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contaminated with cyanotoxins. The toxicity of different cyanotoxins is directly proportional to the growth of cyanobacteria and the extent of their toxin production. It has been shown that the growth of different cyanobacteria and their toxin biosynthesis is greatly influenced by different abiotic factors such as light intensity, temperature, short wavelength radiations, pH, and nutrients. Global warming and temperature gradients can significantly change species composition and favor blooms of toxic phytoplanktons.
1075:
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442:. Water acidity also cycles daily during a bloom, with the pH reaching 9 or more during the day and dropping to low values at night, further stressing the ecosystem. In addition, many cyanobacteria species produce potent cyanotoxins which concentrate during a bloom to the point where they become lethal to nearby aquatic organisms and any other animals in direct contact with the bloom, including birds, livestock, domestic animals and sometimes humans.
31:
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applications in the food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agriculture, and energy sectors. Moreover, some species of cyanobacteria grow vigorously and form a dominant microflora in terms of their biomass and productivity in specific ecosystems. Bloom formations due to excessive growth of certain cyanobacteria followed by the production of toxic compounds have been reported in many
434:). The blooms can look like foam, scum or mats or like paint floating on the surface of the water, but they are not always visible. Nor are the blooms always green; they can be blue, and some cyanobacteria species are coloured brownish-red. The water can smell bad when the cyanobacteria in the bloom die.
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is characterized by widespread vacuolization of the myelinated axons (intramyelinic edema) in the white matter of the brain and spinal cord. Clinical signs of the intoxication include the severe loss of motor functions and sight. Affected birds fly into objects, lack coordination in swimming, flying
929:
Globally, the most common toxins present in cyanobacterial blooms in fresh and brackish waters are the cyclic peptide toxins of the nodularin family. Like the microcystin family (above), nodularins are potent hepatotoxins and can cause serious damage to the liver. They present health risks for wild
437:
Strong cyanobacterial blooms reduce visibility to one or two centimetres. Species which are not reliant on sight (such as cyanobacteria themselves) survive, but species which need to see to find food and partners are compromised. During the day blooming cyanobacteria saturate the water with oxygen.
233:
inhabiting under toxic bloom rich ecosystems, are directly exposed to the harmful effects of different cyanotoxins. The intoxication occurring in wild and/or domestic animals and humans is either due to direct ingestion of cells of toxin producing cyanobacteria or the consumption of drinking water
925:
are among some of the largest cyanobacterial mass events in the world. (Parts of nine industrialized countries drain into the Baltic Sea, which has little water exchange with the North Sea and
Atlantic Ocean. It is consequently one of the more polluted bodies of water in the world (nutrient-rich,
150:
in
Australia, as "a thick scum like green oil paint, some two to six inches thick." Wildlife which drank the water died rapidly and terribly. Most reported incidents of poisoning by microalgal toxins have occurred in freshwater environments, and they are becoming more common and widespread. For
225:, called cyanotoxins, have been reported from cyanobacteria inhabiting freshwater and marine ecosystems. These toxic compounds are highly detrimental for survival of several aquatic organisms, wild and/or domestic animals, and humans. Aquatic organisms, including plants and animals, as well as
825:
in the liver. Of all the cyanotoxins, the cyclic peptides are of most concern to human health. The microcystins and nodularins poison the liver, and exposure to high doses can cause death. Exposure to low doses in drinking water over a long period of time may promote liver and other tumours.
209:
prokaryotes and possibly appeared on the Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. They are ubiquitous in nature and thrive in a variety of ecological niches ranging from desert to hot springs and ice-cold water. Cyanobacteria are an immense source of several secondary natural products with
1399:, and terrestrial environments. The exact mechanisms of BMAA toxicity on neuron cells is being investigated. Research suggests both acute and chronic mechanisms of toxicity. BMAA is being investigated as a potential environmental risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases, including
1111:
because of the dangers it presents to recreational and drinking waters, and because it is a particularly useful molecule for investigating acetylcholine receptors in the nervous system. The deadliness of the toxin means that it has a high military potential as a toxin weapon.
876:
and can cause serious damage to the liver in humans. In this way they are similar to the nodularins (below), and together the microcystins and nodularins account for most of the toxic cyanobacterial blooms in fresh and brackish waters. In 2010, a number of
1352:
and walking, develop tremors of the head and lose their responsiveness. As the toxin has been shown to bioaccumulate, there is concern that it might also be a threat to human health. However, toxicity to mammals has yet to be confirmed experimentally.
