exist for you and me."

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In the People's Republic after 1949, the image of the Manchu Empress was debated and changed several times. She was sometimes praised for her anti-imperialist role in the Boxer Uprising and sometimes she was reviled as a member of the "feudalist regime". When Mao Zedong's wife,

963:). On hearing the news of the destruction of the Old Summer Palace, Xianfeng, who was already showing signs of dementia, fell into a depression. He turned heavily to alcohol and other drugs and became seriously ill. He summoned eight of his most prestigious ministers, headed by 2374:) gives a portrayal of the history behind the character of the Empress-Dowager Cixi – not as the monster of depravity depicted in the popular press, but an aging woman who loved beautiful things and had many regrets about the past. (Soul Care Publishing, 2015) 1514:

of 1884–1885. Cixi used China's loss in the war as a pretext for getting rid of Prince Gong and other important decision-makers in the Grand Council in 1885. She downgraded Prince Gong to "advisor" and elevated the more easily influenced Prince Chun, Guangxu's father.

778:, Cixi initially backed the Boxer groups and declared war on the invaders. The ensuing defeat was a stunning humiliation. When Cixi returned to Beijing from Xi'an, where she had taken the emperor, she became friendly to foreigners in the capital and began to implement 789:

Historians both in China and abroad have debated Cixi's legacy. Historians have argued that she was a ruthless despot whose reactionary policies – although successful in managing to prolong the ailing Qing dynasty – led to its humiliation and eventual downfall in the

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in 1869 or a possible will from the late Xianfeng Emperor that was issued exclusively to Ci'an. Because of a lack of evidence, however, historians are reluctant to believe that Cixi poisoned Ci'an, but instead choose to believe that the cause of death was a sudden

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in 1862, a school for foreign languages in Beijing. The Tongwen Guan specialised in new-age topics such as astronomy and mathematics, as well as the English, French and Russian languages. Groups of young boys were also sent abroad to the United States for studies.

2059:, Carl portrays Cixi as a kind and considerate woman for her station. Cixi had great presence, charm, and graceful movements resulting in "an unusually attractive personality". Carl wrote of the empress dowager's love of dogs and of flowers, as well as boating, 1663:(reformation bureau) had been geared toward conspiracy. Allegations of treason against the emperor, as well as suspected Japanese influence within the reform movement, led Cixi to resume the role of regent and resume control at the court. The Manchu general 1007:

leaving Cixi to deal with the ministers alone. Secretly, Cixi had begun gathering the support of talented ministers, soldiers, and others who were ostracized by the eight regents for personal or political reasons. Among them were two of Xianfeng's brothers:

1957:, who speculated that Cixi had known of her imminent death and worried that Guangxu would continue his reforms after her death. It was reported in November 2008 that the level of arsenic in his remains was 2,000 times higher than that of ordinary people. 2540:, focuses on Empress Cixi's relationship with a court eunuch named Chun'er, and depicted Cixi as a ruthless and calculating leader. It was adapted into a 2010 Japanese television series that was also broadcast in China, and starred Japanese actress 1712:. The Guangxu era nominally continued until his death in 1908, but the emperor lost all respect, power, and privileges, including his freedom of movement. Most of his supporters, including his political mentor Kang Youwei, fled into exile, and the 1544:

Guangxu slowly began to take on more responsibilities in spite of Cixi's prolonged regency. In 1886, he attended his first field plowing ceremony and began commenting on imperial state documents. By 1887, he began to rule under Cixi's supervision.

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Weng Tonghe, advised Guangxu to cut all funding to the navy and army, because he did not see Japan as a true threat, and there were several natural disasters during the early 1890s which the emperor thought to be more pressing to expend funds on.

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at the Forbidden City. This event followed a trend of recent natural disasters that were considered alarming by many observers. According to traditional Chinese political theory, such incidents were taken as a warning of the imminent loss of the

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Once back in the palace, Cixi implemented sweeping political reforms. High officials were dispatched to Japan and Europe to gather facts and draw up plans for sweeping administrative reforms in law, education, government structure, and

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and Kang's younger brother, were publicly beheaded. Kang continued to work for a constitutional monarchy while in exile, remaining loyal to Guangxu and hoping eventually to restore him to power. His efforts would prove to be in vain.

1484:("Dear Father"), in order to enforce an image that she was the fatherly figure in the household. Guangxu began his education when he was aged five, taught by the imperial tutor Weng Tonghe, with whom he would develop a lasting bond. 1302:

Empress Xiaozheyi, the Tongzhi Emperor's wife, who had the approval of Empress Dowager Ci'an but never Cixi's. It is widely speculated that Empress Xiaozheyi was pregnant with Tongzhi's child and that Cixi orchestrated the empress's

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portrayed Empress Dowager Cixi as a capable ruler, the first time that mainland Chinese television had shown her in this light. The portrayal was not entirely positive, as it also clearly depicted her political views as very

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Prince-Regent in the imperial court. Prince Gong gathered under his command the support of all outstanding Han Chinese armies. In addition, Prince Gong controlled daily court affairs as the head of the Grand Council and the

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This was perhaps because Cixi took the initiative and invited several women to spend time with her in the Forbidden City. Katharine Carl, an American painter, was called to China in 1903 to paint Cixi's portrait for the

1990:; lit. "Tomb East of the Ding Mausoleum in the Putuo Valley"). The Ding Mausoleum (lit. "Tomb of Quietude"), where the Xianfeng Emperor is buried, is located west of the Dingdongling. The Putuo Valley owes its name to 1475:

was the new emperor's regnal name and it means "glorious succession". Zaitian was taken from home and for the remainder of his life would be cut completely off from his family. While addressing Ci'an conventionally as

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Japan's victories over China has often been falsely rumored to be the fault of Cixi. Many believed that Cixi was the cause of the navy's defeat by embezzling funds from the navy in order to build the Summer Palace in

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a bureaucratic overhaul, and she personally sought audience with all officials above the level of provincial governor, who had to report to her personally. Cixi thus took on part of the role usually given to the

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linked to the rest of the Forbidden City only by a controlled causeway. Cixi followed this action with an edict that proclaimed Guangxu's total disgrace and unfitness to be emperor. Guangxu's reign effectively

843:). Palace archives show that Huizheng was working in Beijing during the year of Xingzhen's birth, an indication that she was born in Beijing. The file records the location of her childhood home: Pichai Hutong, 1703:

A crisis over the issue of abdication emerged. Bowing to increasing pressure from the West and general civil discontent, Cixi did not forcibly remove Guangxu from the throne, although she attempted to have

1170:. Additionally, in the next three years, Cixi appointed Han Chinese officials as governors in all southern Chinese provinces, raising alarm bells in the court, traditionally protective of Manchu dominance. 1779:

yield to them, I would have no face to see our ancestors after death. If we must perish, why not fight to the death?" It was at this point that Cixi began to blockade the legations with the armies of the

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Guangxu married and took up the reins of power in 1889. By that year, the emperor was already 18, older than the conventional marriage age for emperors. Prior to his wedding, a large fire engulfed the

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In the years between 1881 and 1883, Cixi resorted to written communication only with her ministers. The young emperor reportedly was forced to conduct some audiences alone, without Cixi to assist him.

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suggested that "Not only a dynasty but also a civilization which appeared to have collapsed was revived to last for another sixty years by the extraordinary efforts of extraordinary men in the 1860s."

1627:

After coming to the throne, Guangxu became more reform-minded. After a humiliating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894, during which the Chinese Beiyang Fleet was virtually destroyed by the

1315:, who was Cixi's preferred candidate for empress consort. As hostility grew between Arute and Cixi, Cixi suggested the emperor and empress spend more time on studies and spied on Tongzhi using palace 880:

alongside 60 other candidates. Lady Yehe Nara was one of the few candidates chosen to stay. Among the other chosen candidates were Noble Lady Li of the Tatara clan (who became Consort Li, eventually

1487:

Shortly after Guangxu's accession, Cixi fell severely ill. This rendered her largely inaccessible to her young nephew and had the result of leaving Ci'an to attend to most of the affairs of state.

