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2599:— Side-stream filtration, although popular and effective, does not provide complete protection. With side-stream filtration, a portion of the water is filtered continuously. This method works on the principle that continuous particle removal will keep the system clean. Manufacturers typically package side-stream filters on a skid, complete with a pump and controls. For high flow systems, this method is cost-effective. Properly sizing a side-stream filtration system is critical to obtain satisfactory filter performance, but there is some debate over how to properly size the side-stream system. Many engineers size the system to continuously filter the cooling tower basin water at a rate equivalent to 10% of the total circulation flow rate. For example, if the total flow of a system is 1,200 gal/min (a 400-ton system), a 120 gal/min side-stream system is specified.
2658:
243:
480:
991:
2425:
48:
288:, the indirect dew point evaporative cooling Maisotsenko Cycle (M-Cycle) is a theoretically sound method of reducing a fluid to dew point temperature which is lower than its wet bulb temperature. The M-cycle utilizes the psychrometric energy (or the potential energy) available from the latent heat of water evaporating into the air. While its current manifestation is as the M-Cycle HMX for air conditioning, through engineering design this cycle could be applied as a heat and moisture recovery device for combustion devices, cooling towers, condensers, and other processes involving humid gas streams.
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64:
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76:
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2466:— The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume is visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure" water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown out of the air inlets.
40:
2266:
1318:
1303:
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2100:
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897:). As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the water evaporates, and the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is taken from the remaining mass of water, thus reducing its temperature. Approximately 2,300 kilojoules per kilogram (970 BTU/lb) of heat energy is absorbed for the evaporated water. Evaporation results in saturated air conditions, lowering the temperature of the water processed by the tower to a value close to
2619:— A structural material for cooling towers which was largely abandoned in the early 2000s. It is still used occasionally due to its low initial costs, in spite of its short life expectancy. The life of treated timber varies a lot, depending on the operating conditions of the tower, such as frequency of shutdowns, treatment of the circulating water, etc. Under proper working conditions, the estimated life of treated timber structural members is about 10 years.
1311:
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5128:
1225:
2589:— Full-flow filtration continuously strains particulates out of the entire system flow. For example, in a 100-ton system, the flow rate would be roughly 300 gal/min. A filter would be selected to accommodate the entire 300 gal/min flow rate. In this case, the filter typically is installed after the cooling tower on the discharge side of the pump. While this is the ideal method of filtration, for higher flow systems it may be cost-prohibitive.
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2446:— Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower. Drift can also be reduced by using warmer entering cooling tower temperatures.
544:. A large amount of water would have to be continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic organisms (see
460:. By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be heated. When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze damage), and heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate
2545:(twb). Since the cooling towers are based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the maximum cooling tower efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature measurement that reflects the physical properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and water vapor
2484:(TDS) and other impurities at an acceptably low level. Higher TDS concentration in solution may result from greater cooling tower efficiency. However the higher the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth, and corrosion. The amount of blow-down is primarily regulated by measuring by the
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239:
much shortened vertically (20 to 40 ft. high) and very much enlarged laterally. At the top is a set of distributing troughs, to which the water from the condenser must be pumped; from these it trickles down over "mats" made of wooden slats or woven wire screens, which fill the space within the tower".
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This phenomenon can be prevented by decreasing the relative humidity of the saturated discharge air. For that purpose, in hybrid towers, saturated discharge air is mixed with heated low relative humidity air. Some air enters the tower above drift eliminator level, passing through heat exchangers. The
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Among the issues that cause the most damage and strain to a water tower's systems is scaling. When an unwanted material or contaminant in the water builds up in a certain area, it can create deposits that grow over time. This can cause issues ranging from the narrowing of pipes to total blockages and
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spray water into the incoming air or onto a cardboard pad to cool the air before it passes over an air-cooled heat exchanger. Adiabatic cooling towers use less water than other cooling towers but do not cool the fluid as close to the wet bulb temperature. Most adiabatic cooling towers are also hybrid
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Facilities such as power plants, steel processing plants, petroleum refineries, or petrochemical plants usually install field erected type cooling towers due to their greater capacity for heat rejection. Field erected towers are usually much larger in size compared to the package type cooling towers.
238:
These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of buildings or as free-standing structures, supplied with air by fans or relying on natural airflow. An
American engineering textbook from 1911 described one design as "a circular or rectangular shell of light plate—in effect, a chimney stack
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Sometimes, natural draft cooling towers are constructed with structural steel in place of concrete (RCC) when the construction time of natural draft cooling tower is exceeding the construction time of the rest of the plant or the local soil is of poor strength to bear the heavy weight of RCC cooling
2945:. Three out of the original eight cooling towers were destroyed, and the remaining five were severely damaged. The towers were later rebuilt and all eight cooling towers were strengthened to tolerate adverse weather conditions. Building codes were changed to include improved structural support, and
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indicated significant dynamic influences of the condensation trails on the surrounding atmosphere, manifested in temperature and humidity disturbances. The mechanism of these influences seemed to be associated either with the airflow over the trail as an obstacle or with vertical waves generated by
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Drift (or windage) is the term for water droplets of the process flow allowed to escape in the cooling tower discharge. Drift eliminators are used in order to hold drift rates typically to 0.001–0.005% of the circulating flow rate. A typical drift eliminator provides multiple directional changes of
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in an industrial facility. The cool water absorbs heat from the hot process streams which need to be cooled or condensed, and the absorbed heat warms the circulating water (C). The warm water returns to the top of the cooling tower and trickles downward over the fill material inside the tower. As
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In a counterflow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow (see diagram at left). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and then flows downward through
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During the winter, other sites continuously operate cooling towers with 4 °C (39 °F) water leaving the tower. Basin heaters, tower draindown, and other freeze protection methods are often employed in cold climates. Operational cooling towers with malfunctions can freeze during very cold
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behind in the bulk of the water which has not been evaporated, thus raising the salt concentration in the circulating cooling water. To prevent the salt concentration of the water from becoming too high, a portion of the water is drawn off or blown down (D) for disposal. Fresh water make-up (M) is
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air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a forced draft design
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effectiveness. In areas with a hot climate, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more cooling towers as part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers. HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower
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Crossflow is a design in which the airflow is directed perpendicular to the water flow (see diagram at left). Airflow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the
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These types of cooling towers are factory preassembled, and can be simply transported on trucks, as they are compact machines. The capacity of package type towers is limited and, for that reason, they are usually preferred by facilities with low heat rejection requirements such as food processing
2222:
Algaecides, as their name might suggest, is intended to kill algae and other related plant-like microbes in the water. Biocides can reduce other living matter that remains, improving the system and keeping clean and efficient water usage in a cooling tower. One of the most common options when it
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When wet cooling towers with seawater make-up are installed in various industries located in or near coastal areas, the drift of fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6% sodium chloride which deposits on the nearby land areas. This deposition of sodium salts on the nearby
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of the circulating water. Biological growth, scaling, and corrosion can be prevented by chemicals (respectively, biocide, sulfuric acid, corrosion inhibitor). On the other hand, the only practical way to decrease the electrical conductivity is by increasing the amount of blow-down discharge and
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are closed circuit cooling towers that can switch between wet or adiabatic and dry operation. This helps balance water and energy savings across a variety of weather conditions. Some hybrid cooling towers can switch between dry, wet, and adiabatic modes. Thermal efficiencies up to 92% have been
230:
By the turn of the 20th century, several evaporative methods of recycling cooling water were in use in areas lacking an established water supply, as well as in urban locations where municipal water mains may not be of sufficient supply; reliable in times of demand; or otherwise adequate to meet
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Under certain ambient conditions, plumes of water vapor can be seen rising out of the discharge from a cooling tower, and can be mistaken as smoke from a fire. If the outdoor air is at or near saturation, and the tower adds more water to the air, saturated air with liquid water droplets can be
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based chemicals. A normal industrial practice is to use two biocides, such as oxidizing and non-oxidizing types to complement each other's strengths and weaknesses, and to ensure a broader spectrum of attack. In most cases, a continual low level oxidizing biocide is used, then alternating to a
561:
A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead, so that wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can distribute heat in a body of water. Evaporative cooling water cannot be used for subsequent purposes (other than rain somewhere),
2531:— Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, vibration of the structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts.
2925:. Fires can propagate internally within the tower structure when the cell is not in operation (such as for maintenance or construction), and even while the tower is in operation, especially those of the induced-draft type, because of the existence of relatively dry areas within the towers.
2735:), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (less than 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Though the total particulate emissions from wet cooling towers with fresh water make-up is much less, they contain more PM
223:, which in turn reduces the steam consumption, and thus the fuel consumption, while at the same time increasing power and recycling boiler-water. However the condensers require an ample supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical. While water usage is not an issue with
2941:, when three of the cooling towers collapsed owing to vibrations in 85 mph (137 km/h) winds. Although the structures had been built to withstand higher wind speeds, the shape of the cooling towers caused westerly winds to be funneled into the towers themselves, creating a
456:. In this type of system, the water circulating inside the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat pumps whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the
2456:— Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at the air inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and water diverters are used to limit these losses.
2235:
The water consumption of the cooling tower comes from Drift, Bleed-off, Evaporation loss, The water that is immediately replenished into the cooling tower due to loss is called Make-up Water. The function of make-up water is to make machinery and equipment run safely and stably.
573:
Petroleum refineries may also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m) per day) circulates about 80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its cooling tower system.
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The chemistry of the make-up water, including the amount of dissolved minerals, can vary widely. Make-up waters low in dissolved minerals such as those from surface water supplies (lakes, rivers etc.) tend to be aggressive to metals (corrosive). Make-up waters from
2896:
Do not operate the tower without a heat load. Basin heaters may be used to keep the water in the tower pan at an above-freezing temperature. Heat trace ("heating tape") is a resistive heating element that is installed along water pipes to prevent freezing in cold
2565:— Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact time between air and water, to provide better heat transfer. The efficiency of the tower depends on the selection and amount of fill. There are two types of fills that may be used:
524:
with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 US gallons per minute) and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour, equivalent to one cubic metre every second).
1905:
440:
is defined as the heat rejection in cooling 3 US gallons per minute (11 litres per minute) or 1,500 pounds per hour (680 kg/h) of water by 10 °F (5.6 °C), which amounts to 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW), assuming a chiller
2342:, but does not recommend regularly-scheduled microbiologic assays for the bacteria. However, scheduled monitoring of potable water within a hospital might be considered in certain settings where persons are highly susceptible to illness and mortality from
1457:
it trickles down, it contacts ambient air rising up through the tower either by natural draft or by forced draft using large fans in the tower. That contact causes a small amount of the water to be lost as windage or drift (W) and some of the water (E) to
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weather. Typically, freezing starts at the corners of a cooling tower with a reduced or absent heat load. Severe freezing conditions can create growing volumes of ice, resulting in increased structural loads which can cause structural damage or collapse.
2716:
of ground and surface water. The salt deposition problem from such cooling towers aggravates where national pollution control standards are not imposed or not implemented to minimize the drift emissions from wet cooling towers using seawater make-up.
165:
that can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. Hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with
846:, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is close to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage of protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination.
