660: July 15, 1999) ("In the cases provided for in Article 4(2), in addition to nationality, account was taken of the existence or non-existence of diplomatic protection: nationals of a neutral State or a co-belligerent State are not treated as “protected persons” unless they are deprived of or do not enjoy diplomatic protection. In other words, those nationals are not “protected persons” as long as they benefit from the normal diplomatic protection of their State; when they lose it or in any event do not enjoy it, the Convention automatically grants them the status of “protected persons”."),
320:
A German army corps invaded the Soviet Union from
Finnish Lapland, and German army and air force units reinforced the Finnish army during the decisive 1944 battles on the Karelian isthmus. Finland and Germany executed several joint German-Finnish Operations at the Finnish front. The Finnish invasion
115:
The case of nationals of a co-belligerent State is simpler. They are not considered to be protected persons so long as the State whose nationals they are has normal diplomatic representation in the belligerent State or with the
Occupying Power. It is assumed in this provision that the nationals of
128:(ICTY) appeals chamber noted that nationals of a co-belligerent state would be afforded the status of "protected persons" under the Fourth Geneva Convention if they "are deprived of or do not enjoy diplomatic protection."
477:, which Congress passed in the aftermath of 9/11 to authorize the President to use force against the group that had attacked the United States and those who harbored them, understood to be al Qaeda and the
430:
In contrast the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty signed by
Finland described Finland as having been "an ally of Hitlerite Germany" during the Second World War. In a 2008 poll of 28 Finnish historians carried out by
75:
ationals of a co-belligerent State, shall not be regarded as protected persons while the State of which they are nationals has normal diplomatic representation in the State in whose hands they are.
342:
Germany supplied
Finland with military equipment of all kinds, ranging from weapons, uniforms and helmets to tanks and assault guns. Finland in exchange delivered rare resources like nickel.
730:
As a co-belligerent of Nazi
Germany, the Soviet Union secretly assisted the German invasion of central and western Poland before launching its own invasion of eastern Poland on September 17
376:
prisoners of war from
Germany. Some of the extradited had Finnish nationality but had moved to Soviet Union before the war, received Soviet citizenship and returned to Finland in secret.
227:
of
September 1940. The Allies, in turn, pointed to the fact that Finland, like (Fascist) Italy and (Militarist) Japan, as well as a number of countries including neutral (Falangist)
201:(1941–1944), both countries had the Soviet Union as a common enemy. Finnish reentry into World War II was described as a direct consequence of Germany's attack on the Soviet Union,
582:
901:
368:
issued an official apology for deportations in 2000), 76 political prisoners with non-Finnish citizenship and 2,600–2,800 prisoners of war to
Germany in exchange for 2,100
273:
practically domestic German waters, where submarines and navy could be trained without risks in addition to securing
Finland's fundamental trade routes for food and fuel.
675:
661:
657:
125:
604:
850:
Ingber, Rebecca, Co-Belligerency (2017). 42 Yale J. Int'l Law 67 (2017), Boston Univ. School of Law, Public Law
Research Paper No. 16-37, Available at SSRN:
474:
217:
277:
634:
221:
445:
The term was used in 1943–45 during the latter stages of World War II to define the status of former allies and associates of Germany (
717:
249:
country, then co-belligerent after the Soviets started bombing Finnish cities all over the country, not the least due to a remaining
791:
638:
586:
306:
108:
863:
883:
704:
The Soviet Union participated as a cobelligerent with Germany after September 17, 1939, when Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland
473:. It has done so largely as a means of tying authority to use force against those groups to a 2001 congressional statute, the
469:
In the post-9/11 era, the United States government has used the term "co-belligerent" to apply to certain groups connected to
566:
618:
532:
528:
161:. Although both countries invaded Poland, they had no formal, open alliance; The pact was formally an agreement of mutual
313:. Finland also helped to block Soviet supply deliveries into the city and hosted, supplied and participated within the
753:
437:, 16 said that Finland had been an ally of Nazi Germany, six said it had not been, and six did not take a position.