1895:, along with her sister and mother, serve at her court. Yu Deling, fluent in English and French, as well as Chinese, often served as translator at meetings with the wives of the diplomatic corps. 1355:; the emperor's governor, also selected by Cixi, was Mianyu. The imperial teachers instructed the emperor in the classics and various old texts for which Tongzhi displayed little or no interest. 1257:(center seated), Prince Gong's daughter. As a way to show gratitude to the prince, Cixi adopted his daughter and elevated her to a first rank princess (the highest rank for imperial princesses). 1193:

Prince Gong, Cixi's crucial ally during the Xinyou Coup. He was rewarded by Cixi for his help during her most difficult times, but was eventually eliminated from office by Cixi for his ambition.

1775:

them aside and lose the people's hearts, what can we use to sustain the country?" The Chinese people were almost unanimous in their support for the Boxers due to the Western Allied invasion.

1078:

was made a first rank princess, a title usually bestowed only on the empress's first-born daughter. However, Cixi avoided giving Prince Gong the absolute political power that princes such as

4479: 742:. Cixi ousted a group of regents appointed by the late emperor and assumed the regency along with Ci'an. Cixi then consolidated control over the dynasty when she installed her nephew as the 1189: 903:

On 28 February 1854, Noble Lady Lan was elevated to the fifth rank of consorts and granted the title "Concubine Yi". In 1855, she became pregnant, and on 27 April 1856, she gave birth to

2819:

Information listed on a red sheet (File No. 1247) in the "Miscellaneous Pieces of the Palace" (a Qing dynasty documentation package retrieved from the First Historical Archives of China)

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that rumours began circulating at court to the effect that Cixi had poisoned Ci'an, perhaps as a result of a possible conflict between Cixi and Ci'an over the execution of the eunuch

1162:

railroads, factories, and arsenals, an increase of industrial and commercial productivity, and the institution of a period of peace that allowed China time to modernize and develop.

1038:

To display her high moral standards, Cixi executed only three of the eight regents. Prince Gong had suggested that Sushun and others be executed by the most painful method, known as

738:, in 1856. After the Xianfeng Emperor's death in 1861, his five-year-old son became the Tongzhi Emperor, and Cixi assumed the role of co-empress dowager alongside Xianfeng's widow, 1382:

criticism, issued an imperial edict in August 1874 to strip Prince Gong of his princely title and demote him to the status of a commoner. Two days later, Prince Dun, Prince Chun,

1378:

construction began, the emperor checked its progress on a monthly basis, and would often spend days away from court, indulging himself in pleasures outside of the Forbidden City.

2125:

that Chang's claims "seem to be minted from her own musings, and have little to do with what we know was actually going in China". Although Crossley was sympathetic to restoring

1940:, who had leveled some of the most vitriol at Cixi in life, wrote from exile in Paris of the "vixen empress and vermin emperor" that "their lingering stench makes me vomit." 4915: 2115: 2731: 1510:

The once fierce and determined Prince Gong, frustrated by Cixi's iron grip on power, did little to question Cixi on state affairs, and supported Manchu involvement in the

4079:

China under the Empress Dowager: Being the History of the Life and Times of Tz*U Hsi, Compiled from State Papers and the Private Diary of the Comptroller of Her Household

2035:

Yet even after the violent anti-foreign Boxer movement and equally violent foreign reprisal, the initial foreign accounts of Cixi emphasized her warmth and friendliness.

782:

aimed to turn China into a constitutional monarchy. The deaths of both Cixi and Guangxu in November 1908 left the court in the hands of Manchu conservatives, the child

1359:

pressured him more. When he was given personal rule in November 1873 at the age of 18 (four years behind the usual custom), Tongzhi proved to be an incompetent ruler.

753:, a series of moderate reforms that helped the regime survive until 1911. Although Cixi refused to adopt Western models of government, she supported technological and 5720: 1984:; lit. "Tomb East of the Ding Mausoleum in the Broad Valley of Good Omen"), while Empress Dowager Cixi built herself the much larger Putuoyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum ( 1387: 1181:

wrote, "That the Qing managed to survive both domestic and international attacks is due largely to the policy and leadership changes known as the Qing Restoration."

919:

memorials for him and leave instructions on the memorials according to his will. As a result, she became well-informed about state affairs and the art of governing.

4498: 4514: 1399: 872:, foster mother of the Xianfeng Emperor. She hosted the selection of Xianfeng's consorts in 1851, in which Lady Yehe Nara participated as a potential candidate. 1695:

reported to his government about the Chinese situation, saying that Chinese reforms had been damaged by Kang Youwei and his friends' actions. British diplomat

1592:

broke out over Korea whose age-old allegiance to Beijing was wavering. After the decisive victory and ensuing Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan annexed Taiwan from

1298: 1780: 1136:

Cixi's ascendancy came at a time of internal chaos and foreign challenges. The effects of the Second Opium War were still hovering over the country, and the

1867:. The abolition of the examination system in 1905 was only the most visible of these sweeping reforms. Ironically, Cixi sponsored the implementation of the 1319:. After her warning was ignored, Cixi ordered the couple to separate, and Tongzhi purportedly spent several months following Cixi's order in isolation at 1631:, the Qing government faced unprecedented challenges internally and abroad, with its very existence at stake. Under the influence of reformist-officials 3464:

Empress Dowager Cixi: China's Last Dynasty and the Long Reign of a Formidable Concubine: Legends and Lives During the Declining Days of the Qing Dynasty

1311:

Since the very beginning of his marriage, Tongzhi proceeded to spend most of his time with his empress at the expense of his four concubines, including

3041: 5745: 1763:

in only limited amounts; Ronglu deliberately held back the rest of them. The Chinese forces defeated the small 2,000-man Western relief force at the

4408: 1581:

cultivating court favourites, many of whom would be given gifts of her artwork and invitations to join her at the theater for opera and acrobatics.

1233:

Although Prince Gong was rewarded for his conduct and recommendation of Zeng Guofan before the Taiping rebels' defeat, Cixi was quick to move after

4084:

Long the standard source until the so-called "Diary of Ching Shan" was exposed as a forgery and Backhouse as a "fraudster". Free online Googlebook

1700:

Hirobumi had been prime minister of Japan, the Japanese government might have known about Richard's plan, but there is no evidence to this effect.

1383: 1936:

as the new emperor on 14 November 1908. Her death came only a day after the death of Guangxu. Radicals greeted the news with scorn. The anarchist

1803:, which stipulated the presence of an international military force in Beijing and the payment of £67 million (almost $ 333 million) in 1409:

Feeling a grand sense of loss at court and unable to assert his authority, Tongzhi returned to his former habits. It was rumoured that he caught

1015:. Prince Gong had been excluded from power, yet harboured great ambitions. While Cixi aligned herself with the two princes, a memorial came from 5710: 4895: 4142: 1344: 927: 1713: 1467:, the four-year-old firstborn son of Prince Chun and Cixi's sister, was to become the new emperor. 1875 was declared the first year of the 1234: 3008: 2631:

Empress Cixi is the primary antagonist and recurring character, though only ever named as "the Empress Dowager" in the 1991 animated show

1600:

In November 1894, Cixi celebrated her 60th birthday. Borrowing from the plans used for the celebrations of the 70th and 80th birthdays of

5631: 5131: 1758:") were able and eager to destroy the foreign military forces in the legations, but Ronglu stopped them from doing so. The Manchu prince 1673: 3787: 173: 4464: 1370:

Tongzhi made two important policy decisions during his short stint of rule, which lasted from 1873 to 1875. First, he decreed that the

943:

was arrested along with other hostages, who were tortured and executed. In retaliation, British and French troops under the command of

915: 5695: 2119:, portrays Cixi as the most capable ruler and administrator that China could have had at the time. Pamela Kyle Crossley said in the 1442: 5685: 4601: 802:

revolutionaries scapegoated her for deep-rooted problems which were beyond salvaging, and laud her maintenance of political order.

109: 5690: 5179: 4459: 81: 4974: 4931: 3094: 975:, and named them the "Eight Regent Ministers" to direct and support the future emperor. Xianfeng died on 22 August 1861 at the 4150:

Chung, Sue Fawn (1979). "The Much Maligned Empress Dowager: A Revisionist Study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835–1908)".