516:
processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc. The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700
2139:
Concentration cycles in the majority of cooling towers usually range from 3 to 7. In the United States, many water supplies use well water which has significant levels of dissolved solids. On the other hand, one of the largest water supplies, for
2669:
discharged, which is seen as fog. This phenomenon typically occurs on cool, humid days, but is rare in many climates. Fog and clouds associated with cooling towers can be described as homogenitus, as with other clouds of man-made origin, such as
2350:
transplantation units, or solid organ transplant units). Also, after an outbreak of legionellosis, health officials agree that monitoring is necessary to identify the source and to evaluate the efficacy of biocides or other prevention measures.
2313:
bacteria travelled up to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) through the air from a large contaminated cooling tower at a petrochemical plant in Pas-de-Calais, France. That outbreak killed 21 of the 86 people who had a laboratory-confirmed infection.
2889:
The use of water modulating by-pass systems is not recommended during freezing weather. In such situations, the control flexibility of variable speed motors, two-speed motors, and/or two-speed motors multi-cell towers should be considered a
2727:(μm) in size, can be present in the drift from cooling towers. Larger particles above 10 μm in size are generally filtered out in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus but particulate matter smaller than 10 μm, referred to as PM
2305:
include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.
2916:
of the towers, and fires can be further intensified by natural convection or fan-assisted draft. The resulting damage can be sufficiently severe to require the replacement of the entire cell or tower structure. For this reason, some
2044:
Windage (or drift) losses (W) is the amount of total tower water flow that is entrained in the flow of air to the atmosphere. From large-scale industrial cooling towers, in the absence of manufacturer's data, it may be assumed to be:
1461:. The heat required to evaporate the water is derived from the water itself, which cools the water back to the original basin water temperature and the water is then ready to recirculate. The evaporated water leaves its dissolved
495:
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating
2127:
consultant will evaluate the make-up water and the operating conditions of the cooling tower and recommend an appropriate range for the cycles of concentration. The use of water treatment chemicals, pretreatment such as
2743:
than the total emissions from wet cooling towers with sea water make-up. This is due to lesser salt content in fresh water drift (below 2,000 ppm) compared to the salt content of sea water drift (60,000 ppm).
174:
is what necessitates the cooling tower. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from
2337:
remains controversial because its presence is not necessarily evidence of a potential for causing disease. The CDC recommends aggressive disinfection measures for cleaning and maintaining devices known to transmit
1133:) cooling towers have become the design standard for all natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum usage of material. The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward
2689:
Issues related to applied meteorology of cooling towers, including the assessment of the impact of cooling towers on cloud enhancement were considered in a series of models and experiments. One of the results by
2151:
efforts may focus on increasing cycles of concentration. Highly treated recycled water may be an effective means of reducing cooling tower consumption of potable water, in regions where potable water is scarce.
2204:
of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae can grow very rapidly in the cooling water, and can reduce the heat transfer efficiency of the cooling tower. Biofilm can be reduced or prevented by using
2079:
Cycle of concentration represents the accumulation of dissolved minerals in the recirculating cooling water. Discharge of draw-off (or blowdown) is used principally to control the buildup of these minerals.
2647:
technology, and has become the most common structural material for small cooling towers. It offers lower costs and requires less maintenance compared to reinforced concrete, which is still in use for large
435:
on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW) due to the additional waste heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chiller's compressor. This
2784:(industrial chimney), thus saving the cost of a separate chimney structure. At plants without flue gas purification, problems with corrosion may occur, due to reactions of raw flue gas with water to form
870:
through a heat exchanger that separates the working coolant from ambient air, such as in a radiator, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use evaporation and are air-cooled heat exchangers.
2681:
relative humidity of the dry air is even more decreased instantly as being heated while entering the tower. The discharged mixture has a relatively lower relative humidity and the fog is invisible.
2096:(deposit minerals). Increasing the amount of minerals present in the water by cycling can make water less aggressive to piping; however, excessive levels of minerals can cause scaling problems.
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1969:
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2123:. The temperatures of the recirculating water, piping and heat exchange surfaces determine if and where minerals will precipitate from the recirculating water. Often a professional
294:
In 2021, researchers presented a method for steam recapture. The steam is charged using an ion beam, and then captured in a wire mesh of opposite charge. The water's purity exceeded
3321:
van Vliet, Michelle T. H.; Wiberg, David; Leduc, Sylvain; Riahi, Keywan (2016). "Power-generation system vulnerability and adaptation to changes in climate and water resources".
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or water treatment chemical exposure. Also, about every six months, inspect the conditions of the drift eliminators making sure there are no gaps to allow the free flow of dirt.
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is what necessitates the cooling tower. Conversely, not all nuclear power plants have cooling towers, and some instead cool their working fluid with lake, river or ocean water.
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3244:
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2269:
A multitude of microscopic organisms such as bacterial colonies, fungi, and algae can easily thrive within the moderately high temperatures present inside a cooling tower.
291:
The consumption of cooling water by inland processing and power plants is estimated to reduce power availability for the majority of thermal power plants by 2040–2069.
1141:. However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling towers are often used at large coal-fired power plants and some geothermal plants as well. The
2036:
924:) upon which the water flows. Both methods create increased surface area and time of contact between the fluid (water) and the gas (air), to improve heat transfer.
2912:
Cooling towers constructed in whole or in part of combustible materials can support internal fire propagation. Such fires can become very intense, due to the high
3049:
2521:— The water that must be added to the circulating water system in order to compensate for water losses such as evaporation, drift loss, blow-out, blow-down, etc.
570:
areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But even there, the offshore discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid environmental problems.
285:
2144:, has a surface rainwater source quite low in minerals; thus cooling towers in that city are often allowed to concentrate to 7 or more cycles of concentration.
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typically requires more motor horsepower than an equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work with high
7099:
2609:— Maximum allowed multiplier for the amount of miscellaneous substances in circulating water compared to the amount of those substances in make-up water.
3373:
3574:, van Iterson, F. K. T. & Kuypers, G, "Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of Reinforced Concrete", published 11 April 1918
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Some cooling towers (such as smaller building air conditioning systems) are shut down seasonally, drained, and winterized to prevent freeze damage.
4214:
Haman, Krzysztof E.; Malinowski, Szymon P. (1989). "Observations of cooling tower and stack plumes and their comparison with plume model "ALINA"".
3878:"Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Legionella Growth & Spread in Buildings: A Practical Guide to Implementing Industry Standards"
408:
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airflow to prevent the escape of water droplets. A well-designed and well-fitted drift eliminator can greatly reduce water loss and potential for
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in its bottom is located near the top of a crossflow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material.
700:
Due to their frequent use in or near residential areas, sound level control is a relatively more important issue for package type cooling towers.
4149:
4075:"Cooling Tower Institute, July 2008. Page 5 of 12, column 1, paragraph 3. Most professional and government agencies do not recommend testing for
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systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are
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Being very large structures, cooling towers are susceptible to wind damage, and several spectacular failures have occurred in the past. At
219:. Condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to condense the steam coming out of the cylinders or turbines. This reduces the
6587:
3629:
1441:
Quantitatively, the material balance around a wet, evaporative cooling tower system is governed by the operational variables of make-up
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5173:
3848:
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should be taken as the presence of other organisms can support legionella by producing the organic nutrients that it needs to thrive.
43:
A typical evaporative, forced draft open-loop cooling tower rejecting heat from the condenser water loop of an industrial chiller unit
6953:
3229:
The Steam Engine: A Practical Guide to the
Construction, Operation, and care of Steam Engines, Steam Turbines, and Their Accessories
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1371:
A "collection basin" or "cold water basin" is used to collect and contain the cooled water after its interaction with the air flow.
170:, although they are also used in many coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants. The
3448:
1083:. Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fin geometry is also known as
7104:
2163:
Disinfectant and other chemical levels in cooling towers and hot tubs should be continuously maintained and regularly monitored.
1015:
is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces an upwards current of air through the tower.
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and open sides rather than a fan; water to be cooled was sprayed from the top onto the radial pattern of vertical wire-mesh mats.
4341:
3421:
697:
plants, textile plants, some chemical processing plants, or buildings like hospitals, hotels, malls, automotive factories, etc.
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2480:— The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed (usually discharged to a drain) in order to maintain the amount of
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6231:
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3929:
2070:= about 0.0005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators and uses sea water as make-up water.
4038:
2629:— The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.
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6391:
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supplied to the tower basin to compensate for the loss of evaporated water, the windage loss water and the draw-off water.
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hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of
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towers or cement prices are higher at a site to opt for cheaper natural draft cooling towers made of structural steel.
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In the adjacent diagram, water pumped from the tower basin is the cooling water routed through the process coolers and
4366:
4074:
1900:{\displaystyle {X_{C} \over X_{M}}={\text{Cycles of concentration}}={M \over (D+W)}={M \over (M-E)}=1+{E \over (D+W)}}
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fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the air out into the atmosphere.
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water, it would require about 100,000 cubic metres an hour A large cooling water intake typically kills millions of
203:
A 1902 engraving of "Barnard's fanless self-cooling tower", an early large evaporative cooling tower that relied on
183:
or harmful fumes by the general public, when in reality the emissions from those towers mostly do not contribute to
5325:
2731:, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. Similarly, particles smaller than 2.5 μm, (PM
2773:
1056:— A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top) which pulls air up through the tower. The fan
265:
in the
Netherlands on August 16, 1916. The first hyperboloid reinforced concrete cooling towers were built by the
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Besides treating the circulating cooling water in large industrial cooling tower systems to minimize scaling and
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The interactions of the air and water flow allow a partial equalization of temperature, and evaporation of water.
403:(heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose of ("reject") unwanted heat from a
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67:
Forced draft wet cooling towers (height: 34 meters) and natural draft wet cooling tower (height: 122 meters) in
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Clean visible dirt & debris from the cold water basin and surfaces with any visible biofilm (i.e., slime).
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Do not operate the tower unattended. Remote sensors and alarms may be installed to monitor tower conditions.
2720:
1352:
Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into the cold water basin
3079:
1375:
Both crossflow and counterflow designs can be used in natural draft and in mechanical draft cooling towers.
242:
5929:
5480:
5401:
5360:
4886:
4846:
4423:
2657:
2200:
to prevent growths that could interfere with the continuous flow of the water. Under certain conditions, a
2541:— The approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water temperature and the entering-air
281:, England. On both locations they were built to cool water used at a coal-fired electrical power station.
7109:
6823:
6272:
6074:
5585:
5520:
5438:
5350:
5214:
5113:
5108:
4826:
4801:
4791:
4767:
4762:
4468:
6963:
6730:
6421:
6302:
6009:
5774:
5618:
5028:
4746:
4716:
4493:
3468:
3447:
Thomas J. Feeley, III, Lindsay Green, James T. Murphy, Jeffrey
Hoffmann, and Barbara A. Carney (2005).
3084:
2179:
2124:
479:
442:
274:
885:
In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to a temperature
6735:
6474:
6333:
6297:
6099:
5729:
5684:
5612:
5464:
5407:
5083:
4572:
4533:
4251:
3599:
3571:
2969:
2934:
1453:
212:
1293:
More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counterflow designs, especially in dusty or sandy areas.
990:
6652:
6552:
6521:
6343:
6039:
5639:
5418:
5309:
5294:
5058:
4866:
4806:
4463:
3438:
EPA Workshop on
Cooling Water Intake Technologies, John Maulbetsch, Maulbetsch Consulting, May 2003
2816:
2769:
2662:
2640:
1267:
1169:
1064:
in which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as
751:
716:
617:
3546:
7089:
6923:
6863:
6790:
6632:
6516:
6441:
6363:
6292:
6236:
6168:
6064:
5979:
5889:
5854:
5330:
4997:
4987:
4977:
4296:
4274:
3604:
2989:
2974:
2820:
2713:
2485:
2382:
2347:
1399:
1173:
948:
755:
720:
621:
322:
3107:
1012:
994:
Access stairs at the base of a massive hyperboloid cooling tower give a sense of its scale (UK).