1333:), it took > 25 years to discover aetokthonotoxin as the VM-inducing toxin after the disease has first been diagnosed in bald eagles in 1994. The toxin cascades through the food-chain: Among other animals, it affects fish and waterfowl such as
287:. Traditionally they were thought of as a form of algae, and were introduced as such in older textbooks. However modern sources tend to regard this as outdated; they are now considered to be more closely related to bacteria, and the term for true
1373:
are present in all cyanobacteria. Though not as potent as other cyanotoxins, some researchers have claimed that all lipopolysaccharides in cyanobacteria can irritate the skin, while other researchers doubt the toxic effects are that generalized.
1184:
in freshwater organisms. Toxic blooms of genera which produce cylindrospermopsin are most commonly found in tropical, subtropical and arid zone water bodies, and have recently been found in
Australia, Europe, Israel, Japan and the USA.
2887:
David P. Fewer DP; Köykkä K; Halinen K; Jokela J; Lyra C; Sivonen K (2009). "Culture-independent evidence for the persistent presence and genetic diversity of microcystin-producing
Anabaena (Cyanobacteria) in the Gulf of Finland".
3574:
Breinlinger, Steffen; Phillips, Tabitha J.; Haram, Brigette N.; Mareš, Jan; Yerena, José A. Martínez; Hrouzek, Pavel; Sobotka, Roman; Henderson, W. Matthew; Schmieder, Peter; Williams, Susan M.; Lauderdale, James D. (2021-03-26).
1266:. It acts on the voltage-gated sodium channels of nerve cells, preventing normal cellular function and leading to paralysis. The blocking of neuronal sodium channels which occurs in paralytic shellfish poisoning produces a
999:, also known as "Very Fast Death Factor", began in 1961 following the deaths of cows that drank from a lake containing an algal bloom in Saskatchewan, Canada. The toxin is produced by at least four different genera of
852:. However it was later found other cyanobacterial genera also produced them. There are about 60 known variants of microcystin, and several of these can be produced during a bloom. The most reported variant is
151:
example, thousands of ducks and geese died drinking contaminated water in the midwestern United States. In 2010, for the first time, marine mammals were reported to have died from ingesting cyanotoxins.
863:
Blooms containing microcystin are a problem worldwide in freshwater ecosystems. Microcystins are cyclic peptides and can be very toxic for plants and animals including humans. They bioaccumulate in the
2116:
El-Shehawy, Rehab; Gorokhova, Elena; Fernández-Piñas, Francisca; Del Campo, Francisca F. (2012). "Global warming and hepatotoxin production by cyanobacteria: What can we learn from experiments?".
1512:"Recreational and occupational field exposure to freshwater cyanobacteria – a review of anecdotal and case reports, epidemiological studies and the challenges for epidemiologic assessment"
2789:
Pelaez, Miguel; Antoniou, Maria G.; He, Xuexiang; Dionysiou, Dionysios D.; de la Cruz, Armah A.; Tsimeli, Katerina; et al. (2010). "Sources and
Occurrence of Cyanotoxins Worldwide".
1255:
also produce saxitoxin. Saxitoxins bioaccumulate in shellfish and certain finfish. Ingestion of saxitoxin, usually through shellfish contaminated by toxic algal blooms, can result in
52:(also known as blue-green algae). Cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere, but particularly in lakes and in the ocean where, under high concentration of phosphorus conditions, they
3533:
2626:
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At night respiring aquatic organisms can deplete the oxygen to the point where sensitive species, such as certain fish, die. This is more likely to happen near the sea floor or a
396:; these can cover hundreds of square kilometres and can be easily seen in satellite images. Individual phytoplankton rarely live more than a few days, but blooms can last weeks.
1062:
which normally performs this function. As a result, the muscle cells contract permanently, the communication between the brain and the muscles is disrupted and breathing stops.
1323:(VM). As the biosynthesis of aetokthonotoxin depends on the availability of bromide in freshwater systems and requires an interplay between the toxin-producing cyanobacterium
3033:
Wood S. A.; Rasmussen J. P.; Holland P. T.; Campbell R.; Crowe A. L. M. (2007). "First Report of the
Cyanotoxin Anatoxin-A from Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi (cyanobacteria)".
2192:
Jang, Min-Ho; Ha, Kyong; Takamura, Noriko (2007). "Reciprocal allelopathic responses between toxic cyanobacteria (Microcystis aeruginosa) and duckweed (Lemna japonica)".