2721: 2482:(depicting her rise to power in the 1850s, and the burning of the Old Summer Palace by French and British troops in 1860), in 1830:, 1904, commissioned by Cixi for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World's Fair) and later given to U.S. president 4903: 4899: 2292: 62: 2913:"The Historical Information of the Decorative Polychrome Painting in the Hall of Mental Cultivation Complex, Forbidden City" 1070:

In November 1861, a few days following the Xinyou Coup, Cixi was quick to reward Prince Gong for his help. He was appointed

88: 5760: 5730: 5725: 4994: 4891: 4610: 5750: 5740: 2126: 1679:

According to research by Professor Lei Chia-sheng (雷家聖), during the Hundred Days' Reform, former Japanese prime minister

1430: 4495: 4045: 4027: 5705: 3669: 3499: 3121:"Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives. 1874–'75 1874/1875 – UWDC –UW-Madison Libraries" 2992: 1835: 1366:

Tongzhi doing his coursework. Cixi's high expectations of him may have contributed to his strong distaste for learning.

3830: 2841: 2332:

Cixi (first called 'Orchid', later 'Tzu Hsi') and her favorite eunuch are the main characters in the historical novel

1729: 95: 4887: 4280: 4235: 4126: 4073: 2780: 2624: 2611: 2585: 2566: 2318: 2075: 881: 128: 2300: 4839: 4379:

Chung, Sue Fawn (1976), "The Image of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi", in Cohen, Paul A.; Schrecker, John E. (eds.),

2007: 1819: 1696: 1230:

foreign affairs ministry). With his increasing stature, Prince Gong was considered a threat to Cixi and her power.

1031:

ruler. The same memorial also asked Prince Gong to enter the political arena as a principal "aide to the Emperor".

4453: 1362: 991: 5124: 4324: 2386:

chronicles the life of the Empress Dowager from the time of her selection as a concubine until near to her death.

77: 4343: 3895: 3413:

Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China, Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty

1463:

below or the same generation as the Tongzhi. After considerable disagreement between the two empresses dowager,

1402:, and Grand Councillors Shen Guifen and Li Hongzao were all to be stripped of their respective titles and jobs. 4927: 4879: 4372: 4216: 3774: 3700: 3688:

The boxer rebellion: the dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900

3636: 3582: 3542: 3471: 3446: 2663: 2296: 2110:

portrays Cixi as a woman stuck between the xenophobic faction of Manchu nobility and more moderate influences.

1565: 1455: 1312: 995:

Empress Dowager Ci'an, with whom Cixi staged the Xinyou Coup. They were co-regents until Ci'an's death in 1881.

944: 583: 377: 66: 1655:

aimed at sweeping political, legal and social changes and issued edicts for far-reaching modernising reforms.

5755: 5735: 5700: 2598: 2052: 4245:

Li, Yuhang; Zurndorfer, Harriet T. (2012). "Rethinking Empress Dowager Cixi through the Production of Art".

4594: 2251:; 27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875), the Xianfeng Emperor's first son, enthroned on 11 November 1861 as the 1501: 1118: 4414: 4356: 208: 1978:), along with Empress Dowager Ci'an. Empress Dowager Ci'an lies in the Puxiangyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum ( 1250: 758: 4367:

Lei Chia-sheng 雷家聖 (2004). Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan 力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 . Taipei: Wanjuan lou 萬卷樓.

5224: 5117: 4967: 4952: 4508: 1291:

In 1872, the Tongzhi Emperor turned 17. Under the guidance of Empress Dowager Ci'an, he was married to

1087: 688: 4482:, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC. 1667:

on 21 September 1898, took the emperor to Ocean Terrace, a small palace on an island in the middle of

1279: 1209:) in July 1864. Zeng was rewarded with the title of "Marquess Yiyong, First Class", while his brother 1149:(吏部). Cixi had two prominent officials executed to serve as examples for others: Qingying, a military 5219: 5204: 5189: 5159: 2043: 1995: 1903: 1888: 1839: 1640: 1308:

our ancestors. Empress Dowager Cixi was a concubine, and entered our household through a side gate."

1117:

Despite being designated as the sole decision-makers, both Ci'an and Cixi were forced to rely on the

888:). On 26 June 1852, Lady Yehe Nara left her widowed mother's residence at Xilahutong and entered the 767: 5573: 4385:

Draws from the author's never published doctoral dissertation at University of California, Berkeley.

4176:

Draws from the author's never published doctoral dissertation at University of California, Berkeley.

4055: 1811:. Guangxu and Cixi did not return to Beijing from Xi'an until roughly 18 months after their flight. 1807:. The United States used its share of the war indemnity to fund the creation of China's prestigious 5169: 5013: 4871: 4779: 4697: 4560: 4551: 4535: 4198: 4184: 2549: 2508: 2411: 2281: 1880: 1202: 885: 746:

at the death of the Tongzhi Emperor in 1875. Ci'an continued as co-regent until her death in 1881.

739: 4518: 4452: 102: 5553: 5239: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4923: 4919: 4911: 4875: 4587: 4525: 2428: 2360:) dramatizes the siege of the foreign legations' compounds in Beijing during the Boxer Rebellion. 2285: 1907: 1871:, a reform program more radical than the one proposed by the reformers she had beheaded in 1898. 1852: 1843: 1791: 1652: 1589: 1549: 976: 940: 799: 762: 55: 5715: 5023: 4907: 4883: 4789: 4707: 4571: 4544: 4093: 3071: 3012: 2423: 2211: 2121: 1651:, China would become politically and economically powerful. In June 1898, Guangxu launched the 1628: 1561: 1435: 1019:

asking for her to "rule from behind the curtains" or "listen to politics behind the curtains" (

795: 201: 191: 3692: 3686: 3628: 3622: 3607: 3534: 3528: 3218: 2982: 5068: 5008: 4960: 4809: 4774: 4764: 4754: 4744: 4692: 4687: 3795: 3661: 3336: 2726: 1601: 1154: 964: 869: 775: 2063:

and her Chinese water pipes and European cigarettes. Cixi also commissioned the portraitist

471: 5680: 5675: 5568: 5209: 5091: 4749: 4667: 4662: 4647: 4642: 4448: 4338: 4180: 3120: 2633: 2513: 1787:

cause of fighting the foreigners since the Manchus had provided "great benefits" to China.

1616: 1000: 834: 727: 17: 3729: 1855:

to the Forbidden City, and for the first time, commoners were permitted to watch as well.

8: 5234: 4854: 4759: 4739: 4652: 4632: 3095:"光绪皇帝为什么叫慈禧太后亲爸爸？ Why does the Guangxu Emperor call the Empress Dowager Cixi "Qin Baba"?" 2452: 2130: 1808: 1131: 1012: 750: 4211:. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies Distributed by Harvard University Press. 1335:

Tongzhi received a rigorous education from four famous teachers of Cixi's own choosing:

865: 5184: 5174: 4859: 4849: 4677: 4528:, Smithsonian.com (1 March 2008). Describes the rethinking of Cixi, with further links. 4167: 4136: 2337: 2091:

put Cixi's luxurious goods on display to show that a female ruler weakened the nation.

1969: 1831: 1794:, the entire imperial court, including Cixi and Guangxu, fled Beijing and evacuated to 1764: 951:

to the ground. Xianfeng and his entourage, including Noble Consort Yi, fled Beijing to

619: 611: 272: 4085: 4077: 2396:

starts in the days of Cixi, and includes the involvement of the Imperial Court in the

1564:. Cixi in addition selected two concubines for the emperor who were sisters, Consorts 638: 5194: 5164: 5140: 4769: 4702: 4682: 4657: 4368: 4276: 4266: 4231: 4212: 4171: 4122: 3770: 3696: 3665: 3654: 3632: 3600: 3578: 3538: 3495: 3467: 3442: 3390:戊戌變法檔案史料 , Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1959, p. 15.「臣尤伏願我皇上早定大計，固結英、美、日本三國，勿嫌『合邦』之名之不美。」 2988: 2934: 2776: 2352: 2137:

is a poor bargain: the gain of an illusory icon at the expense of historical sense".