47:
6780:
6775:
6740:
6506:
6468:
6348:
6059:
5490:
4918:
4781:
4564:
4453:
3435:
3029:
3004:
2691:
2643:(FRP) is known for its high corrosion-resistance capabilities. Pultruded FRP is produced using
2481:
2273:
Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of
2119:
out as mineral solids and cause fouling and heat exchange problems in the cooling tower or the
578:
521:
4039:"How do you Prevent Legionnaires' Disease in Cooling Towers? | Delta Cooling Towers, Inc"
3449:"Department of Energy/Office of Fossil Energy's Power Plant Water Management R&D Program."
3295:
2058:= 0.1 to 0.3 percent of C for an induced draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators
912:
is used to increase the surface area and the time of contact between the air and water flows.
425:
6526:
6204:
6163:
5879:
5550:
5370:
5142:
5053:
4821:
4816:
4796:
4056:
3641:
2999:
2922:
2777:
2705:
2555:— The range is the temperature difference between the warm water inlet and cooled water exit.
2424:
2297:
species are the cause of
Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to
2136:
adjustment, and other techniques can affect the acceptable range of cycles of concentration.
2052:= 0.3 to 1.0 percent of C for a natural draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators
1130:
1126:
1095:— A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup, though airflow is assisted by a fan.
254:
162:
143:
139:
52:
2021:
1033:
577:
The world's tallest cooling tower is the 210 metres (690 ft) tall cooling tower of the
407:. Liquid-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to
6989:
6800:
6328:
6318:
6262:
6199:
6094:
5674:
5623:
5189:
4647:
4409:
4223:
4138:, Institute of Industrial Engineers/American Institute of Industrial Engineers, p. 101
3330:
2913:
2542:
2108:
2107:
As the cycles of concentration increase, the water may not be able to hold the minerals in
1442:
1105:
902:
898:
416:
412:
258:
246:
116:
108:
56:
3269:
1349:
Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively affected.
1022:
103:
stream, usually a water stream, to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the
63:
8:
6903:
6888:
6843:
6642:
6545:
6194:
6184:
6158:
5944:
5606:
5515:
5485:
5385:
5355:
5249:
5209:
5018:
4851:
4751:
4726:
4679:
4488:
4478:
4443:
3637:
3227:
3157:
3140:
3009:
2984:
2918:
2289:
1368:
The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the top of the cooling tower.
1138:
1111:
821:
563:
395:
Cell of a cross-flow type cooling tower with fill material, and circulating water visible
224:
199:
167:
4227:
3667:
3334:
998:
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:
487:
373:
Two HVAC cooling towers on the rooftop of a shopping center (Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany)
7029:
6994:
6938:
6858:
6833:
6602:
6582:
6457:
6401:
6338:
6115:
5994:
5989:
5779:
5590:
5575:
5157:
4892:
4503:
3982:
3944:
3877:
3697:
2979:
2938:
2148:
2064:= about 0.005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators
1539:
921:
383:
235:; in areas with limited land, such as in cities, they took the form of cooling towers.
151:
27:
Device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream
3970:
3806:
Milton R. Beychok (October 1952). "How To
Calculate Cooling Tower Control Variables".
2921:
and standards recommend that combustible cooling towers be provided with an automatic
1632:
Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around the system is:
550:), or can also cause an increase in undesirable organisms such as invasive species of
431:
is defined as the removal of 12,000 British thermal units per hour (3.5 kW). The
75:
7068:
6853:
6750:
6597:
6029:
5984:
5739:
5734:
5664:
5560:
5396:
5199:
5043:
4923:
4528:
4338:
4318:
4235:
4168:
4143:
4115:
3974:
3925:
3781:
3527:
3400:
3346:
3303:
3179:
546:
472:
155:
3986:
2752:
1137:
air flow, improving cooling efficiency. These designs are popularly associated with
1011:
rises due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm
6984:
6943:
6928:
6828:
6808:
6496:
6251:
6246:
5829:
5535:
5433:
5428:
5423:
5340:
4992:
4933:
4637:
4632:
4609:
4518:
4458:
4231:
3966:
3720:
3338:
2432:
cooling tower (Estonia). Tower is shut down, revealing numerous water spray heads.
1462:
184:
176:
4000:
1115:. The patent was filed on 9 August 1917, and published on 11 April 1918. In 1918,
369:
7019:
6893:
6607:
6491:
6463:
6105:
6019:
6014:
5959:
5949:
5939:
5869:
5809:
5724:
5709:
5530:
5525:
5500:
5495:
5365:
5289:
5023:
4982:
4960:
4841:
4811:
4776:
4736:
4538:
4365:
by
Reginald Van de Velde, Lonely Planet, 15 February 2017 (see also excerpt from
4345:
4305:
4283:
4258:
3455:
3199:
2429:
2244:
2206:
2166:
Regular checks of water quality (specifically the aerobic bacteria levels) using
2129:
2120:
1120:
1080:
1003:
266:
2903:
Manipulate or reduce airflow to maintain water temperature above freezing point.
2760:
1346:
Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
672:
445:(COP) of 4.0. This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 14.
7044:
7024:
7014:
7009:
6999:
6979:
6918:
6813:
6745:
6687:
6672:
6617:
6241:
6138:
5914:
5894:
5859:
5794:
5714:
5555:
5545:
5454:
5304:
5274:
5229:
5224:
5048:
5038:
4836:
4448:
4351:
2781:
2189:
894:
839:
135:
127:
3080:"Myth of cooling towers is symptomatic of global warming information shortage"
2874:
cooling towers made of structural steel for a power plant in
Kharkiv (Ukraine)
2103:
Relationship between cycles of concentration and flow rates in a cooling tower
1231:
588:
391:
7083:
6702:
6627:
6323:
6174:
6069:
6034:
5804:
5799:
5754:
5595:
5570:
5565:
5540:
5510:
5380:
5279:
5259:
5239:
5150:
5068:
4856:
4741:
4652:
4642:
4599:
4483:
4438:
3531:
3350:
3307:
3145:. Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Co. 33–34 of Section 29:"Condensers".
3024:
3014:
2280:
2256:
1276:
Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
1247:
Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.
1142:
1116:
889:
than the ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry (see
867:
802:
688:
509:
497:
448:
Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source
220:
204:
171:
131:
3957:
Cunha, BA; Burillo, A; Bouza, E (23 January 2016). "Legionnaires' disease".
2329:(CDC) does not recommend that health-care facilities regularly test for the
2301:—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of
39:
7049:
6933:
6883:
6755:
6712:
6501:
6179:
6079:
6054:
6049:
6044:
5974:
5909:
5789:
5759:
5699:
5694:
5669:
5580:
5459:
5375:
5299:
5284:
5269:
5088:
5063:
4928:
4897:
4711:
4513:
4371:
4085:
3978:
2964:
2709:
2085:
916:
consists of material placed to interrupt the water flow causing splashing.
551:
505:
501:
420:
232:
216:
4043:
Manufacturers of
Cooling Towers & Systems by Delta Cooling Towers, Inc
3516:"Optimizing the performance of Hybrid: Induced-Forced Draft Cooling Tower"
3419:
3245:"GB108863A Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of Reinforced Concrete"
2265:
2099:
1317:
1302:
1239:
680:
231:
cooling needs. In areas with available land, the systems took the form of
7039:
7034:
6958:
6913:
6873:
6770:
6677:
6511:
6153:
6110:
6084:
6024:
6004:
5999:
5874:
5834:
5819:
5764:
5689:
5659:
5654:
5470:
5335:
5254:
4913:
4881:
4674:
4662:
4582:
4508:
4498:
4428:
3945:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Emerging Infectious Diseases
3342:
3112:
2946:
2871:
2298:
2116:
1458:
1446:
1074:— A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan
541:
513:
211:
Cooling towers originated in the 19th century through the development of
188:
104:
31:
4001:"Legionella (Legionnaires' Disease and Pontiac Fever) About the Disease"
2577:(breaks up falling stream of water and interrupts its vertical progress)
905:, the difference determined by the initial humidity of the ambient air.
828:(usually water) is the evaporated fluid, and is exposed to the elements.
7004:
6868:
6568:
6267:
6189:
6120:
6089:
5964:
5934:
5864:
5814:
5784:
5769:
5744:
5649:
5449:
5345:
5264:
5204:
4876:
4871:
4684:
4667:
4523:
4378:
4133:
4127:
3493:"Pingshan II: the largest Cooling Tower in the world designed by Hamon"
3019:
2724:
2674:
2644:
2396: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2275:
2260:
2112:
2089:
1413: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1134:
1050:— Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower.
962: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
713:
562:
whereas surface-only cooling water can be re-used. Some coal-fired and
457:
449:
336: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
96:
92:
68:
4358:
Wet cooling tower guidance for particulate matter, Environment Canada.
2511:
from the system by enabling the water to hold more solids in solution.
1310:
6838:
6785:
6637:
6226:
5904:
5899:
5849:
5824:
5679:
5475:
4592:
4587:
4473:
4433:
4252:
Wet Cooling Tower Guidance For Particulate Matter, Environment Canada
2197:
2167:
2093:
2005:= water temperature difference from tower top to tower bottom, in °C
890:
850:
724:
278:
3475:"Fire Prompts Renewed Calls to Close the Indian Point Nuclear Plant"
3138:
2805:
2371:
1388:
1235:
Mechanical draft crossflow cooling tower used in an HVAC application
1224:
1158:
937:
740:
606:
311:
161:
Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large
6765:
6657:
6592:
6209:
6143:
5644:
5444:
5244:
5219:
5194:
4706:
3654:
Submitted as coursework for PH241, Stanford University, Winter 2015
3471:
cooling system kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.
3366:"MIT steam collector captures pure water for reuse in power plants"
2949:
tests were introduced to check tower structures and configuration.
2670:
2210:
2147:
Since higher cycles of concentration represent less make-up water,
1558:
843:
364:
120:
3181:
The Steam Engine and Turbine: A Text-Book for Engineering Colleges
126:
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in
6692:
5719:
5391:
4627:
4617:
2201:
2193:
2185:
1449:
and windage losses, draw-off rate, and the concentration cycles.
825:
582:
567:
404:
270:
227:, it forms a significant limitation for many land-based systems.
100:
80:
3846:
3785:
2764:
Flue gas stack connection into a natural draft wet cooling tower
2503:, is a process for significantly reducing the need for bleeding
6707:
6697:
6396:
6148:
5954:
5704:
4622:
3849:"Technical Information for Cooling Towers Using Recycled Water"
2942:
1574:= Concentration of chlorides in circulating water (C), in ppmw
1469:
1334:
Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.
1119:
built the first hyperboloid natural-draft cooling tower at the
537:
461:
107:
of water to remove heat and cool the working fluid to near the
5172:
4319:"Ferrybridge C Power Station officially closes after 50 years"
908:
To achieve better performance (more cooling), a medium called
6612:
6537:
6411:
5844:
4189:"Cloud Atlas leaps into 21st century with 12 new cloud types"
3422:
Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry
3232:. Chicago: American School of Correspondence. pp. 43–46.
2508:
2504:
1337:
Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.