190:
as well as an immense source of several secondary products, including an array of toxic compounds known as cyanotoxins. Abundant growth of cyanobacteria in freshwater,
1325:
312:
treatment plants. They even inhabit the fur of polar bears, to which they impart a greenish tinge. Cyanobacteria produce potent toxins, but they also produce helpful
283:
meaning "a dark blue substance", and usually indicates any of a number of colours in the blue/green range of the spectrum. Cyanobacteria are commonly referred to as
427:). Marine dinoflagellate species are often toxic, but freshwater species are not known to be toxic. Neither are diatoms known to be toxic, at least to humans.
3145:
Metcalf, James S.; Codd, Geoffrey A. (2009). "Cyanobacteria, neurotoxins and water resources: Are there implications for human neurodegenerative disease?".
3846:
Weiss JH, Koh JY, Choi DW (1989). "Neurotoxicity of β -N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) and β-N-oxalylamino-L-alanine (BOAA) on cultured cortical neurons".
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in both marine and freshwater habitats. Both the beneficial and detrimental aspects of cyanobacteria are of considerable significance. They are important
3634:
308:
Cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere; in oceans, lakes and rivers as well as on land. They flourish in Arctic and
Antarctic lakes, hotsprings and
2584:
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534:
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2608:
Moestrup Ø, Akselman R, Cronberg G, Elbraechter M, Fraga S, Halim Y, Hansen G, Hoppenrath M, Larsen J, Lundholm N, Nguyen LN and
Zingone A.
354:, global climate change such as increased temperature and light or global warming due to an increase in ozone depleting substances (e.g., CO
4413:
3530:
473:). The chemical structure of cyanotoxins falls into three broad groups: cyclic peptides, alkaloids and lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins).
3286:
Griffiths DJ, Saker ML (2003). "The Palm Island mystery disease 20 years on: a review of research on the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin".
2657:
821:, the ends link to form a stable circular chain. In mammals this stability makes them resistant to the process of digestion and they can
3189:
1949:
Rastogi, Rajesh P.; Sinha, Rajeshwar P. (2009). "Biotechnological and industrial significance of cyanobacterial secondary metabolites".
316:
compounds, including substances with antitumour, antiviral, anticancer, antibiotic and antifungal activity, UV protectants and specific
4226:
637:
2923:
Rhoades, David F (1979). "Evolution of Plant
Chemical Defense against Herbivores". In Rosenthal, Gerald A.; Janzen, Daniel H (eds.).
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3662:"Establishing a food-chain link between aquatic plant material and avian vacuolar myelinopathy in mallards (Anas platyrhynchos)"
3752:
Cox, PA; Banack, SA; Murch, SJ; Rasmussen, U; Tien, G; Bidigare, RR; Metcalf, JS; Morrison, LF; Codd, GA; Bergman, B. (2005).
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spyplane pilots were provided with needles containing saxitoxin to be used for suicide in the event escape was impossible.
1149:
was achieved in 2000. Several variants of cylindrospermopsin, both toxic and non-toxic, have been isolated or synthesised.
3660:
Birrenkott, A. H.; S. B Wilde; J. J. Hains; J. R. Fisher; T. M. Murphy; C. P. Hope; P. G. Parnell; W. W. Bowerman (2004).
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The toxin was called the Very Fast Death Factor because it induced tremors, paralysis and death within a few minutes when
930:
and domestic animals as well as humans, and in many areas pose major challenges for the provision of safe drinking water.
1283:
3811:
Esterhuizen, M; Downing, TG. (2008). "β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) in novel South
African cyanobacterial isolates".
3389:
2948:
Carmichael WW, Gorham PR (1978). "Anatoxins from clones of Anabaena flos-aquae isolated from lakes of western Canada".
1989:
Rastogi, Rajesh P.; Sinha, Rajeshwar P.; Incharoensakdi, Aran (2014). "The cyanotoxin-microcystins: Current overview".
1141:
in the local drinking water supply, and the toxin was subsequently identified. Analysis of the toxin led to a proposed
3067:
National Center for Environmental Assessment. "Toxicological Reviews of Cyanobacterial Toxins: Anatoxin-a" NCEA-C-1743
202:
and global climate change has created serious concern toward harmful bloom formation and surface water contamination.
3558:
3518:
2596:
2396:
Vasconcelos VM, Pereira E (2001). "Cyanobacteria diversity and toxicity in a Wastewater Treatment Plant (Portugal)".