2134: 2103: 1944: 1864: 1768: 1734: 1554: 1254: 1137: 1075: 948: 899:

The Pavilion of Beautiful Scenery, where Consort Yi gave birth to the Tongzhi Emperor

707: 567: 559: 325: 312: 3098: 1891:. Between 1903 and 1905, Cixi had a Western-educated lady-in-waiting by the name of 5611: 5577: 5557: 5544: 5531: 5518: 5500: 5461: 5440: 5421: 5386: 5329: 5316: 5303: 5290: 5249: 5214: 5154: 4304: 4254: 4159: 4105: 2924: 2713: 2650: 2580: 2467: 2458: 1960: 1692: 1683:

arrived in China on 11 September 1898. Almost at the same time, British missionary

1605: 1178: 1091: 1054: 936: 877: 824: 791: 731: 510: 487: 450: 446: 289: 1086:'s reign. As one of the first acts of "ruling behind the curtain" from within the 5244: 5199: 4502: 4270: 4206: 2965: 2523: 2440: 2397: 2252: 2227: 1876: 1804: 1746: 1738: 1684: 1644: 1569: 1511: 1320: 1140:

continued its seemingly unstoppable advance through China's south, eating up the

1083: 884:) and Concubine Zhen of the Niohuru clan (who became empress consort, eventually 771: 743: 719: 661: 385: 366: 320: 4579: 4400:

The Empress and Mrs. Conger: The Uncommon Friendship of Two Women and Two Worlds

2746: 1918: 1680: 5514: 5476: 5270: 5229: 5044: 4844: 3487: 2699: 2554: 2405: 2389: 2382: 1884: 1827: 1800: 1708:, a boy of 14 who was from a close branch of the imperial family, installed as 1621: 1174: 889: 711: 545: 410: 31: 4357:"The Empress Dowager Ci-Xi in Western Fiction: A Stereotype for The Far East?" 4163: 4109: 4094:"A Precious Mirror for Governing the Peace: A Primer for Empress Dowager Cixi" 3399:

Song Bolu, "Zhang Shandong dao jiancha yushi Song Bolu zhe" 掌山東道監察御史宋伯魯摺 , in

2541: 5669: 5491: 5400: 5376: 5365: 5354: 5343: 5281: 5275: 4429: 4309: 4292: 4258: 3900: 3386:

Yang Shenxiu, "Shandong dao jiancha yushi Yang Shenxiu zhe" 山東道監察御史楊深秀摺 , in

2967:

The last stand of Chinese conservatism: the Tʻung-Chih restoration, 1862–1874

2938: 2638: 2572: 2377: 2088: 2060: 2028: 2011: 1860: 1733:

Empress Dowager Cixi and women of the American legation. Holding her hand is

1648: 1519: 1371: 1071: 952: 4485: 2537: 5597: 5509: 5486: 5417: 5371: 5325: 5312: 5299: 5286: 5265: 4984: 4672: 4637: 4614: 2849: 2751: 2685: 2658: 2561: 2532: 2475: 2347: 2343: 2038: 2003: 1972:, 125 km (78 mi) east of Beijing, in the Eastern Ding Mausoleum ( 1868: 1755: 1751: 1709: 1636: 1263: 1223: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1039: 779: 715: 628: 517: 243: 2165: 1943:

On 4 November 2008, forensic tests concluded that Guangxu died from acute

1166:

military unit against the Taiping rebels into the hands of a Han Chinese,

5607: 5471: 5431: 5360: 5338: 5086: 4834: 3403:, p. 170.「渠(李提摩太)之來也，擬聯合中國、日本、美國及英國為合邦，共選通達時務、曉暢各國掌故者百人，專理四國兵政稅則及一切外交等事。」 3067: 2501: 2419:

portray the life of Empress Dowager Cixi from a first-person perspective.

2357: 2173: 1991: 1949: 1668: 1632: 1528: 1451: 1352: 1167: 1141: 1046: 1008: 820: 416: 354: 260: 4982: 4208:

A Mosaic of the Hundred Days: Personalities, Politics, and Ideas of 1898

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Empress Dowager Cixi (front middle) poses with her court attendants and

1413:

and became visibly ill. The physicians spread a rumour that Tongzhi had

158: 5540: 5395: 5382: 3857: 2929: 2912: 2645: 2619: 2416: 2084: 2064: 1932:) of Zhongnanhai, Beijing, on 15 November 1908, after having installed 1899: 1717: 1336: 1292: 1287:

emerging from the surface represent the empress. The Walters Art Museum

1198: 892:

and was placed in the sixth rank of consorts, styled "Noble Lady Lan".

876:

In 1851, Lady Yehe Nara participated in the selection for wives to the

164: 3896:

The Empress Dowager was a Moderniser, Not a Minx. But Does China Care?

1480:("Empress Mother"), the Guangxu Emperor was forced to address Cixi as 726:

for almost 50 years, from 1861 until her death in 1908. Selected as a

5602: 5496: 5436: 5349: 4717: 2741: 2336:

published in 1939 by George Lancing (pseudonym of the British author

1937: 1892: 1691:

Still according to Lei's findings, on 13 October, British ambassador

1340: 1284: 1158: 1153:

who had tried to bribe his way out of demotion, and He Guiqing, then

816: 710:(29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908) was a Manchu noblewoman of the 576: 5109: 3333:

Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States (1893)

2270: 44: 4293:""Going Public": Portraits of the Empress Dowager Cixi, Circa 1904" 2363: 1795: 1560:

For Guangxu's empress, Cixi chose her niece, and Guangxu's cousin,

1492: 1414: 1410: 1395: 1027: 1016: 999:

By the time of Xianfeng's death, Empress Dowager Cixi had become a

754: 597: 531: 3656:

The spirit soldiers: a historical narrative of the Boxer Rebellion

2737:

Imperial Decree on events leading to the signing of Boxer Protocol

2016: 895: 5527: 5481: 5080: 5074: 5062: 4712: 4410:

The Empress Dowager and the Camera: Photographing Cixi, 1903–1904

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attacked Beijing, and by the following month they had burned the

904: 854: 735: 635: 402: 239: 5102:

Asterisk (*) denotes that regent was part of a regency council.

5056: 5039: 2980: 1954: 1664: 1497: 1330: 1316: 1238: 1079: 723: 276: 3960: 3958: 3439:

Story in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth

1898:

In 1903, Cixi allowed a young aristocratic photographer named

714:

who effectively controlled the Chinese government in the late

4509:

Cixi – Biography of Dowager Empress of China Cixi or Tz'u-hsi

4272:

Dragon Lady: The Life and Legend of the Last Empress of China

4119:

Empress Dowager Cixi: the concubine who launched modern China

3970: 2490:(set during the latter part of the reign of Tongzhi), and in 2116:

Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China

2108:

Dragon Lady: The Life and Legend of the Last Empress of China

2097:

Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China

2087:, was arrested in 1976 for abuse of power, an exhibit at the 1759: 1705: 1446:

Empress Dowager Cixi holds hands with the fourth daughter of

1348: 960: 908: 643: 3995: 3719:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1982): 604. 2732:

Imperial Decree of declaration of war against foreign powers

1205:

rebel army in a hard-fought battle at Tianjing (present-day

5050: 4488: 3955: 3919: 3820:(Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2015), p. 99. 3747: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3131: 1933: 1593: 844: 783: 4519:

Court Life in China: The Capital, Its Officials and People

4007: 3818:

The Age of Irreverence: A New History of Laughter in China

3337:

http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/FRUS.FRUS189394v01

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Cixi died in the Hall of Graceful Bird at the Middle Sea (

5651: 3990:

Hermit of Peking: The Hidden Life of Sir Edmund Backhouse

3943: 3834: 3556: 3554: 1518:

When it was first developed by Empress Dowager Cixi, the

616: 602: 588: 4434:

The Dragon Empress: Life and Times of Tz'u-hsi 1835–1908

3602:

The rhetoric of empire: American China policy, 1895–1901

3335:

Denby to Gresham, pp. 240–241; retrieved 13 August 2013

3200: 3183: 3931: 3907: 3508: 2888: 2801: 1750:

performance of the imperial army during the rebellion.

1454:(to her right). The lady standing in the background is 786:

on the throne, and a restless, deeply divided society.