555:
273:. The first ones in the United Kingdom were built in 1924 at
180:
3693:"The inside of a cooling tower looks like no place on earth"
1477:
Using these flow rates and concentration dimensional units:
5919:
5839:
4577:
3570:
3204:
The Engineer (With Which is Incorporated Steam Engineering)
2994:
2785:
2639:— A common structural material for smaller cooling towers,
533:
424:
with a liquid-cooled chiller or liquid-cooled condenser. A
400:
378:
147:
115:, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the
3721:"Cooling Towers Explained: How does a cooling tower work?"
2489:
subsequently increasing the amount of clean make-up water.
3592:"analysis and design of a hyperbolic (sic) cooling tower"
3320:
1910:
From a simplified heat balance around the cooling tower:
1007:— Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air
295:
4057:"Guidelines Library | Infection Control | CDC"
2937:
on 1 November 1965, the station was the site of a major
2885:
To prevent freezing, the following procedures are used:
1542:(of any completely soluble salts ... usually chlorides)
6760:
6622:
3520:
Journal of the Pakistan Institute of Chemical Engineers
2756:
Flue gas stack inside a natural draft wet cooling tower
2133:
4363:
Striking pictures of Europe's abandoned cooling towers
3777:
Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants
2695:
the trail, often at a considerable altitude above it.
1993:= latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260 kJ / kg
1148:
540:
annually, as the organisms are impinged on the intake
415:. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher
30:
For the historical Iranian architectural element, see
3538:
2024:
1919:
1777:
1681:
1378:
866:) are closed circuit cooling towers which operate by
3547:"Falling giants: Britain's vanishing cooling towers"
3108:"What you need to know about nuclear cooling towers"
2900:
Maintain design water flow rate over the tower fill.
2712:
depending on the nature of the soil and enhance the
1321:
Forced-draft counter-flow package-type cooling tower
3822:"Best Management Practice Cooling Tower Management"
3420:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1997).
3314:
3193:
3191:
2704:agriculture/vegetative lands can convert them into
3773:
2030:
1963:
1899:
1757:
1608:A water balance around the entire system is then:
257:cooling tower was patented by the Dutch engineers
4103:
4026:Airborne Legionella May Travel Several Kilometres
3956:
3805:
3659:
2333:bacteria. Scheduled microbiologic monitoring for
2092:) are usually higher in minerals, and tend to be
528:If that same plant had no cooling tower and used
7081:
4134:Institute of Industrial Engineers 1981– (1982),
3302:. Hearst Magazines. February 1930. p. 201.
3296:"Power Plant Cooling Tower Like Big Milk Bottle"
3188:
2795:
1287:More prone to freezing than counterflow designs.
920:is composed of thin sheets of material (usually
365:Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
179:. Cooling towers are also often thought to emit
4213:
4109:
2214:periodic shock dose of non-oxidizing biocides.
2192:to remove particulates, and also be dosed with
1758:{\displaystyle MX_{M}=DX_{C}+WX_{C}=X_{C}(D+W)}
1279:Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.
1039:Inside views from a natural draft cooling tower
4247:
4245:
3847:San Diego County Water Authority (July 2009).
3184:. New York: D. Van Nostrand. pp. 569–570.
3050:"Identifying Nuclear Reactors in Google Earth"
2115:of these minerals have been exceeded they can
1964:{\displaystyle E={C\Delta Tc_{p} \over H_{V}}}
927:
491:Industrial cooling towers for fruit processing
6553:
5158:
4394:
3394:
3139:International Correspondence Schools (1902).
2327:US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2223:comes to biocides for your water is bromine.
1473:Fan-induced draft, counter-flow cooling tower
3993:
2768:At some modern power stations equipped with
1290:Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
1099:
712:A typical field erected cooling tower has a
467:
4242:
4148:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3288:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3210:(1). Chicago: Taylor Publishing Co.: 69–72.
3173:
3171:
3169:
2834:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1973:
1479:
1187:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1110:Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of
838:) pass the working coolant through a large
769:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
635:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
483:Industrial cooling towers for a power plant
7100:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
6560:
6546:
5925:High efficiency glandless circulating pump
5174:Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
5165:
5151:
4401:
4387:
4186:
4156:
3899:"Cooling Tower Chemicals – Robinson India"
3769:
3767:
3162:. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 283–286.
3134:
3132:
2747:
2698:
2217:
2074:
2018:= specific heat of water = 4.184 kJ / (kg
596:
4207:
3883:. CDC. 5 June 2017. p. 13 {17 of 32.
3583:
3397:Handbook of Chemical Processing Equipment
3149:
2995:Heating, ventilating and air conditioning
2854:Learn how and when to remove this message
2571:(causes water to spread into a thin film)
2412:Learn how and when to remove this message
1429:Learn how and when to remove this message
1342:Disadvantages of the counterflow design:
1207:Learn how and when to remove this message
978:Learn how and when to remove this message
789:Learn how and when to remove this message
655:Learn how and when to remove this message
352:Learn how and when to remove this message
6359:Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
4408:
4114:, McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 66,
3792:
3685:
3627:
3472:
3214:
3166:
3054:CleanEnergy Footprints (cleanenergy.org)
2865:
2759:
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2423:
2264:
2243:
2239:
2098:
1468:
1316:
1309:
1301:
1238:
1230:
1223:
989:
805:mechanism employed, the main types are:
730:
687:
679:
671:
587:
486:
478:
471:
419:, and thus have a lower average reverse-
390:
382:
368:
301:
241:
198:
74:
62:
46:
38:
3950:
3919:
3893:
3891:
3764:
3747:"Cooling tower design and construction"
3544:
3129:
2928:
2721:Respirable suspended particulate matter
2283:or Legionnaires' disease, most notably
1283:Disadvantages of the crossflow design:
1262:consisting of a deep pan with holes or
387:FRP cooling tower installed on roof top
14:
7082:
4162:
3363:
3197:
2780:, the cooling tower is also used as a
1330:Advantages of the counterflow design:
6541:
6232:Programmable communicating thermostat
5146:
4382:
3840:
3828:. Department of Energy. 30 April 2005
3780:(1st ed.). John Wiley and Sons.
3634:PH241: Introduction to Nuclear Energy
3458:U.S. Department of Energy, July 2005.
3426:Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 79.
3399:. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 69.
3178:Heck, Robert Culbertson Hays (1911).
3155:
1108:took out the UK patent (108,863) for
703:
286:Gas Technology Institute (GTI) report
6354:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
4352:"Cooling Towers" – includes diagrams
4271:National Fire Protection Association
4165:Chemical treatment for cooling water
4112:Retrofitting for energy conservation
3920:Ryan, K.J.; Ray, C.G., eds. (2004).
3888:
3628:Anderson, Kevin (26 February 2015).
3589:
3225:
3177:
3159:Steam-Engine Principles and Practice
2832:adding citations to reliable sources
2799:
2394:adding citations to reliable sources
2365:
1411:adding citations to reliable sources
1382:
1326:the fill, opposite to the air flow.
1272:Advantages of the crossflow design:
1185:adding citations to reliable sources
1152:
960:adding citations to reliable sources
931:
767:adding citations to reliable sources
734:
633:adding citations to reliable sources
600:
334:adding citations to reliable sources
305:
4187:Sutherland, Scott (23 March 2017).
4028:(access requires free registration)
3665:
3513:
3270:"Koeltorens van de Staatsmijn Emma"
3200:"Power plant and allied industries"
2226:
1149:Categorization by air-to-water flow
79:Natural draft wet cooling tower in
24:
6949:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation
6215:Minimum efficiency reporting value
5079:Renewable energy commercialization
3858:. San Diego County Water Authority
3376:from the original on 4 August 2021
3056:. 31 December 2012. Archived from
2684:
2173:
1932:
1379:Wet cooling tower material balance
901:, which is lower than the ambient
881:observed in hybrid cooling towers.
25:
7121:
6819:Agricultural wastewater treatment
6257:Standard temperature and pressure
5970:Packaged terminal air conditioner
5506:Passive daytime radiative cooling
5235:Heat pump and refrigeration cycle
4332:
4298:Standard on Water-Cooling Towers.
3545:Collins, Michael (31 July 2020).
3473:McGeehan, Patrick (12 May 2015).
3364:Irving, Michael (4 August 2021).
2652:
2501:zero blow-down for cooling towers
2428:Fill plates at the bottom of the
2358:in 40% to 60% of cooling towers.
1356:
7063:
7062:
5326:Absorption-compression heat pump
5127:
5126:
4547:
4276:Standard on Water-Cooling Towers
3668:"How Does a Cooling Tower Work?"
3395:Cheremisinoff, Nicholas (2000).
2804:
2370:
1387:
1361:Common aspects of both designs:
1157:
1129:(sometimes incorrectly known as
1032:
1021:
936:
739:
605:
310:
6879:Industrial wastewater treatment
6849:Decentralized wastewater system
6221:Normal temperature and pressure
5601:Vapor-compression refrigeration
4311:
4289:
4264:
4180:
4067:
4049:
4031:
4019:
3938:
3913:
3870:
3814:
3739:
3713:
3621:
3564:
3507:
3485:
3461:
3441:
3429:
3413:
3388:
3357:
3262:
3142:A Textbook on Steam Engineering
2381:needs additional citations for
2279:, including species that cause
1528:= Windage loss of water in m/h
1398:needs additional citations for
1243:Package crossflow cooling tower
947:needs additional citations for
667:
321:needs additional citations for
7105:Nuclear power plant components
6567:
4348:– Cooling Technology Institute
4167:, Fairmont Press, p. 86,
3236:
3100:
3072:
3042:
2960:List of tallest cooling towers
2907:
2361:
2309:French researchers found that
2155:
1891:
1879:
1858:
1846:
1831:
1819:
1752:
1740:
1602:= parts per million by weight
1561:in make-up water (M), in ppmw
1297:
13:
1:
6899:Rotating biological contactor
6369:Testing, adjusting, balancing
6313:Building information modeling
6308:Building services engineering
5885:Ground-coupled heat exchanger
5413:Demand controlled ventilation
5361:Building insulation materials
5074:Renewable Energy Certificates
5034:Cost of electricity by source
4956:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
4832:High-voltage shore connection
3971:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60078-2
3924:(4th ed.). McGraw Hill.
3436:Cooling System Retrofit Costs
3036:
2796:Operation in freezing weather
2774:Großkrotzenburg Power Station
2497:Zero bleed for cooling towers
1584:= Cycles of concentration = X
832:Closed circuit cooling towers
5930:High-pressure cut-off switch
5481:Ice storage air conditioning
5402:Dedicated outdoor air system
5089:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
4887:Transmission system operator
4847:Mains electricity by country
4424:Automatic generation control
4236:10.1016/0004-6981(89)90149-2
4079:bacteria on a routine basis"
3922:Sherris Medical Microbiology
3666:Lee, Kevin (24 April 2017).
3156:Croft, Terrell, ed. (1922).
3115:| Nuclear Information Center
1306:Showers inside cooling tower
1219:
820:operate on the principle of
676:Field-erected cooling towers
7:
6273:Thermostatic radiator valve
6075:Thermostatic radiator valve
5586:Underfloor air distribution
5521:Radiant heating and cooling
5439:Energy recovery ventilation
5351:Automobile air conditioning
5215:Domestic energy consumption
5114:List of electricity sectors
5109:Electric energy consumption
4827:High-voltage direct current
4802:Electric power transmission
4792:Electric power distribution
4469:Energy return on investment
3774:Beychok, Milton R. (1967).