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Carmichael WW, Biggs DF, Gorham PR (1975). "Toxicology and pharmacological action of Anabaena flos-aquae toxin".
2229:"Cyanobacterial Toxins as Allelochemicals with Potential Applications as Algaecides, Herbicides and Insecticides"
348:
2509:
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atoms. They are produced by a large variety of organisms, including cyanobacteria, and are part of the group of
241:
mechanisms giving survival advantages to the cyanobacteria over other microbes or deterring predation by higher
4219:
3940:"Dietary exposure to an environmental toxin triggers neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid deposits in the brain"
2832:"Occurrence of the hepatotoxic cyanobacterium Nodularia spumigena in the Baltic Sea and structure of the toxin"
2528:
450:
2371:
Castenholz, R. A. (1973). "Ecology of blue-green algae in hotsprings". In Carr, N. G.; Whitton, B. A. (eds.).
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1712:"Evidence for a Novel Marine Harmful Algal Bloom: Cyanotoxin (Microcystin) Transfer from Land to Sea Otters"
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such as cyanotoxins, which "have gained increasing significance as potential candidates for weaponization."
4321:
1780:"Bloom Dynamics of Cyanobacteria and Their Toxins: Environmental Health Impacts and Mitigation Strategies"
1306:
4326:
4311:
4291:
1348:
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789:). As of 1999, altogether over 84 cyanotoxins were known and only a small number have been well studied.
17:
3540:
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, The Hague, Netherlands. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
140:
The first published report that blue-green algae or cyanobacteria could have lethal effects appeared in
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that leaves its victim calm and conscious through the progression of symptoms. Death often occurs from
2024:
Neilan, Brett A.; Pearson, Leanne A.; Muenchhoff, Julia; Moffitt, Michelle C.; Dittmann, Elke (2013).
856:, possibly because the earliest commercially available chemical standard analysis was for microcystin-
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4212:
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1089:
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2730:
Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management
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1697:
Neil Edwards, University of Sussex at Brighton. Updated 1 September 1999. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
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and even kill animals and humans. Cyanotoxins can also accumulate in other animals such as fish and
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34:
Green scum produced by and containing cyanobacteria, washed up on a rock in California during an
388:. Under certain conditions, particularly when nutrient concentrations are high, these organisms
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130:
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Sivonen K, Kononen K, Carmichael WW, Dahlem AM, Rinehart KL, Kiviranta J, Niemela SI (1989).
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Dixit A, Dhaked RK, Alam SI, Singh L (2005). "Military potential of biological neurotoxins".
1027:
889:. This was the first confirmed example of a marine mammal dying from ingesting a cyanotoxin.
430:
In freshwater ecosystems, algal blooms are most commonly caused by high levels of nutrients (
4459:
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4012:
3765:
3295:
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2733:
2405:
2125:
1903:
1723:
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1133:(abbreviated to CYN or CYL) was first discovered after an outbreak of a mystery disease on
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does not allow the neurons to return to their resting state, because it is not degraded by
1039:
957:
3754:"Diverse taxa of cyanobacteria produce b-N-methylamino-L-alanine, a neurotoxic amino acid"
1710:
Miller MA, Kudela RM, Mekebri A, Crane D, Oates SC, et al. (2010). Thompson R (ed.).
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colonized with the cyanobacterium. Aetokthonotoxin is transmitted to raptors, such as the
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8:
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4276:
4160:
1563:"The emerging science of BMAA: do cyanobacteria contribute to neurodegenerative disease?"
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1319:(abbreviated to AETX) was discovered in 2021 as the cyanobacterial neurotoxin causing
60:. Blooming cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins in such concentrations that they can
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3734:
3683:
3616:
3598:
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3514:
3457:
3453:
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Nakamuraa M, Oshimaa Y, Yasumoto T (1984). "Occurrence of saxitoxin in puffer fish".
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1966:
1962:
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960:. Alkaloids act on diverse metabolic systems in humans and other animals, often with
942:
338:
195:
107:
75:
Some of the most powerful natural poisons known are cyanotoxins. They include potent
3577:"Hunting the eagle killer: A cyanobacterial neurotoxin causes vacuolar myelinopathy"
3496:
3323:
3174:
3054:
2855:
2681:
Forc, N.S.W.B.G.A.T. (1992). "Final report of the NSW Blue-Green Algae Task Force".