4480:

Cixi, Empress Dowager of China, 1835–1908, Photographs

3551: 3314: 3290: 3232: 3230: 3173: 3171: 2945: 2198:; 1849–1913), served as first rank military official ( 827:'s reign (29 November 1835). Her father was Huizheng ( 1527:. The greatest symbol of this enduring belief is the 564: 550: 536: 522: 4391:

Imperial Masquerade: The Legend of Princess Der Ling

3651: 2963: 2822: 2675: 2456:(set during the Sino-Japanese War), and its sequel, 1351:. This group was later joined by Weng Xincun's son, 1283:

Ceremonial headdress likely worn by Cixi. The small

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In September 1860, during the closing stages of the

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China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan

3597: 3302: 3278: 3266: 3254: 3242: 3227: 3168: 3156: 2439:("We, Tz'e Hsi, Empress of China") by Dutch author 2042:Katharine Carl oil portrait painted for exhibit at 1863:, many of which were modeled on the reforms of the 1767:, but lost several decisive battles, including the 69:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3653: 3599: 2789: 2557:. The novel is set in the 1850s through the 1870s. 2102:Several widely read popular biographies appeared. 1883:, to have her portrait painted by American artist 1535: 1184: 1173:Regarding the reforms of the Tongzhi Restoration, 4609: 4287:Popular biography using English language sources. 3769:(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). 2260: 2095:narrative and have written works such as Chang's 1274: 1197:Under the command of Zeng Guofan, the victorious 794:. However, some revisionists have suggested that 5721:Grand Cordons of the Order of the Precious Crown 5667: 4440:Zhang, Zhan. "Cixi and Modernization of China." 3377:康南海自訂年譜 , Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe 文海出版社, p. 67. 1814: 3858:"Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties" 3577:(reprint ed.). Octagon Books. p. 73. 3526: 1053:year, the name of the year 1861 in the Chinese 4397: 4388: 4071: 3976: 3572: 3486: 2465:Lu reprised her role as Cixi in the 1987 film 1125: 986: 5125: 4968: 4595: 3831:"Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say" 3684: 3436: 2246: 2205: 2204:), and held the title of a third class duke ( 2199: 2193: 2179: 2156: 2147: 1985: 1979: 1973: 1968:Empress Dowager Cixi was interred amidst the 1927: 1922:Entrance to the burial chamber in Cixi's tomb 1425: 1109: 1099: 1020: 848: 838: 828: 734:in her adolescence, she gave birth to a son, 492: 147: 5657: 4383:, Harvard University Press, pp. 101–110 4244: 4013: 4001: 3964: 3925: 3351:力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探 , Taipei: Wanjuan lou 萬卷樓, 2004. 3042:"Empress Dowager Cixi by Jung Chang, review" 2911:Yang, Hong; Xie, Jiawei; Ji, Lifang (2018). 1331:The Tongzhi Emperor's deficiencies in ruling 1060: 819:clan was born on the tenth day of the tenth 476:"Empress Dowager Cixi" in Chinese characters 389: 2775:(in Chinese). Beijing: Minzu. p. 640. 2346:portrays the empress 'Tzu Hsi' in the 1963 2299:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1620:Cixi and Guangxu holding court, drawing by 1438:(second from left), who was also her niece. 5132: 5118: 4975: 4961: 4602: 4588: 4491:List of films in which she is a character. 4141:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3709: 3620: 3533:. University of California Press. p. 2987:(2nd ed.). Harvard UnP. p. 212. 2981:John King Fairbank; Merle Goldman (2006). 2462:(set during the "Hundred Days of Reform"). 837:who held the title of a third class duke ( 157: 4413:, MIT Visualizing Culture, archived from 4308: 4228:The last empress: the She-Dragon of China 3794:. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from 3461: 3441:. Columbia University Press. p. 54. 2928: 2910: 2319:Learn how and when to remove this message 1639:, Guangxu believed that by learning from 1575: 209:Grand empress dowager of the Qing dynasty 129:Learn how and when to remove this message 30:"Cixi" redirects here. For the city, see 5746:20th-century Chinese heads of government 4465:United States Government Printing Office 4354: 4265: 4179: 4051: 3753: 3730:"The Empress Dowager, Tze Hsi, of China" 3660:(illustrated ed.). Putnam. p. 3514: 3137: 2722:Ranks of Imperial Consorts in China#Qing 2486:(depicting the Xinyou Coup of 1861), in 2471:, depicting the dowager on her deathbed. 2037: 2015:tombs, which are included in the UNESCO 1959: 1917: 1818: 1728: 1615: 1441: 1429: 1361: 1297: 1278: 1249: 1188: 990: 931:Portrait of a young Empress Dowager Cixi 926: 894: 864: 4225: 3560: 2828: 2547:Cixi is a major character in the novel 1996:Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains of China 1611: 1045:This coup is historically known as the 304: 1852; died 1861) 27:Empress of the Qing Dynasty (1835–1908) 14: 5668: 4447: 4428: 4025: 2970:(2nd ed.). Atheneum. p. vii. 2067:to produce a series of oil portraits. 1450:(to her left) and chief palace eunuch 761:. She supported the principles of the 706: 618: 566: 5711:Chinese people of the Boxer Rebellion 5139: 5113: 4956: 4583: 4406: 4378: 4204: 4149: 4121:(First American ed.). New York. 4116: 3949: 3788:"Power|Play: China's Empress Dowager" 3627:. Syracuse University Press. p. 3349:Liwan kuanglan: Wuxu zhengbian xintan 3320: 3308: 3296: 3284: 3272: 3260: 3248: 3236: 3212: 3206: 3194: 3177: 3162: 2951: 2807: 2795: 2368:The True Story of the Empress Dowager 853:). Lady Yehe Nara had a sister named 768:publicly executing the main reformers 4995:List of emperors of the Qing dynasty 4460:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 4290: 4091: 3937: 3913: 3691:. Bloomsbury Publishing US. p. 3606:. Harvard University Press. p. 3494:. Taylor & Francis. p. 94. 2443:is a fictional diary of the Empress. 2422:The Noble Consort Yi is featured in 2297:adding citations to reliable sources 2264: 2099:in order to offer an opposing view. 2027:own. The long-time China journalist 1245: 67:adding citations to reliable sources 38: 4526:"Cixi: The Woman Behind the Throne" 4454:"Hsiao-ch'in Hsien Huang-hou" 4026:Schell, Orville (25 October 2013). 3425:British Foreign Office files (F.O.) 3087: 2770: 2474:In the 1980s, she was portrayed by 2446:In the 1970s, she was portrayed by 218:14 November 1908 – 15 November 1908 174:Empress dowager of the Qing dynasty 24: 5455:Qing dynasty leaders and personnel 4381:Reform in Nineteenth-Century China 4318: 3855: 3466:. Algora Publishing. p. 216. 3415:(London, 1899.3), No. 401, p. 303. 2192:Second younger brother: Guixiang ( 1836:Smithsonian Museum of American Art 1724: 391:ᡥᡳᠶᠣᠣᡧᡠᠩᡤᠠ ᡤᡳᠩᡤᡠᠵᡳ ᡳᠯᡝᡨᡠ᠋ ᡥᡡᠸᠠᠩᡥᡝᠣ 25: 5772: 4473: 3717:A History of Chinese Civilization 3530:The Origins of the Boxer Uprising 2612:The Last Healer in Forbidden City 2586:The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty 2567:The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty 2492:Li Lianying, the Imperial Eunuch. 2350:'s American epic historical film 2113:In 2013, Jung Chang's biography, 1458:(later Dowager Consort Duankang). 882:Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing 183:23 August 1861 – 14 November 1908 5696:Consorts of the Xianfeng Emperor 5567: 5399: 5375: 5364: 5353: 5342: 5274: 5259:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom leaders 4521:, (New York, F.H. Revell, 1909). 