2952:
2009:
1997:
1984:
1976:
1596:
1578:
1565:
1546:
1532:
1522:
1512:
1502:
1498:= Circulating water in m/h
1492:
1482:
1268:Cross Flow V/s Counter Flow
928:Air flow generation methods
592:Field erected cooling tower
452:that share a common piping
267:Dutch State Mine (DSM) Emma
10:
7126:
6964:Wastewater treatment plant
6731:Adsorbable organic halides
6422:Institute of Refrigeration
6303:Architectural technologist
5775:Electrostatic precipitator
5029:Carbon offsets and credits
4747:Three-phase electric power
4222:(6). Elsevier: 1223–1234.
3469:Indian Point Energy Center
3242:NL/GB Patent No. 108,863:
3198:Watson, Egbert P. (1906).
3085:Royal Society of Chemistry
2254:
2180:Industrial water treatment
2177:
2017:
2004:
1992:
1601:
1583:
1573:
1556:
1537:
1527:
1518:= Evaporated water in m/h
1517:
1507:
1497:
1487:
1093:Fan assisted natural draft
818:evaporative cooling towers
814:open-circuit Cooling Tower
727:, and a drift eliminator.
443:coefficient of performance
411:to tower water at or near
376:
275:Lister Drive power station
194:
51:Natural draft wet cooling
29:
7058:
6972:
6799:
6736:Biochemical oxygen demand
6721:
6575:
6484:
6475:Volatile organic compound
6450:
6377:
6334:Environmental engineering
6298:Architectural engineering
6281:
6129:
6100:Ultra-low particulate air
5685:Automatic balancing valve
5632:
5613:Variable refrigerant flow
5465:Heat recovery ventilation
5408:Deep water source cooling
5318:
5180:
5122:
5097:
5084:Renewable Energy Payments
5007:
4944:
4906:
4760:
4697:
4608:
4573:Fossil fuel power station
4563:
4556:
4545:
4416:
4354:– Virtual Nuclear Tourist
4261:, Retrieved on 2013-01-29
4163:Mathie, Alton J. (1998),
3600:K-State Research Exchange
3454:27 September 2007 at the
2970:Architectural engineering
2935:Ferrybridge power station
1100:Hyperboloid cooling tower
585:, Anhui Province, China.
579:Pingshan II Power Station
468:Industrial cooling towers
99:through the cooling of a
91:is a device that rejects
6522:Template:Home automation
6344:Kitchen exhaust cleaning
6040:Solar-assisted heat pump
5640:Air conditioner inverter
5419:Displacement ventilation
5310:Vapour pressure of water
5295:Thermal destratification
4867:Single-wire earth return
4807:Electrical busbar system
4464:Energy demand management
4375:, BBC, 21 November 2016)
4339:What is a cooling tower?
4136:Proceedings, Volume 1982
4110:William H Clark (1997),
3751:designingbuildings.co.uk
3630:"Nuclear Cooling Towers"
3514:Gul, S. (18 June 2015).
3424:(Report). United States.
3249:Espacenet, Patent search
3226:Snow, Walter B. (1908).
2663:Eggborough power station
2641:fibre-reinforced plastic
1508:= Draw-off water in m/h
723:, a mechanical unit for
717:fiber-reinforced plastic
684:Brotep-Eco cooling tower
187:, and consist solely of
117:dry-bulb air temperature
109:wet-bulb air temperature
6924:Sewage sludge treatment
6864:Fecal sludge management
6824:API oil–water separator
6791:Wastewater surveillance
6517:World Refrigeration Day
6364:Refrigerant reclamation
6293:Architectural acoustics
6237:Programmable thermostat
6169:Clean air delivery rate
6065:Thermal expansion valve
5980:Pressurisation ductwork
5890:Ground source heat pump
5331:Absorption refrigerator
4998:Residual-current device
4988:Power system protection
4978:Generator interlock kit
4216:Atmospheric Environment
3605:Kansas State University
2990:Fossil fuel power plant
2975:Deep lake water cooling
2748:Use as a flue-gas stack
2699:Salt emission pollution
2486:electrical conductivity
2348:hematopoietic stem cell
2218:Algaecides and biocides
2075:Cycles of concentration
1807:Cycles of concentration
1488:= Make-up water in m/h
597:Classification by build
6781:Total suspended solids
6776:Total dissolved solids
6741:Chemical oxygen demand
6507:Glossary of HVAC terms
6469:Sick building syndrome
6349:Mechanical engineering
6060:Smoke exhaust ductwork
5491:Mixed-mode ventilation
4782:Distributed generation
4454:Electric power quality
3030:Willow Island disaster
3005:Mechanical engineering
2875:
2765:
2757:
2665:
2607:Cycle of concentration
2597:Side-stream filtration
2482:Total Dissolved Solids
2433:
2331:Legionella pneumophila
2270:
2252:
2251:(5000 × magnification)
2249:Legionella pneumophila
2188:, the water should be
2104:
2032:
2031:{\displaystyle \cdot }
1965:
1901:
1759:
1474:
1322:
1314:
1307:
1244:
1236:
1228:
995:
878:wet-dry cooling towers
693:
685:
677:
593:
522:coal-fired power plant
492:
484:
476:
396:
388:
374:
298:potability standards.
250:
208:
163:hyperboloid structures
144:nuclear power stations
140:thermal power stations
84:
72:
60:
44:
6648:Industrial wastewater
6527:Template:Solar energy
6205:Intelligent buildings
6164:Carbon dioxide sensor
5551:Room air distribution
5371:Central solar heating
5054:Fossil fuel phase-out
4822:Electricity retailing
4817:Electrical substation
4797:Electric power system
3572:GB Expired 108863
3323:Nature Climate Change
3000:Hyperboloid structure
2923:fire sprinkler system
2869:
2778:Rostock Power Station
2770:flue gas purification
2763:
2755:
2660:
2427:
2268:
2255:Further information:
2247:
2240:Legionnaires' disease
2102:
2033:
1966:
1902:
1760:
1472:
1320:
1313:
1305:
1242:
1234:
1227:
993:
874:Hybrid cooling towers
731:Heat transfer methods
719:(FRP) structure, FRP
692:Package cooling tower
691:
683:
675:
591:
490:
482:
475:
413:wet-bulb temperatures
394:
386:
372:
302:Classification by use
245:
202:
78:
66:
50:
42:
7095:Building engineering
6990:Groundwater recharge
6329:Duct leakage testing
6319:Deep energy retrofit
6263:Thermographic camera
6200:Infrared thermometer
5675:Air source heat pump
5624:Water heat recycling
5190:Air changes per hour
4410:Electricity delivery
4304:17 June 2010 at the
4282:17 June 2010 at the
4257:3 April 2015 at the
3808:Petroleum Processing
3343:10.1038/nclimate2903
2929:Structural stability
2914:surface-volume ratio
2828:improve this section
2710:sodic alkaline soils
2587:Full-flow filtration
2543:wet bulb temperature
2390:improve this article
2232:equipment failures.
2022:
1917:
1775:
1679:
1443:volumetric flow rate
1407:improve this article
1181:improve this section
1139:nuclear power plants
1106:Frederik van Iterson
956:improve this article
903:dry-bulb temperature
899:wet-bulb temperature
801:With respect to the
763:improve this section
629:improve this section
564:nuclear power plants
530:once-through cooling
506:petroleum refineries
417:dry-bulb temperature
330:improve this article
259:Frederik van Iterson
168:nuclear power plants
57:Didcot Power Station
6904:Secondary treatment
6889:Membrane bioreactor
6844:Constructed wetland
6643:Infiltration/Inflow
6195:HVAC control system
6185:Home energy monitor
6159:Building automation
5945:Inverter compressor
5607:Variable air volume
5516:Passive ventilation
5486:Kitchen ventilation
5386:Constant air volume
5356:Autonomous building
5019:Availability factor
4971:Sulfur hexafluoride
4852:Overhead power line
4752:Virtual power plant
4727:Induction generator
4680:Sustainable biofuel
4489:Home energy storage
4479:Grid energy storage
4444:Droop speed control
4228:1989AtmEn..23.1223H
4193:The Weather Network
4063:. 9 September 2020.
3727:. 13 September 2018
3638:Stanford University
3335:2016NatCC...6..375V
3010:Nuclear power plant
2985:Evaporative cooling
2354:Studies have found
2290:Mycobacterium avium
1557:= Concentration of
1538:= Concentration in
1112:Reinforced Concrete
1104:On 16 August 1916,
822:evaporative cooling
429:of air-conditioning
249:cooling tower, 1918
111:or, in the case of
7110:Cooling technology
7069:Category: Sewerage
7030:Septic drain field
6995:Infiltration basin
6939:Stabilization pond
6859:Facultative lagoon
6723:Quality indicators
6603:Blackwater (waste)
6583:Acid mine drainage
6458:Indoor air quality
6402:ASTM International
6339:Hydronic balancing
6116:Wood-burning stove
5995:Radiator reflector
5780:Evaporative cooler
5591:Underfloor heating
5576:Thermal insulation
4893:Transmission tower
4504:Nameplate capacity
4344:7 May 2010 at the
4273:(NFPA). NFPA 214,
3701:. 29 November 2018
3698:Drax Power Station
3088:. 15 February 2007
3060:on 23 October 2014
2980:Evaporative cooler
2939:structural failure
2876:
2766:
2758:
2723:, of less than 10
2666:
2434:
2271:
2253:
2149:water conservation
2105:
2088:supplies (such as
2028:
1961:
1897:
1755:
1475:
1323:
1315:
1308:
1245:
1237:
1229:
996:
860:Dry cooling towers
810:Wet cooling towers
704:Field erected type
694:
686:
678:
594:
493:
485:
477:
397:
389:
375:
251:
209:
113:dry cooling towers
85:
73:
61:
53:hyperboloid towers
45:
7077:
7076:
6854:Extended aeration
6801:Treatment options
6751:Oxygen saturation
6598:Blackwater (coal)
6576:Sources and types
6535:
6534:
6451:Health and safety
6030:Scroll compressor
5985:Process duct work
5740:Convection heater
5735:Condensing boiler
5665:Air-mixing plenum
5561:Solar combisystem
5397:Cross ventilation
5200:Building envelope
5140:
5139:
5044:Environmental tax
4924:Cascading failure
4693:
4692:
4529:Utility frequency
4174:978-0-88173-253-5
4121:978-0-07-011920-8
4007:. 26 January 2016
3965:(10016): 376–85.
3931:978-0-8385-8529-0
3725:EngineeringClicks
3590:Chen, HB (1976).
3300:Popular Mechanics
2864:
2863:
2856:
2422:
2421:
2414:
2042:
2041:
1959:
1895:
1862:
1835:
1808:
1800:
1606:
1605:
1439:
1438:
1431:
1217:
1216:
1209:
1123:, to his design.
988:
987:
980:
799:
798:
791:
665:
664:
657:
547:thermal pollution
362:
361:
354:
215:for use with the
16:(Redirected from
7117:
7066:
7065:
6985:Evaporation pond
6973:Disposal options
6944:Trickling filter
6929:Sewage treatment
6829:Carbon filtering
6809:Activated sludge
6562:
6555:
6548:
6539:
6538:
6497:Building science
6252:Smart thermostat
6247:Room temperature
5830:Fireplace insert
5536:Radon mitigation
5434:Electric heating
5429:District heating
5424:District cooling
5341:Air conditioning
5167:
5160:
5153:
5144:
5143:
5130:
5129:
5039:Energy subsidies
4993:Protective relay
4934:Rolling blackout
4561:
4560:
4551:
4519:Power-flow study
4459:Electrical fault
4403:
4396:
4389:
4380:
4379:
4327:
4326:
4325:. 31 March 2016.