507:
280:
which served under direct German command in operations away from Finnish-Soviet border. (It also recruited from
868:
84:
17:
287:
and Spain. Germany did not recruit from countries formally allied with it until 1943 when Italy surrendered)
513:
501:
305:(northern part was Finnish territory until 1940) and to a lesser extent the occupation of over a half of
158:
610:
284:
87:
for foreign co-belligerent citizens to be subjected to atrocities whether in their own territory or in
67:, nationals of a co-belligerent state are not regarded as protected persons if their state has normal
902:"Belarus to keep helping Russia but unlikely to send its troops to join Russia's fighting in Ukraine"
361:
392:
64:
55:
as "states engaged in a conflict with a common enemy, whether in alliance with each other or not".
766:
379:
Jews were not discriminated against. A number of them served in the Finnish Army (204 during the
245:(in league) with the Finns, but Finland's government declared their intention to remain first a
415:
396:
350:
209:
154:
116:
co-belligerent States, that is to say, of allies, do not need protection under the Convention.
839:
556:
165:. German and Soviet cooperation against Poland in 1939 has been described as co-belligerence.
120:
There are certain exceptions to this rule, however. On a judgement issued on July 15, 1999 on
924:
519:
373:
193:
for its military co-operation with Germany (who they called their "brothers-in-arms") during
402:
is said to have replied: "While Jews serve in my army I will not allow their deportation".
291:
202:
42:
228:
8:
489:
450:
232:
162:
88:
454:
314:
310:
142:
691:
814:
749:
695:
614:
562:
433:
399:
38:
687:
536:
523:
446:
384:
302:
295:
198:
182:
174:
104:
281:
270:
258:
246:
224:
168:
365:
336:
47:
419:
918:
741:
699:
600:
136:
407:
357:
353:
262:
238:
194:
150:
146:
100:
676:""The laughing third man in a fight": Stalin's use of the wedge strategy"
265:
before the start of Barbarossa locked the Leningrad fleet in, making the
213:
92:
51:
invoking the alliance has not arisen. Co-belligerents are defined in the
423:
418:. Two Jewish officers of the Finnish army and one Jewish member of the
403:
380:
330:
326:
322:
266:
250:
99:, such wartime atrocities would fall under the co-belligerent nation's
45:
exists. Likewise, allies may not become co-belligerents in a war if a
411:
369:
80:
68:
851:
440:
470:
635:"Commentary of 1958: Article 4 - Definition of protected persons"
485:
478:
458:
388:
190:
606:
The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War
461:
from 1944), after they joined the Allies' war against Germany.
169:
Finland as co-belligerent with Germany in the Continuation War
558:
Parry and Grant Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law
96:
71:
with an allied nation. Article 4 of the convention states:
554:
422:
women's paramilitary organisation were awarded the German
658:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
346:
137:
Germany and the Soviet Union as co-belligerents in Poland
126:
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
34:
391:
tried to persuade Finnish leaders to deport the Jews to
41:. Generally, the term is used for cases where no formal
37:
in cooperation against a common enemy with or without a
189:) was also the term used by the wartime government of
131:
864:"RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE CAMPAIGN ASSESSMENT, DECEMBER 11"
290:
The initial Finnish offensive was co-ordinated with
253:
public opinion. The truth was somewhere in-between:
884:"RUSSIAN OFFENSIVE CAMPAIGN ASSESSMENT, OCTOBER 11"
718:"The Destruction of East-Central Europe, 1939-41"
441:The Allies as co-belligerents with former enemies
916:
815:"Historian professorit hautaavat pitkät kiistat"
488:is described as co-belligerent of Russia in the
840:Co-Belligerency, 42 Yale J. Int'l Law 67 (2017)
555:John P Grant; J.Craig Barker (2 October 2009).