3097:. Lishi Qiannian. Archived from 2706: 2692: 2678: 2356:; this film (based on a book by 2269: 2127:women's place in Chinese history 2008:looting of the Eastern Mausoleum 780:fiscal and institutional reforms 470: 43: 5686:Chinese grand empresses dowager 4810:Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng 4363:. No. 1. pp. 113–122. 4019: 3982: 3888: 3875: 3856:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 3849: 3823: 3810: 3780: 3759: 3722: 3678: 3645: 3614: 3591: 3566: 3520: 3480: 3455: 3430: 3418: 3406: 3393: 3380: 3367: 3354: 3341: 3326: 3143: 3113: 3078: 3060: 3034: 3028: 3019: 3001: 2974: 2957: 2904: 2437:Wij Tz'e Hsi Keizerin Van China 2226:(1841–1896), the mother of the 2178:Maternal grandfather: Huixian ( 2155:Paternal grandfather: Jingrui ( 2129:, she found "rewriting Cixi as 2072:China Under The Empress Dowager 1913: 1536:The Guangxu Emperor's accession 1185:Taiping victory and Prince Gong 1147:Bureaucratic Affairs Department 939:, the British diplomatic envoy 860: 644: 617: 603: 589: 301: 54:needs additional citations for 5691:Qing dynasty empresses dowager 4398:Hayter-Menzies, Grant (2011). 4389:Hayter-Menzies, Grant (2008). 3011:. 8 April 2001. Archived from 2882: 2869: 2856: 2834: 2813: 2764: 2664:The Burning of Imperial Palace 2521:She is portrayed in the novel 2261:In fiction and popular culture 2032:1895 and the loss of Taiwan". 1986: 1980: 1974: 1737:, the wife of U.S. Ambassador 1420: 1313:Imperial Noble Consort Shushen 1275:The Tongzhi Emperor's marriage 922: 857:and a brother named Guixiang. 766:supporting radical reformers, 565: 551: 537: 523: 493: 381: 13: 1: 4916:5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms 4402:. Hong Kong University Press. 4393:. Hong Kong University Press. 4361:Revue de littérature comparée 3219:David A. Graff, Robin Higham 2964:Mary Clabaugh Wright (1969). 2450:in two Hong Kong-made films, 2338:Matilda Angela Antonia Hunter 2212:Jingfen, Empress Xiaodingjing 2074:(1910) by J. O. P. Bland and 1964:Memorial tower of Cixi's tomb 1815:Return to Beijing and reforms 1436:the Guangxu Emperor's empress 1049:because it took place in the 4983:Imperial regents during the 4436:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 4344:Resources in other libraries 3862:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 3598:Marilyn Blatt Young (1969). 3223:Westview Press, 2002, p. 153 2006:and his army as part of the 1502:traditional Chinese medicine 1025:), i.e., to assume power as 7: 5761:Mothers of Chinese emperors 5731:20th-century Chinese people 5726:19th-century Chinese people 3427:17/1718, 26 September 1898. 3401:Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao 3388:Wuxu bianfa dang'an shiliao 3221:A Military History of China 2671: 2480:Burning of Imperial Palace 2164:Paternal grandmother: Lady 2146:Father: Yehenara Huizheng ( 1126:Cleaning up the bureaucracy 1114:; "collective stability"). 987:Xinyou Coup: Ousting Sushun 759:Self-Strengthening Movement 361:Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧太后) 10: 5777: 5751:20th-century women regents 5741:19th-century women regents 4815:Grand Empress Dowager Cixi 4511:at womenshistory.about.com 4505:About.com Women's History. 4355:Aldridge, A. Owen (2001). 4205:Kwong, Luke S. K. (1984). 4065: 3492:Beijing: A Concise History 2637:by French writer/producer 1838:collections and later the 1426:New challenges and illness 1129: 1088:Hall of Mental Cultivation 1065: 693:jilan hūturi hūwang taiheo 666: 390: 29: 5706:Chinese women in politics 5640: 5624: 5590: 5454: 5410: 5258: 5147: 5100: 5032: 5001: 4992: 4868: 4830: 4823: 4805: 4798: 4765:Empress Dowager Chongqing 4745:Empress Dowager Zhaosheng 4735: 4728: 4628: 4621: 4568: 4549: 4541: 4534: 4339:Resources in your library 4164:10.1017/s0026749x00008283 4110:10.1163/15685268-00172p02 3792:Arthur M. Sackler Gallery 3652:Richard O'Connor (1973). 3375:Kang Nanhai ziding nianpu 3362:Forty-five years in China 3025:清史稿：恭忠親王奕訢傳記載："王入謝，痛哭引咎"。 2498:Lover of the Last Empress 2370:(originally published as 2247: 2206: 2200: 2194: 2180: 2157: 2148: 2140: 2021: 1928: 1904:Arthur M. Sackler Gallery 1840:Arthur M. Sackler Gallery 1783:, which began the siege. 1641:constitutional monarchies 1110: 1100: 1061:Ruling behind the curtain 1021: 914:Unlike many of the other 849: 839: 829: 697: 687: 660: 655: 634: 627: 610: 596: 582: 575: 558: 544: 530: 516: 509: 504: 500: 486: 481: 469: 465: 460: 442: 434: 426: 401: 372: 365: 360: 353: 346: 344: 339: 335: 311: 283: 267: 249: 226: 222: 214: 207: 197: 187: 179: 172: 156: 148: 143: 4552:Empress Dowager of China 4310:10.1163/156853212x652004 4291:Wang, Cheng-hua (2012). 4259:10.1163/156853212X651960 3527:Joseph Esherick (1988). 2864:The Rise of Modern China 2757: 2527:, by Oswald Wynd (1977). 2509:China Central Television 2236: 2057:With the Empress Dowager 1881:U.S. Ambassador to China 823:in the 15th year of the 810: 5554:Frederick Townsend Ward 4800:Grand empresses dowager 4760:Empress Dowager Renshou 4750:Empress Dowager Renxian 4226:Laidler, Keith (2003). 4092:Chan, Ying-kit (2015). 4082:. London: W. Heinemann. 3992:(New York: Knopf, 1977) 3573:Chester C. Tan (1967). 3125:search.library.wisc.edu 2500:, she was portrayed by 2429:Flashman and the Dragon 2222:Second younger sister: 2189:Three younger brothers 1908:Smithsonian Institution 1853:Beijing railway station 1844:Smithsonian Institution 1754:'s Muslim troops (the " 1714:six prominent reformers 1590:First Sino-Japanese War 1550:Gate of Supreme Harmony 977:Chengde Mountain Resort 805: 4790:Empress Dowager Longyu 4775:Empress Dowager Kangci 4770:Empress Dowager Gongci 4572:Empress Dowager Longyu 4545:Empress Dowager Kangci 4189:London Review of Books 4185:"In the Hornet's Nest" 3685:Diana Preston (2000). 3437:Paul A. Cohen (1997). 3072:The Walters Art Museum 3068:"Ceremonial Headdress" 2771:Liu, Housheng (2005). 2484:Reign Behind a Curtain 2424:George McDonald Fraser 2122:London Review of Books 2047: 2044:St. Louis World's Fair 1965: 1923: 1889:St. Louis World's Fair 1847: 1742: 1629:Imperial Japanese Navy 1624: 1459: 1439: 1367: 1304: 1288: 1258: 1194: 996: 932: 900: 873: 870:Consort Dowager Kangci 202:Empress Dowager Longyu 192:Empress Dowager Kangci 78:"Empress Dowager Cixi" 5591:Other notable figures 5148:Battles and campaigns 4845:Empress Xiaoxianzhang 4780:Empress Dowager Ci'an 4693:Empress Xiaoquancheng 4688:Empress Xiaoshencheng 4561:Empress Dowager Ci'an 4515:Isaac Taylor Headland 4449:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 4407:Hogge, David (2011), 4230:. Chichester: Wiley. 4104:(2). Brill: 214–244. 3977:BlandBackhouse (1910) 3837:.com. 4 November 2008 3575:The Boxer Catastrophe 2862:Immanual Hsu (1985), 2727:Qing Dynasty nobility 2648:in the PBS TV series 2625:Nothing Gold Can Stay 2553:, by American author 2536:, by Japanese author 2041: 1963: 1921: 1834:, transferred to the 1822: 1732: 1619: 1602:Empress Xiaoshengxian 1557:" by current rulers. 