4315:
4309:
4293:
4287:
4268:
4262:
4249:
4240:
4239:
4211:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4200:
4195:. Pelmorex Media
4184:
4178:
4177:
4160:
4154:
4153:
4147:
4139:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4107:
4101:
4100:
4098:
4096:
4090:
4084:. Archived from
4083:
4071:
4065:
4064:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4035:
4029:
4023:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4012:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3954:
3948:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3895:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3874:
3868:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3853:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3818:
3812:
3811:
3803:
3790:
3789:
3771:
3762:
3761:
3759:
3757:
3743:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3732:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3706:
3689:
3683:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3651:
3649:
3640:. Archived from
3625:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3611:
3596:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3502:
3500:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3465:
3459:
3445:
3439:
3433:
3427:
3425:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3392:
3386:
3385:
3383:
3381:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3318:
3312:
3311:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3223:
3212:
3211:
3195:
3186:
3185:
3175:
3164:
3163:
3153:
3147:
3146:
3136:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3093:
3076:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3046:
2859:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2839:
2808:
2800:
2661:Fog produced by
2575:Splash type fill
2417:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2397:
2374:
2366:
2346:infection (e.g.
2227:Scale inhibitors
2037:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2001:
1974:
1970:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1927:
1906:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1874:
1863:
1861:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1814:
1809:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1779:
1768:and, therefore:
1764:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1739:
1738:
1726:
1725:
1710:
1709:
1694:
1693:
1673:
1628:
1592:(dimensionless)
1553:
1480:
1434:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1414:
1391:
1383:
1212:
1205:
1201:
1198:
1192:
1161:
1153:
1048:Mechanical draft
1036:
1025:
983:
976:
972:
969:
963:
940:
932:
794:
787:
783:
780:
774:
743:
735:
660:
653:
649:
646:
640:
609:
601:
500:systems used in
357:
350:
346:
343:
337:
314:
306:
185:carbon footprint
177:air conditioning
158:cooling towers.
21:
7125:
7124:
7120:
7119:
7118:
7116:
7115:
7114:
7080:
7079:
7078:
7073:
7054:
7020:Reclaimed water
6968:
6894:Reverse osmosis
6795:
6717:
6683:Reverse osmosis
6608:Boiler blowdown
6571:
6566:
6536:
6531:
6492:ASHRAE Handbook
6480:
6464:Passive smoking
6446:
6379:
6373:
6285:
6283:
6277:
6131:
6125:
6106:Whole-house fan
6020:Run-around coil
6015:Reversing valve
5960:Mechanical room
5950:Kerosene heater
5940:Infrared heater
5870:Gasoline heater
5810:Fan filter unit
5725:Condensate pump
5710:Centrifugal fan
5628:
5531:Radiant heating
5526:Radiant cooling
5501:Passive cooling
5496:Microgeneration
5366:Central heating
5314:
5290:Thermal comfort
5182:
5176:
5171:
5141:
5136:
5118:
5102:
5100:
5093:
5024:Capacity factor
5012:
5010:
5003:
4983:Numerical relay
4961:Circuit breaker
4949:
4947:
4940:
4902:
4842:Load management
4812:Electrical grid
4777:Demand response
4770:
4765:
4756:
4737:Microgeneration
4689:
4604:
4552:
4543:
4539:Vehicle-to-grid
4412:
4407:
4367:radio interview
4346:Wayback Machine
4335:
4330:
4317:
4316:
4312:
4306:Wayback Machine
4294:
4290:
4284:Wayback Machine
4269:
4265:
4259:Wayback Machine
4250:
4243:
4212:
4208:
4198:
4196:
4185:
4181:
4175:
4161:
4157:
4141:
4140:
4132:
4128:
4122:
4108:
4104:
4094:
4092:
4088:
4081:
4073:
4072:
4068:
4055:
4054:
4050:
4037:
4036:
4032:
4024:
4020:
4010:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3955:
3951:
3943:
3939:
3932:
3918:
3914:
3904:
3902:
3897:
3896:
3889:
3880:
3876:
3875:
3871:
3861:
3859:
3851:
3845:
3841:
3831:
3829:
3820:
3819:
3815:
3804:
3793:
3772:
3765:
3755:
3753:
3745:
3744:
3740:
3730:
3728:
3719:
3718:
3714:
3704:
3702:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3676:
3674:
3664:
3660:
3647:
3645:
3626:
3622:
3616:Master's Degree
3609:
3607:
3594:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3555:
3553:
3551:Financial Times
3543:
3539:
3512:
3508:
3498:
3496:
3491:
3490:
3486:
3466:
3462:
3456:Wayback Machine
3446:
3442:
3434:
3430:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3393:
3389:
3379:
3377:
3362:
3358:
3319:
3315:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3279:
3277:
3268:
3267:
3263:
3253:
3251:
3243:
3241:
3237:
3224:
3215:
3196:
3189:
3176:
3167:
3154:
3150:
3137:
3130:
3120:
3118:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3091:
3089:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3063:
3061:
3048:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3034:
2955:
2931:
2910:
2860:
2849:
2843:
2840:
2825:
2809:
2798:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2701:
2687:
2685:Cloud formation
2655:
2430:Iru Power Plant
2418:
2407:
2401:
2398:
2387:
2375:
2364:
2263:
2242:
2229:
2220:
2207:sodium chlorite
2182:
2176:
2174:Water treatment
2158:
2130:water softening
2125:water treatment
2121:heat exchangers
2077:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2014:
1999:
1989:
1953:
1949:
1942:
1938:
1928:
1926:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1878:
1873:
1845:
1840:
1818:
1813:
1805:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1734:
1730:
1721:
1717:
1705:
1701:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1677:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1591:
1587:
1570:
1552:
1548:
1435:
1424:
1418:
1415:
1404:
1392:
1381:
1359:
1341:
1329:
1300:
1260:hot water basin
1222:
1213:
1202:
1196:
1193:
1178:
1162:
1151:
1121:Staatsmijn Emma
1102:
1081:static pressure
1044:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1040:
1037:
1028:
1027:
1026:
984:
973:
967:
964:
953:
941:
930:
856:cooling towers.
824:. The working
795:
784:
778:
775:
760:
744:
733:
706:
670:
661:
650:
644:
641:
626:
610:
599:
520:
470:
381:
367:
358:
347:
341:
338:
327:
315:
304:
197:
136:chemical plants
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7123:
7113:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7097:
7092:
7090:Cooling towers
7075:
7074:
7072:
7071:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7052:
7047:
7045:Surface runoff
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7025:Sanitary sewer
7022:
7017:
7015:Marine outfall
7012:
7010:Marine dumping
7007:
7002:
7000:Injection well
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6980:Combined sewer
6976:
6974:
6970:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6919:Settling basin
6916:
6911:
6906:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6856:
6851:
6846:
6841:
6836:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6816:
6814:Aerated lagoon
6811:
6805:
6803:
6797:
6796:
6794:
6793:
6788:
6783:
6778:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6758:
6753:
6748:
6746:Coliform index
6743:
6738:
6733:
6727:
6725:
6719:
6718:
6716:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6688:Sanitary sewer
6685:
6680:
6675:
6673:Produced water
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6618:Combined sewer
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6579:
6577:
6573:
6572:
6565:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6542:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6499:
6494:
6488:
6486:
6482:
6481:
6479:
6478:
6472:
6466:
6461:
6454:
6452:
6448:
6447:
6445:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6383:
6381:
6375:
6374:
6372:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6351:
6346:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6310:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6289:
6287:
6279:
6278:
6276:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6254:
6249:
6244:
6242:Psychrometrics
6239:
6234:
6229:
6224:
6218:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6192:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6172:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6139:Air flow meter
6135:
6133:
6127:
6126:
6124:
6123:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6067:
6062:
6057:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5915:Heating system
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5895:Heat exchanger
5892:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5860:Gas compressor
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5802:
5797:
5795:Expansion tank
5792:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5715:Ceramic heater
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5636:
5634:
5630:
5629:
5627:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5610:
5604:
5598:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5556:Solar air heat
5553:
5548:
5546:Renewable heat
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5473:
5468:
5462:
5457:
5455:Forced-air gas
5452:
5447:
5442:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5410:
5405:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5328:
5322:
5320:
5316:
5315:
5313:
5312:
5307:
5305:Thermodynamics
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5275:Psychrometrics
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5230:Gas compressor
5227:
5225:Fluid dynamics
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5186:
5184:
5178:
5177:
5170:
5169:
5162:
5155:
5147:
5138:
5137:
5135:
5134:
5123:
5120:
5119:
5117:
5116:
5111:
5105:
5103:
5099:Statistics and
5098:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5061:
5056:
5051:
5049:Feed-in tariff
5046:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5015:
5013:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4974:
4973:
4968:
4958:
4952:
4950:
4945:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4938:
4937:
4936:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4910:
4908:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4837:Interconnector
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4787:Dynamic demand
4784:
4779:
4773:
4771:
4761:
4758:
4757:
4755:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4717:Combined cycle
4714:
4709:
4703:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4688:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4671:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4650:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4614:
4612:
4606:
4605:
4603:
4602:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4569:
4567:
4558:
4554:
4553:
4546:
4544:
4542:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4494:Load-following
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4449:Electric power
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4413:
4406:
4405:
4398:
4391:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4360:
4355:
4349:
4334:
4333:External links
4331:
4329:
4328:
4310:
4288:
4263:
4241:
4206:
4179:
4173:
4155:
4126:
4120:
4102:
4091:on 13 May 2021
4066:
4048:
4045:. 4 June 2017.
4030:
4018:
3992:
3949:
3937:
3930:
3912:
3901:. 23 July 2021
3887:
3869:
3839:
3813:
3791:
3763:
3738:
3712:
3684:
3658:
3620:
3582:
3563:
3537:
3506:
3484:
3479:New York Times
3460:
3440:
3428:
3412:
3405:
3387:
3356:
3329:(4): 375–380.