548:
317:which aimed to disrupt Soviet supply delivery.
298:for details of the pre-offensive staff talks).
216:, Finland was never a signatory to the German-
599:
583:"Article 4 - Definition of protected persons"
53:Encyclopaedic Dictionary of International Law
522:– fighting with the Soviet Union during the
278:Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen-SS
339:declared war on Finland on 6 December 1941.
748:, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 2002,
333:for a possible link-up with German troops.
329:and Finnish troops even crossed the river
746:Hitlerin Saksa ja sen vapaaehtoisliikkeet
531:– fighting with the Soviet Union and the
806:
639:International Committee of the Red Cross
587:International Committee of the Red Cross
561:. Oxford University Press. p. 102.
475:2001 Authorization to Use Military Force
212:often referred to Finland as one of the
109:International Committee of the Red Cross
812:
715:
14:
917:
735:
764:
673:
349:(on orders from the then head of the
680:Communist and Post-Communist Studies
325:Finland. Finland occupied as far as
157:in accordance with the terms of the
132:Historical examples in World War II
24:
426:, but they refused to accept them.
321:far exceeded the territory of pre
111:(ICRC) commentary of 1958 stated:
25:
936:
852:https://ssrn.com/abstract=2837152
692:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2016.11.002
276:Germany was allowed to recruit a
261:Finland's navy together with the
95:troops. Much like in the time of
813:Mäkinen, Esa (19 October 2008).
508:Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force
103:or the allied belligerent's own
894:
876:
856:
844:
832:
784:
765:Reime, Hannu (8 October 2010).
674:Hager, Robert P. (2017-03-01).
464:
888:Institute for the Study of War
869:Institute for the Study of War
792:"Treaty of Peace With Finland"
758:
709:
667:
645:
627:
593:
575:
345:Finland also extradited eight
85:international humanitarian law
13:
1:
653:The Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić
542:
397:Commander-in-chief of Finland
122:The Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić
7:
514:Italian Co-Belligerent Navy
502:Italian Co-Belligerent Army
495:
383:, and about 300 during the
79:In other words, it isn't a
58:
10:
941:
611:Cambridge University Press
516:– fighting with the Allies
510:– fighting with the Allies
504:– fighting with the Allies
27:War against a common enemy
362:Prime Minister of Finland
716:Blobaum, Robert (1990).
393:Nazi concentration camps
301:Finnish invasion of the
65:Fourth Geneva Convention
414:, all fighting for the
241:declared Germany to be
231:, belonged to Hitler's
159:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
186:
178:
118:
77:
767:"Un-Finnish Business"
722:Problems of Communism
410:were murdered in the
372:and other ethnically
113:
73:
613:. pp. 252–253.
484:Since February 2022
416:Finnish armed forces
315:Lake Ladoga Flotilla
292:Operation Barbarossa
203:Operation Barbarossa
69:diplomatic relations
908:. 12 December 2022.
872:. 11 December 2022.
794:. 1947. p. 229
656:, 164 and 165 (
490:Russo-Ukrainian War
309:contributed to the
233:Anti-Comintern Pact
145:in September 1939,
33:is the waging of a
890:. 11 October 2022.
603:(April 18, 2016).