1445: 1433: 1365: 1301: 1282: 1253: 1192: 1155:Viceroy of Liangjiang 1130:Further information: 1082:exercised during the 994: 930: 898: 886:Empress Dowager Ci'an 868: 763:Hundred Days' Reforms 740:Empress Dowager Ci'an 5756:20th-century regents 5736:19th-century regents 5701:Qing dynasty regents 5625:Miscellaneous topics 5467:Empress Dowager Cixi 4825:Posthumous empresses 4785:Empress Dowager Cixi 4755:Empress Dowager Cihe 4708:Empress Xiaodingjing 4698:Empress Xiaozhenxian 4668:Empress Xiaoxianchun 4663:Empress Xiaojingxian 4648:Empress Xiaochengren 4643:Empress Xiaohuizhang 4442:Asian Social Science 4330:Empress Dowager Cixi 4152:Modern Asian Studies 4117:Chang, Jung (2013). 3988:H. R. Trevor-Roper, 3952:, pp. 178, 181. 2984:China: A New History 2852:on 15 December 2013. 2634:The Twins of Destiny 2514:Towards the Republic 2293:improve this section 2053:St. Louis Exposition 1953:quoted a historian, 1851:procession from the 1824:Empress Dowager Cixi 1653:Hundred Days' Reform 1612:Hundred Days' Reform 1001:political strategist 955:(around present-day 835:Bordered Blue Banner 749:Cixi supervised the 704:Empress Dowager Cixi 461:Empress Dowager Cixi 374:Empress Xiaoqin Xian 345:Yehe Nara Xingzhen ( 144:Empress Dowager Cixi 63:improve this article 5658:LiZurndorfer (2012) 5447:(Red Turban rebels) 5411:Other rebel leaders 5180:Northern Expedition 5087:Yixin (Prince Gong) 4855:Empress Xiaomucheng 4740:Empress Xiaoduanwen 4653:Empress Xiaozhaoren 4633:Empress Xiaoduanwen 4501:14 May 2013 at the 4494:Jone Johnson Lewis, 4014:LiZurndorfer (2012) 4002:LiZurndorfer (2012) 3965:LiZurndorfer (2012) 3940:, pp. 164–165. 3926:LiZurndorfer (2012) 3916:, pp. 161–162. 3756:, pp. 404–405. 3621:Nat Brandt (1994). 3347:Lei Chia-sheng雷家聖, 3209:, pp. 160–161. 3197:, pp. 182–184. 3140:, pp. 163–164. 3101:on 15 December 2013 3046:www.telegraph.co.uk 2810:, pp. 177–196. 2488:The Empress Dowager 2453:The Empress Dowager 2219:One younger sister 2131:Catherine the Great 2070:The publication of 2017:World Heritage List 1910:, Washington, D.C. 1809:Tsinghua University 1781:Beijing Field Force 1132:Tongzhi Restoration 1104:; "auspicious") to 1076:his eldest daughter 833:), a member of the 774:led to invasion by 751:Tongzhi Restoration 604:Ci3-hei2 taai3-hau6 5185:Eastern Expedition 5175:Western Expedition 4860:Empress Xiaodexian 4850:Empress Xiaoyichun 4678:Empress Xiaoshurui 4559:concurrently with 4267:Seagrave, Sterling 4253:(1). Brill: 1–20. 4032:The New York Times 3798:on 21 January 2015 3765:Douglas Reynolds, 3624:Massacre in Shansi 3462:X. L. Woo (2002). 2930:10.1186/BF03545700 2048: 1970:Eastern Qing tombs 1966: 1924: 1848: 1832:Theodore Roosevelt 1765:Battle of Langfang 1743: 1625: 1500:, as validated by 1460: 1440: 1368: 1305: 1289: 1259: 1195: 997: 979:in Rehe Province. 933: 901: 874: 5647: 5646: 5195:Tianjing incident 5141:Taiping Rebellion 5107: 5106: 5033:Appointed regents 5002:Empresses dowager 4950: 4949: 4840:Empress Xiaocigao 4835:Empress Xiaoliewu 4730:Empresses dowager 4713:Empress Xiaokemin 4703:Empress Xiaozheyi 4683:Empress Xiaoherui 4658:Empress Xiaoyiren 4623:Empresses consort 4578: 4577: 4569:Succeeded by 4444:6.4 (2010): 154+. 4325:Library resources 4275:. Vintage Books. 4197:Free access copy 4074:Backhouse, Edmund 4072:Bland, J. O. P.; 3904:, 12 October 2013 3816:Christopher Rea, 3373:Kang Youwei 康有為, 3360:Timothy Richard, 3323:, pp. 27–28. 3299:, pp. 26–27. 3048:. 11 October 2013 2954:, pp. 21–22. 2599:Princess Der Ling 2353:55 Days at Peking 2329: 2328: 2321: 2242:As Concubine Yi: 2210:), the father of 2135:Margaret Thatcher 2104:Sterling Seagrave 1945:arsenic poisoning 1865:Meiji Restoration 1792:Battle of Beijing 1769:Battle of Beicang 1735:Sarah Pike Conger 1555:Mandate of Heaven 1255:Princess Rongshou 1246:Foreign influence 1138:Taiping Rebellion 949:Old Summer Palace 701: 700: 651: 650: 584:Yale Romanization 552:Tz'ŭ-hsi t'ai-hou 511:Standard Mandarin 456: 455: 397: 396: 326:Princess Rongshou 139: 138: 131: 113: 16:(Redirected from 5768: 5661: 5655: 5616: 5582: 5572: 5571: 5562: 5549: 5536: 5523: 5505: 5462:Xianfeng Emperor 5445: 5426: 5403: 5391: 5379: 5368: 5357: 5346: 5334: 5321: 5308: 5295: 5278: 5134: 5127: 5120: 5111: 5110: 4977: 4970: 4963: 4954: 4953: 4721: 4604: 4597: 4590: 4581: 4580: 4542:Preceded by 4532: 4531: 4486:Cixi (Character) 4468: 4456: 4437: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4403: 4394: 4384: 4364: 4314: 4312: 4286: 4262: 4241: 4222: 4196: 4181:Crossley, Pamela 4175: 4146: 4140: 4132: 4113: 4083: 4059: 4049: 4043: 4042: 4040: 4038: 4023: 4017: 4011: 4005: 4004:, pp. 9–10. 3999: 3993: 3986: 3980: 3974: 3968: 3962: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3894:Jasper Becker, " 3892: 3886: 3883:The Last Emperor 3879: 3873: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3827: 3821: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3803: 3784: 3778: 3763: 3757: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3726: 3720: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3659: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3618: 3612: 3611: 3605: 3595: 3589: 3588: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3549: 3548: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3397: 3391: 3384: 3378: 3371: 3365: 3358: 3352: 3345: 3339: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3225: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3181: 3175: 3166: 3160: 3154: 3151:The Last Emperor 3147: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3128: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3091: 3085: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3015:on 8 April 2001. 3005: 2999: 2998: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2932: 2908: 2902: 2899:The Last Emperor 2895: 2886: 2880: 2877:The Last Emperor 2873: 2867: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2848:. Archived from 2838: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2786: 2768: 2716: 2714:Biography portal 2711: 2710: 2709: 2702: 2697: 2696: 2695: 2688: 2683: 2682: 2681: 2651:Meeting of Minds 2581:Susanna Au-yeung 2544:as Empress Cixi. 2468:The Last Emperor 2459:The Last Tempest 2412:The Last Empress 2324: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2304: 2273: 2265: 2250: 2249: 2209: 2208: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2196: 2183: 2182: 2160: 2159: 2151: 2150: 2076:Edmund Backhouse 1989: 1988: 1983: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1931: 1930: 1697:Frederick Bourne 1693:Claude MacDonald 1606:Qianlong Emperor 1179:John K. Fairbank 1113: 1112: 1103: 1102: 1055:sexagenary cycle 1024: 1023: 937:Second Opium War 878:Xianfeng Emperor 852: 851: 842: 841: 832: 831: 825:Daoguang Emperor 815:Xingzhen of the 792:Wuchang Uprising 755:military reforms 732:Xianfeng Emperor 709: 683: 647: 646: 623: 622: 621: 606: 605: 592: 591: 571: 570: 569: 554: 553: 540: 539: 526: 525: 502: 501: 496: 495: 474: 458: 457: 451:Tibetan Buddhism 447:Manchu shamanism 393: 392: 383: 348: 337: 336: 305: 303: 290:Xianfeng Emperor 256: 253:15 November 1908 237:29 November 1835 236: 234: 161: 152: 151: 150: 141: 140: 134: 127: 123: 120: 114: 112: 71: 47: 39: 21: 5776: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5766: 5765: 5666: 5665: 5664: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5643: 5636: 5620: 5612: 5586: 5578: 5566: 5558: 5545: 5532: 5519: 5501: 5450: 5441: 5422: 5406: 5387: 5330: 5317: 5304: 5291: 5254: 5143: 5138: 5108: 5103: 5096: 5028: 4997: 4988: 4981: 4951: 4946: 4864: 4826: 4819: 4801: 4794: 4731: 4724: 4715: 4624: 4617: 4608: 4574: 4565: 4557: 4555: 4547: 4536:Chinese royalty 4524:Amanda Bensen, 4503:Wayback Machine 4476: 4471: 4420: 4418: 4417:on 22 July 2016 4350: 4349: 4348: 4333: 4332: 4328: 4321: 4319:Further reading 4283: 4238: 4219: 4134: 4133: 4129: 4068: 4063: 4062: 4052:Crossley (2014) 4050: 4046: 4036: 4034: 4024: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3987: 3983: 3975: 3971: 3967:, pp. 8–9. 