3313:
3287:
3261:
3235:
3213:
3187:
3165:
3148:
3128:
3117:. 24 July 2017
3099:
3071:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2930:
2927:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2891:
2862:
2861:
2812:
2810:
2803:
2797:
2794:
2782:flue-gas stack
2772:, such as the
2749:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2700:
2697:
2686:
2683:
2654:
2653:Fog production
2651:
2650:
2649:
2631:
2630:
2621:
2620:
2617:Treated timber
2611:
2610:
2601:
2600:
2591:
2590:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2572:
2569:Film type fill
2557:
2556:
2547:
2546:
2533:
2532:
2523:
2522:
2513:
2512:
2507:with residual
2499:, also called
2491:
2490:
2468:
2467:
2458:
2457:
2448:
2447:
2420:
2419:
2378:
2376:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2293:. The various
2285:L. pneumophila
2241:
2238:
2228:
2225:
2219:
2216:
2175:
2172:
2157:
2154:
2076:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2053:
2040:
2039:
2027:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2006:
2003:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1981:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1925:
1922:
1908:
1907:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1783:
1766:
1765:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1653:
1651:
1646:
1644:
1639:
1637:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1555:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1486:
1437:
1436:
1395:
1393:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1358:
1357:Common aspects
1355:
1354:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1165:
1163:
1156:
1150:
1147:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1069:
1045:
1038:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1016:
986:
985:
944:
942:
935:
929:
926:
895:psychrometrics
883:
882:
871:
857:
853:cooling towers
847:
840:heat exchanger
829:
797:
796:
747:
745:
738:
732:
729:
705:
702:
669:
666:
663:
662:
613:
611:
604:
598:
595:
518:
469:
466:
438:equivalent ton
433:equivalent ton
409:heat rejection
377:Main article:
366:
363:
360:
359:
318:
316:
309:
303:
300:
263:Gerard Kuypers
225:marine engines
196:
193:
128:oil refineries
26:
18:Cooling towers
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7122:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7098:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7087:
7085:
7070:
7061:
7060:
7057:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6977:
6975:
6971:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6955:
6952:
6950:
6947:
6945:
6942:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6910:
6909:Sedimentation
6907:
6905:
6902:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6860:
6857:
6855:
6852:
6850:
6847:
6845:
6842:
6840:
6837:
6835:
6832:
6830:
6827:
6825:
6822:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6810:
6807:
6806:
6804:
6802:
6798:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6769:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6752:
6749:
6747:
6744:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6729:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6720:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6703:Sewage sludge
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6628:Cooling water
6626:
6624:
6623:Cooling tower
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6588:Ballast water
6586:
6584:
6581:
6580:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6563:
6558:
6556:
6551:
6549:
6544:
6543:
6540:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6503:
6500:
6498:
6495:
6493:
6490:
6489:
6487:
6483:
6476:
6473:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6459:
6456:
6455:
6453:
6449:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6384:
6382:
6380:organizations
6376:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6362:
6360:
6357:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6325:
6324:Duct cleaning
6322:
6320:
6317:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6290:
6288:
6280:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6225:
6222:
6219:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6175:Control valve
6173:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6128:
6122:
6119:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6095:Turning vanes
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6070:Thermal wheel
6068:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6053:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6035:Solar chimney
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6001:
5998:
5996:
5993:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5806:
5805:Fan coil unit
5803:
5801:
5798:
5796:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5750:Cooling tower
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5637:
5635:
5631:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5614:
5611:
5608:
5605:
5602:
5599:
5597:
5596:Vapor barrier
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5571:Solar heating
5569:
5567:
5566:Solar cooling
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5541:Refrigeration
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5511:Passive house
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5477:
5474:
5472:
5469:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5443:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5381:Chilled water
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5327:
5324:
5323:
5321:
5317:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5280:Sensible heat
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5260:Noise control
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5240:Heat transfer
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5188:
5187:
5185:
5179:
5175:
5168:
5163:
5161:
5156:
5154:
5149:
5148:
5145:
5133:
5125:
5124:
5121:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5096:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5070:
5069:Pigouvian tax
5067:
5065:
5062:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5006:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4966:Earth-leakage
4964:
4963:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4943:
4935:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4911:
4909:
4907:Failure modes
4905:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4857:Power station
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4742:Rankine cycle
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4722:Cooling tower
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4654:
4651:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4641:
4639:
4636:
4634:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4607:
4601:
4598:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4568:
4566:
4565:Non-renewable
4562:
4559:
4555:
4550:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4484:Grid strength
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4439:Demand factor
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4421:
4419:
4415:
4411:
4404:
4399:
4397:
4392:
4390:
4385:
4384:
4381:
4374:
4373:
4368:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4307:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4292:
4285:
4281:
4278:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4260:
4256:
4253:
4248:
4246:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4210:
4194:
4190:
4183:
4176:
4170:
4166:
4159:
4151:
4145:
4137:
4130:
4123:
4117:
4113:
4106:
4087:
4080:
4078:
4070:
4062:
4058:
4052:
4044:
4040:
4034:
4027:
4022:
4006:
4002:
3996:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3953:
3946:
3941:
3933:
3927:
3923:
3916:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3879:
3873:
3857:
3856:www.sdcwa.org
3850:
3843:
3827:
3823:
3817:
3809:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3778:
3770:
3768:
3752:
3748:
3742:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3700:
3699:
3694:
3688:
3673:
3669:
3662:
3655:
3644:on 3 May 2017
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3606:
3602:
3601:
3593:
3586:
3573:
3567:
3552:
3548:
3541:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3510:
3494:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3464:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3444:
3437:
3432:
3423:
3416:
3408:
3406:9780080523828
3402:
3398:
3391:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3291:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3250:
3246:
3239:
3231:
3230:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3192:
3183:
3182:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3161:
3160:
3152:
3144:
3143:
3135:
3133:
3116:
3114:
3109:
3103:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3075:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3045:
3041:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3025:Water cooling
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3015:Power station
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2868:
2858:
2855:
2847:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2813:This section
2811:
2807:
2802:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2762:
2754:
2745:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2696:
2693:
2692:Haman's group
2682:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2664:
2659:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2637:Pultruded FRP
2635:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2559:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2470:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2416:
2413:
2405:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2379:This section
2377:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2359:
2357:
2352:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2281:legionellosis
2278:
2277:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2257:Legionellosis
2250:
2246:
2237:
2233:
2224:
2215:
2212:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2171:
2169:
2164:
2161:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2142:New York City
2137:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2101:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2025:
2015:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1875:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1842:
1837:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1815:
1810:
1802:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1781:
1771:
1770:
1769:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1635:
1634:
1633:
1611:
1610:
1609:
1599:
1595:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1564:
1560:
1554:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1521:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1433:
1430:
1422:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1396:This section
1394:
1390:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1343:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1312:
1304:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1233:
1226:
1211:
1208:
1200:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1166:This section
1164:
1160:
1155:
1154:
1146:
1144:
1143:steam turbine
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:
1107:
1094:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1062:recirculation
1059:
1055:
1054:Induced draft
1052:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1035:
1024:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1005:
1004:Natural draft
1001:
1000:
999:
992:
982:
979:
971:
961:
957:
951:
950:
945:This section
943:
939:
934:
933:
925:
923:
919:
915:
911:
906:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
879:
875:
872:
869:
868:heat transfer
865:
861:
858:
854:
852:
848:
845:
841:
837:
836:fluid coolers
834:(also called
833:
830:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
808:
807:
806:
804:
803:heat transfer
793:
790:
782:
772:
768:
764:
758:
757:
753:
748:This section
746:
742:
737:
736:
728:
726:
722:
718:
715:
710:
701:
698:
690:
682:
674:
659:
656:
648:
638:
634:
630:
624:
623:
619:
614:This section
612:
608:
603:
602:
590:
586:
584:
580:
575:
571:
569:
565:
559:
557:
553:
552:zebra mussels
549:
548:
543:
539:
535:
531:
526:
523:
515:
511:
510:petrochemical
507:
503:
499:
498:cooling water
489:
481:
474:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
446:
444:
439:
434:
430:
428:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
393:
385:
380:
371:
356:
353:
345:
335:
331:
325:
324:
319:This section
317:
313:
308:
307:
299:
297:
292:
289:
287:
284:According to
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
248:
244:
240:
236:
234:
233:cooling ponds
228:
226:
222:
221:back pressure
218:
214:
206:
205:natural draft
201:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
173:
172:steam turbine
169:
164:
159:
157:
156:induced draft
153:
152:natural draft
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
132:petrochemical
129:
124:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
89:cooling tower
82:
77:
70:
65:
58:
54:
49:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7050:Vacuum sewer
6934:Sewer mining
6884:Ion exchange
6834:Chlorination
6756:Heavy metals
6713:Urban runoff
6653:Ion exchange
6633:Fecal sludge
6502:Fireproofing
6286:and services
6282:Professions,
6180:Gas detector
6080:Trickle vent
6055:Smoke damper
6050:Smoke canopy
6045:Space heater
5975:Plenum space
5910:Heating film
5790:Exhaust hood
5760:Dehumidifier
5749:
5700:Blast damper
5695:Barrier pipe
5670:Air purifier
5581:Thermosiphon
5460:Free cooling
5376:Chilled beam
5300:Thermal mass
5285:Stack effect
5270:Particulates
5250:Infiltration
5181:Fundamental
5064:Net metering
5011:and policies
4929:Power outage
4898:Utility pole
4862:Pumped hydro
4768:distribution
4763:Transmission
4721:
4712:Cogeneration
4514:Power factor
4372:World Update
4370:
4322:
4313:
4308:Section A1.1
4297:
4291:
4275:
4266:
4219:
4215:
4209:
4197:. Retrieved
4192:
4182:
4164:
4158:
4135:
4129:
4111:
4105:
4093:. Retrieved
4086:the original
4076:
4069:
4060:
4051:
4042:
4033:
4021:
4009:. Retrieved
4004:
3995:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3940:
3921:
3915:
3903:. Retrieved
3872:
3860:. Retrieved
3855:
3842:
3830:. Retrieved
3825:
3816:
3810:: 1452–1456.
3807:
3776:
3754:. Retrieved
3750:
3741:
3729:. Retrieved
3724:
3715:
3703:. Retrieved
3696:
3687:
3675:. Retrieved
3671:
3661:
3653:
3646:. Retrieved
3642:the original
3633:
3623:
3615:
3608:. Retrieved
3598:
3585:
3566:
3554:. Retrieved
3550:
3540:
3523:
3519:
3509:
3497:. Retrieved
3487:
3478:
3463:
3443:
3431:
3415:
3396:
3390:
3378:. Retrieved
3369:
3359:
3326:
3322:
3316:
3299:
3290:
3278:. Retrieved
3273:
3264:
3252:. Retrieved
3248:
3238:
3228:
3207:
3203:
3180:
3158:
3151:
3141:
3119:. Retrieved
3111:
3102:
3090:. Retrieved
3083:
3074:
3062:. Retrieved
3058:the original
3053:
3044:
2965:Alkali soils
2932:
2911:
2890:requirement.
2884:
2880:
2877:
2850:
2841:
2826:Please help
2814:
2790:
2767:
2719:
2706:sodic saline
2702:
2688:
2679:
2667:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2592:
2586:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2558:
2552:
2548:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2514:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2408:
2399:
2388:Please help
2383:verification
2380:
2355:
2353:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2319:
2316:
2310:
2308:
2302:
2294:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2272:
2248:
2234:
2230:
2221:
2183:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2146:
2138:
2106:
2086:ground water
2082:
2078:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2010:
1998:
1985:
1909:
1767:
1631:
1607:
1597:
1579:
1566:
1547:
1533:
1523:
1513:
1503:
1493:
1483:
1476:
1451:
1440:
1425:
1416:
1405:Please help
1400:verification
1397:
1374:
1360:
1340:
1328:
1324:
1282:
1271:
1263:
1259:
1256:distribution
1255:
1253:
1249:
1246:
1203:
1194:
1179:Please help
1167:
1125:
1109:
1103:
1092:
1085:blow-through
1084:
1075:
1072:Forced draft
1071:
1066:draw-through
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1047:
1008:
1002:
997:
974:
965:
954:Please help
949:verification
946:
917:
913:
909:
907:
886:
884:
877:
873:
863:
859:
849:
842:, usually a
835:
831:
817:
813:
809:
800:
785:
776:
761:Please help
749:
711:
707:
699:
695:
668:Package type
651:
642:
627:Please help
615:
576:
572:
560:
545:
529:
527:
502:power plants
494:
453:
447:
437:
432:
426:
421:Carnot cycle
398:
348:
339:
328:Please help
323:verification
320:
293:
290:
283:
252:
237:
229:
217:steam engine
210:
160:
125:
112:
88:
86:
36:
7040:Storm drain
7035:Sewage farm
6959:Vermifilter
6914:Septic tank
6874:Imhoff tank
6771:Temperature
6678:Return flow
6668:Papermaking
6512:Warm Spaces
6154:Blower door
6132:and control
6130:Measurement
6111:Windcatcher
6085:Trombe wall
6025:Sail switch
6005:Refrigerant
6000:Recuperator
5875:Grease duct
5835:Freeze stat
5820:Fire damper
5690:Back boiler
5660:Air ionizer
5655:Air handler
5619:Ventilation
5471:Hybrid heat
5336:Air barrier
5255:Latent heat
5059:Load factor
4914:Black start
4882:Transformer
4583:Natural gas
4534:Variability
4509:Peak demand
4499:Merit order
4429:Backfeeding
4061:www.cdc.gov
3756:10 February
3731:10 February
3705:10 February
3677:10 February
3648:10 February
3610:10 February
3556:11 February
3495:. Hamon.com
3113:Duke Energy
2947:wind tunnel
2908:Fire hazard
2872:hyperboloid
2725:micrometers
2675:ship tracks
2648:structures.