520:1st Bulgarian Army
311:Siege of Leningrad
143:invasion of Poland
89:occupied territory
43:treaty of alliance
819:Helsingin Sanomat
568:978-0-19-987491-0
533:4th Romanian Army
529:1st Romanian Army
434:Helsingin Sanomat
400:Gustaf Mannerheim
356:, who was deeply
173:Co-belligerence (
39:military alliance
16:(Redirected from
932:
910:
909:
906:Euromaidan Press
898:
892:
891:
880:
874:
873:
860:
854:
848:
842:
838:Rebecca Ingber,
836:
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732:
713:
707:
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671:
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642:
631:
625:
624:
620:9-7811-0713-5604
597:
591:
590:
579:
573:
572:
552:
537:Prague Offensive
524:Vienna Offensive
406:records that 22
385:Continuation War
303:Karelian Isthmus
296:Continuation War
282:non-belligerents
199:Continuation War
21:
940:
939:
935:
934:
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651:
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633:
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628:
621:
598:
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581:
580:
576:
569:
553:
549:
545:
498:
467:
443:
271:Gulf of Bothnia
259:Gulf of Finland
247:non-belligerent
225:Tripartite Pact
171:
139:
134:
61:
31:Co-belligerence
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
938:
928:
927:
912:
911:
893:
875:
855:
843:
831:
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783:
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734:
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666:
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626:
619:
592:
574:
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517:
511:
505:
497:
494:
466:
463:
442:
439:
428:
427:
377:
366:Paavo Lipponen
343:
340:
334:
318:
307:Soviet Karelia
299:
288:
274:
257:By mining the
187:medkrigförande
170:
167:
138:
135:
133:
130:
60:
57:
48:casus foederis
26:
18:Co-belligerent
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
937:
926:
923:
922:
920:
907:
903:
897:
889:
885:
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871:
870:
865:
859:
853:
847:
841:
835:
820:
816:
809:
793:
787:
772:
768:
761:
755:
754:951-746-335-9
751:
747:
743:
742:Mauno Jokipii
738:
731:
727:
723:
719:
712:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
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640:
636:
630:
622:
616:
612:
608:
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602:
601:Gary D. Solis
596:
588:
584:
578:
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560:
559:
551:
547:
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197:. During the
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44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
925:Belligerency
905:
896:
887:
878:
867:
858:
846:
834:
822:. Retrieved
818:
808:
796:. Retrieved
786:
774:. Retrieved
770:
760:
745:
737:
729:
725:
721:
711:
703:
686:(1): 15–27.
683:
679:
669:
652:
647:
629:
605:
595:
577:
557:
550:
483:
468:
465:Recent usage
444:
432:
429:
408:Finnish Jews
354:Arno Anthoni
351:State Police
263:Kriegsmarine
242:
239:Adolf Hitler
237:
207:
195:World War II
179:kanssasotija
172:
153:partitioned
151:Soviet Union
147:Nazi Germany
140:
121:
119:
114:
105:military law
101:domestic law
78:
74:
62:
52:
46:
30:
29:
535:during the
449:from 1943,
420:Lotta Svärd
358:antisemitic
214:Axis powers
93:belligerent
824:7 February
798:23 October
543:References
424:Iron Cross
404:Yad Vashem
381:Winter War
327:Lake Onega
323:Winter War
267:Baltic Sea
251:neutralist
208:While the
163:neutrality
141:After the
124:case, the
91:by allied
63:Under the
776:30 August
700:0967-067X
412:Holocaust
81:war crime
919:Category
496:See also
471:al Qaeda
451:Bulgaria
387:). When
370:Karelian
269:and the
243:im Bunde
222:Japanese
149:and the
59:Legality
771:Haaretz
728:: 106.
486:Belarus
479:Taliban
459:Finland
455:Romania
389:Himmler
337:Britain
218:Italian
191:Finland
183:Swedish
175:Finnish
752:
698:
617:
565:
395:, the
374:Finnic
360:– the
285:Sweden
210:Allies
155:Poland
107:. The
83:under
447:Italy
294:(see
229:Spain
97:peace
826:2021
800:2020
778:2017
750:ISBN
696:ISSN
662:Text
615:ISBN
563:ISBN
457:and
347:Jews
331:Svir
688:doi
35:war
921::
904:.
886:.
866:.
817:.
769:.
744:,
726:39
724:.
720:.
702:.
694:.
684:50
682:.
678:.
637:.
609:.
585:.
492:.
481:.
453:,
364:,
235:.
205:.
185::
181:,
177::
828:.
802:.
780:.
690::
664:.
641:.
623:.
589:.
571:.
220:-
20:)
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