3963: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3928:, pp. 6–7. 3924: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3893: 3889: 3880: 3876: 3866: 3864: 3854: 3850: 3840: 3838: 3829: 3828: 3824: 3815: 3811: 3801: 3799: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3764: 3760: 3754:Seagrave (1992) 3752: 3748: 3738: 3736: 3728: 3727: 3723: 3715:Jaques Gernet, 3714: 3710: 3703: 3683: 3679: 3672: 3650: 3646: 3639: 3619: 3615: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3571: 3567: 3559: 3552: 3545: 3525: 3521: 3515:Seagrave (1992) 3513: 3509: 3502: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3419: 3411: 3407: 3398: 3394: 3385: 3381: 3372: 3368: 3359: 3355: 3346: 3342: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3259: 3255: 3247: 3243: 3235: 3228: 3217: 3213: 3205: 3201: 3193: 3184: 3176: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3148: 3144: 3138:Seagrave (1992) 3136: 3132: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3104: 3102: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3079: 3066: 3065: 3061: 3051: 3049: 3040: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2995: 2979: 2975: 2962: 2958: 2950: 2946: 2909: 2905: 2896: 2889: 2883: 2874: 2870: 2861: 2857: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2814: 2806: 2802: 2794: 2790: 2783: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2712: 2707: 2705: 2698: 2693: 2691: 2684: 2679: 2677: 2674: 2524:The Ginger Tree 2441:Johan Fabricius 2435:The 1968 novel 2398:Boxer Rebellion 2325: 2314: 2308: 2305: 2290: 2274: 2263: 2253:Tongzhi Emperor 2239: 2228:Guangxu Emperor 2143: 2024: 1916: 1877:Edwin H. 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(1943). 4445: 4438: 4430:Warner, Marina 4426: 4404: 4395: 4386: 4376: 4365: 4351: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4323: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4316: 4315: 4303:(1): 119–176. 4288: 4281: 4263: 4242: 4236: 4223: 4217: 4202: 4177: 4158:(2): 177–196. 4147: 4127: 4114: 4089: 4067: 4064: 4061: 4060: 4044: 4018: 4006: 3994: 3981: 3979:, p. 476. 3969: 3954: 3942: 3930: 3918: 3906: 3887: 3874: 3848: 3822: 3809: 3779: 3758: 3746: 3721: 3708: 3701: 3677: 3671:978-0399112164 3670: 3644: 3637: 3613: 3590: 3583: 3565: 3563:, p. 221. 3561:Laidler (2003) 3550: 3543: 3519: 3517:, p. 311. 3507: 3501:978-0415399067 3500: 3488:Stephen G. 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Wright 1127: 1124: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 988: 985: 924: 921: 890:Forbidden City 862: 859: 812: 809: 807: 804: 712:Yehe Nara clan 699: 698: 695: 694: 691: 685: 684: 681: 680: 677: 674: 671: 667: 664: 658: 657: 653: 652: 649: 648: 641: 632: 631: 625: 624: 614: 608: 607: 600: 594: 593: 586: 580: 579: 577:Yue: Cantonese 573: 572: 562: 556: 555: 548: 542: 541: 538:ㄘˊ ㄒㄧˇ ㄊㄞˋ ㄏㄡˋ 534: 528: 527: 520: 514: 513: 507: 506: 505:Transcriptions 498: 497: 490: 484: 483: 479: 478: 475: 467: 466: 463: 462: 454: 453: 444: 440: 439: 436: 432: 431: 428: 424: 423: 421: 420: 414: 407: 405: 399: 398: 395: 394: 370: 369: 363: 362: 358: 357: 351: 350: 342: 341: 333: 332: 330: 329: 323: 317: 315: 309: 308: 297: 293: 288: 287: 285: 281: 280: 273:Ding Mausoleum 271: 269: 265: 264: 257:(aged 72) 251: 247: 246: 228: 224: 223: 220: 219: 216: 212: 211: 205: 204: 199: 195: 194: 189: 185: 184: 181: 177: 176: 170: 169: 162: 154: 153: 137: 136: 51: 49: 42: 32:Cixi, Zhejiang 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5773: 5762: 5759: 5757: 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4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4090: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4069: 4057: 4053: 4048: 4033: 4029: 4028:"Her Dynasty" 4022: 4016:, p. 11. 4015: 4010: 4003: 3998: 3991: 3985: 3978: 3973: 3966: 3961: 3959: 3951: 3946: 3939: 3934: 3927: 3922: 3915: 3910: 3903: 3902: 3901:The Spectator 3897: 3891: 3885:, 1987, p. 51 3884: 3881:Edward Behr, 3878: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3836: 3832: 3826: 3819: 3813: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3783: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3762: 3755: 3750: 3735: 3734:Freer|Sackler 3731: 3725: 3718: 3712: 3704: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3689: 3681: 3673: 3667: 3663: 3658: 3657: 3648: 3640: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3625: 3617: 3609: 3604: 3603: 3594: 3586: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3562: 3557: 3555: 3546: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3531: 3523: 3516: 3511: 3503: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3475: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3450: 3444: 3440: 3433: 3426: 3421: 3414: 3409: 3402: 3396: 3389: 3383: 3376: 3370: 3363: 3357: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3311:, p. 27. 3310: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3287:, p. 32. 3286: 3281: 3275:, p. 38. 3274: 3269: 3263:, p. 29. 3262: 3257: 3251:, p. 61. 3250: 3245: 3239:, p. 60. 3238: 3233: 3231: 3224: 3222: 3215: 3208: 3203: 3196: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3180:, p. 54. 3179: 3174: 3172: 3165:, p. 25. 3164: 3159: 3153:, 1987, p. 49 3152: 3149:Edward Behr, 3146: 3139: 3134: 3126: 3122: 3116: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3063: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3031: 3022: 3014: 3010: 3004: 2996: 2990: 2986: 2985: 2977: 2969: 2968: 2960: 2953: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2907: 2901:, 1987, p. 45 2900: 2897:Edward Behr, 2894: 2892: 2885: 2879:, 1987, p. 44 2878: 2875:Edward Behr, 2872: 2865: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2837: 2831:, p. 58. 2830: 2825: 2816: 2809: 2804: 2798:, p. 68. 2797: 2792: 2784: 2782:7-105-06386-6 2778: 2774: 2767: 2763: 2753: 2750: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2704: 2701: 2690: 2687: 2676: 2666: 2665: 2660: 2657:Portrayed by 2656: 2653: 2652: 2647: 2644:Portrayed by 2643: 2640: 2639:Jean Chalopin 2636: 2635: 2630: 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Dynasties 4900:S. Dynasties 4814: 4784: 4673:Empress Nara 4638:Erdeni Bumba 4615:Qing dynasty 4558: 4550: 4496:Empress Cixi 4458: 4441: 4433: 4419:, retrieved 4415:the original 4409: 4399: 4390: 4380: 4360: 4329: 4300: 4296: 4271: 4250: 4246: 4227: 4207: 4192: 4188: 4155: 4151: 4118: 4101: 4097: 4078: 4047: 4035:. Retrieved 4031: 4021: 4009: 3997: 3989: 3984: 3972: 3950:Chung (1979) 3945: 3933: 3921: 3909: 3899: 3890: 3882: 3877: 3865:. Retrieved 3861: 3851: 3839:. Retrieved 3825: 3817: 3812: 3800:. Retrieved 3796:the original 3791: 3782: 3766: 3761: 3749: 3737:. 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