2362:Terminology
2156:Maintenance
2117:precipitate
2111:. When the
1447:evaporation
1298:Counterflow
1127:Hyperboloid
914:Splash fill
864:dry coolers
566:located in
514:natural gas
269:in 1918 in
255:hyperboloid
247:Van Iterson
189:water vapor
105:evaporation
32:windcatcher
7084:Categories
7005:Irrigation
6869:Filtration
6569:Wastewater
6268:Thermostat
6190:Humidistat
6121:Zone valve
6090:TurboSwing
5965:Oil heater
5935:Humidifier
5865:Gas heater
5815:Fan heater
5785:Evaporator
5770:Economizer
5745:Compressor
5650:Air filter
5633:Components
5450:Forced-air
5346:Antifreeze
5319:Technology
5265:Outgassing
5205:Convection
5101:production
4946:Protective
4877:Super grid
4872:Smart grid
4699:Generation
4633:Geothermal
4524:Repowering
4295:NFPA 214,
4077:Legionella
3947:(page 495)
3826:Energy.gov
3499:14 January
3280:3 December
3276:(in Dutch)
3254:3 December
3037:References
3020:Spray pond
2844:April 2021
2645:pultrusion
2356:Legionella
2344:Legionella
2340:Legionella
2335:Legionella
2320:Legionella
2311:Legionella
2303:Legionella
2295:Legionella
2276:Legionella
2261:Legionella
2198:algaecides
2178:See also:
2113:solubility
1454:condensers
1197:April 2021
1135:convective
1131:hyperbolic
779:April 2021
645:April 2021
458:atmosphere
454:water loop
450:heat pumps
213:condensers
134:and other
97:atmosphere
93:waste heat
69:Westphalia
6839:Clarifier
6786:Turbidity
6638:Greywater
6378:Industry
6227:OpenTherm
5905:Heat pump
5900:Heat pipe
5850:Fume hood
5825:Fireplace
5730:Condenser
5680:Attic fan
5476:Hydronics
5009:Economics
4732:Micro CHP
4610:Renewable
4593:Petroleum
4588:Oil shale
4474:Grid code
4434:Base load
3672:Sciencing
3532:1813-4092
3370:New Atlas
3351:1758-678X
3308:0032-4558
3274:Glück Auf
2897:climates.
2815:does not
2671:contrails
2478:blow-down
2209:or other
2168:dipslides
2026:⋅
1933:Δ
1853:−
1559:chlorides
1459:evaporate
1220:Crossflow
1168:does not
1013:moist air
1009:naturally
918:Film fill
891:dew point
851:Adiabatic
750:does not
725:air draft
714:pultruded
616:does not
279:Liverpool
121:radiators
83:(Germany)
71:, Germany
6766:Salinity
6658:Leachate
6593:Bathroom
6485:See also
6210:LonWorks
6144:Aquastat
6010:Register
5990:Radiator
5645:Air door
5445:Firestop
5245:Humidity
5220:Enthalpy
5210:Dilution
5195:Bake-out
5183:concepts
5132:Category
4919:Brownout
4707:AC power
4417:Concepts
4342:Archived
4323:BBC News
4302:Archived
4280:Archived
4255:Archived
4199:24 March
4144:citation
3987:28047369
3979:26231463
3786:67019834
3452:Archived
3380:9 August
3374:Archived
2953:See also
2776:and the
2714:sodicity
2627:Leaching
2539:Approach
2474:Draw-off
2454:Blow-out
2402:May 2021
2299:aerosols
2211:chlorine
2194:biocides
2190:filtered
2109:solution
1419:May 2021
968:May 2021
844:radiator
721:cladding
512:plants,
342:May 2021
6693:Septage
6284:trades,
5855:Furnace
5720:Chiller
5392:Coolant
4948:devices
4658:Thermal
4653:Osmotic
4648:Current
4628:Biomass
4618:Biofuel
4600:Nuclear
4557:Sources
4224:Bibcode
4095:14 July
4011:17 June
3905:23 July
3862:18 June
3832:16 June
3331:Bibcode
3121:2 March
3092:2 March
2836:removed
2821:sources
2519:Make-up
2440:Windage
2202:biofilm
2186:fouling
2094:scaling
1980:
1977:where:
1264:nozzles
1189:removed
1174:sources
1058:induces
826:coolant
771:removed
756:sources
637:removed
622:sources
583:Huaibei
568:coastal
542:screens
462:boilers
405:chiller
271:Heerlen
195:History
101:coolant
95:to the
81:Dresden
7067:
6708:Toilet
6698:Sewage
6663:Manure
6437:SMACNA
6397:ASHRAE
6217:(MERV)
6171:(CADR)
6149:BACnet
6102:(ULPA)
5955:Louver
5880:Grille
5755:Damper
5705:Boiler
5603:(VCRS)
5404:(DOAS)
4643:Marine
4623:Biogas
4171:
4118:
3985:
3977:
3959:Lancet
3928:
3784:
3578:
3530:
3403:
3349:
3306:
3064:19 May
2943:vortex
2870:Large
2739:and PM
2509:solids
1580:Cycles
1076:forces
538:larvae
119:using
6613:Brine
6477:(VOC)
6471:(SBS)
6460:(IAQ)
6417:CIBSE
6412:BSRIA
6315:(BIM)
6259:(STP)
6223:(NTP)
5845:Freon
5615:(VRF)
5609:(VAV)
5467:(HRV)
5441:(ERV)
5415:(DCV)
5388:(CAV)
5000:(GFI)
4889:(TSO)
4675:Solar
4663:Tidal
4638:Hydro
4089:(PDF)
4082:(PDF)
3983:S2CID
3881:(PDF)
3852:(PDF)
3595:(PDF)
3526:(2).
2919:codes
2786:acids
2553:Range
2529:Noise
2505:water
2464:Plume
2444:Drift
2287:, or
2090:wells
1463:salts
887:lower
556:algae
181:smoke
6954:UASB
6432:LEED
6392:AMCA
6387:AHRI
5920:HEPA
5840:Flue
5765:Duct
4766:and
4685:Wind
4668:Wave
4578:Coal
4201:2017
4169:ISBN
4150:link
4116:ISBN
4097:2008
4013:2017
3975:PMID
3926:ISBN
3907:2021
3864:2014
3834:2014
3782:LCCN
3758:2022
3733:2022
3707:2022
3679:2022
3650:2022
3612:2022
3558:2022
3528:ISSN
3501:2023
3467:The
3401:ISBN
3382:2021
3347:ISSN
3304:ISSN
3282:2023
3256:2023
3123:2022
3094:2022
3066:2014
2819:any
2817:cite
2673:and
2563:Fill
2325:The
2259:and
2196:and
2038:°C)
1598:ppmw
1540:ppmw
1172:any
1170:cite
910:fill
893:and
862:(or
754:any
752:cite
620:any
618:cite
536:and
534:fish
401:HVAC
379:HVAC
261:and
154:and
148:HVAC
146:and
59:(UK)
6442:UMC
6427:IIR
6407:BRE
5800:Fan
4232:doi
4005:CDC
3967:doi
3963:387
3339:doi
2830:by
2741:2.5
2733:2.5
2708:or
2476:or
2442:or
2392:by
1588:/ X
1409:by
1258:or
1183:by
1117:DSM
958:by
922:PVC
876:or
816:or
812:or
765:by
631:by
581:in
558:.
554:or
427:ton
399:An
332:by
296:EPA
277:in
123:.
55:at
7086::
6761:pH
4369:,
4321:.
4244:^
4230:.
4220:23
4218:.
4191:.
4146:}}
4142:{{
4059:.
4041:.
4003:.
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3749:.
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3670:.
3652:.
3636:.
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3614:.
3603:.
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3522:.
3518:.
3477:.
3372:.
3368:.
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3325:.
3298:.
3272:.
3247:.
3216:^
3208:43
3206:.
3202:.
3190:^
3168:^
3131:^
3110:.
3082:.
3052:.
2788:.
2737:10
2729:10
2677:.
2134:pH
2132:,
2000:ΔT
1668:+
1657:=
1652:WX
1650:+
1645:DX
1643:=
1638:MX
1624:+
1620:+
1616:=
1445:,
1254:A
519:th
517:MW
508:,
504:,
464:.
253:A
191:.
142:,
138:,
130:,
87:A
6561:e
6554:t
6547:v
5166:e
5159:t
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4388:v
4286:.
4238:.
4234::
4226::
4203:.
4152:)
4099:.
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3989:.
3969::
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3885:}
3866:.
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3788:.
3760:.
3735:.
3709:.
3681:.
3560:.
3534:.
3503:.
3481:.
3409:.
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3353:.
3341::
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3327:6
3310:.
3284:.
3258:.
3125:.
3096:.
3068:.
2857:)
2851:(
2846:)
2842:(
2838:.
2824:.
2415:)
2409:(
2404:)
2400:(
2386:.
2068:W
2062:W
2056:W
2050:W
2013:p
2011:c
1988:V
1986:H
1955:V
1951:H
1944:p
1940:c
1936:T
1930:C
1924:=
1921:E
1892:)
1889:W
1886:+
1883:D
1880:(
1876:E
1871:+
1868:1
1865:=
1859:)
1856:E
1850:M
1847:(
1843:M
1838:=
1832:)
1829:W
1826:+
1823:D
1820:(
1816:M
1811:=
1803:=
1796:M
1792:X
1786:C
1782:X
1753:)
1750:W
1747:+
1744:D
1741:(
1736:C
1732:X
1728:=
1723:C
1719:X
1715:W
1712:+
1707:C
1703:X
1699:D
1696:=
1691:M
1687:X
1683:M
1672:)
1670:W
1666:D
1664:(
1661:C
1659:X
1654:C
1647:C
1640:M
1626:W
1622:D
1618:E
1614:M
1590:M
1586:C
1569:C
1567:X
1551:M
1549:X
1534:X
1524:W
1514:E
1504:D
1494:C
1484:M
1432:)
1426:(
1421:)
1417:(
1403:.
1210:)
1204:(
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1195:(
1191:.
1177:.
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981:)
975:(
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786:(
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777:(
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643:(
639:.
625:.
355:)
349:(
344:)
340:(
326:.
34:.
20:)
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