2653:
2010:
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in 1878. George Francis described the algal bloom he observed in the estuary of the
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2627:"Eutrophication, toxic cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins: when ecosystems cry for help"
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molecule is shaped so it fits this receptor, and in this way it mimics the natural
946:
407:
and can also be fatal to humans. In marine environments, HABs are mostly caused by
317:
257:
238:
187:
142:
113:
Exposure to cyanobacteria can result in gastro-intestinal and hayfever symptoms or
103:
3272:
3199:. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 619. pp. 613–637.
2205:
1425:
4438:
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3537:
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Landsberg JH (2002). "The effects of harmful algal blooms on aquatic organisms".
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Occurrence of the cyanobacterial neurotoxin, anatoxin-a, in New York State waters
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2516:
2137:
1736:
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1316:
953:
786:
697:
298:
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2798:
2574:, Center of Excellence for Great Lakes and Human Health. Accessed 6 August 2014.
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of mice. In 1977, the structure of VFDF was determined as a secondary, bicyclic
4423:
4286:
4165:
4103:
3678:
3661:
1826:
1694:
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known. The term saxitoxin originates from the species name of the butter clam (
1059:
1003:
and has been reported in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and New Zealand.
869:
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838:
818:
774:
645:
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408:
367:
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333:
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206:
199:
3906:
3891:"β-N-methylamino-L-alanine enhances neurotoxicity through multiple mechanisms"
3158:
2745:
2002:
1497:
1262:
Saxitoxin has been used in molecular biology to establish the function of the
1217:) whereby it was first recognized. Saxitoxin is produced by the cyanobacteria
4453:
4348:
4306:
4256:
4150:
4145:
3602:
3551:
Spycraft: the secret history of the CIA's spytechs from communism to Al-Qaeda
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Berry, John P.; Gantar, M.; Perez, M. H.; Berry, G.; Noriega, F. G. (2008).
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2320:
New Survey of Clare Island Volume 6: The Freshwater and Terrestrial Algae.
1626:
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917:. This cyanobacterium blooms in water bodies throughout the world. In the
399:
While some of these blooms are harmless, others fall into the category of
4246:
4140:
4135:
4130:
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2996:
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729:
599:
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470:
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in the term cyanobacteria refers to its colour, not to its relation to
88:
84:
3751:
3355:
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3307:
2161:"Interactions of anthropogenic stress factors on marine phytoplankton"
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Häder, Donat-P.; Villafañe, Virginia E.; Helbling, E. Walter (2014).
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557:
548:
445:
In 1991 a harmful cyanobacterial bloom affected 1,000 km of the
404:
294:
211:
191:
133:. There is also an interest in the military potential of biological
65:
3123:
3095:
3078:
2609:
1649:
1490:
Cyano-assassins: Widespread cyanogenic production from cyanobacteria
121:
may be an environmental cause of neurodegenerative diseases such as
4204:
2610:"IOC-UNESCO Taxonomic Reference List of Harmful Micro Algae (HABs)"
1396:
1338:
1330:
1219:
1169:
1153:
1096:
1010:
progress very rapidly because it acts directly on the nerve cells (
949:
938:
671:
608:
579:
565:
516:
376:
261:
114:
1778:
Rastogi, Rajesh P.; Madamwar, Datta; Incharoensakdi, Aran (2015).
1355:
1825:
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
1237:
1104:
882:
834:
814:
802:
798:
743:
702:
white matter of the brain; toxicity to mammals not yet confirmed
683:
654:
96:
3703:"Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides and human health - a review"
848:
were named after the first organism discovered to produce them,
403:, or HABs. HABs can contain toxins or pathogens which result in
3079:"Anatoxin-a, a toxic alkaloid from Anabaena flos-aquae NRC-44h"
2318:
Ed. Guiry, M.D., John, D.M., Rindi, F and McCarthy, T.K. 2007.
1890:
Tomitani, A.; Knoll, A. H.; Cavanaugh, C. M.; Ohno, T. (2006).
1329:
and the host plant it epiphytically grows on (most importantly
1161:
1011:
528:
412:
384:. Lakes and oceans contain many single-celled organisms called
237:
It has been assumed that cyanotoxins play an important role in
61:
4004:
2925:
Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites
2829:
2355:
A Catalogue of Svalvard Plants, Fungi, Algae and Cyanobacteria
2023:
897:
3992:- A Webserver for Cyanobacterial Research, Purdue University.
3573:
1821:
1777:
1334:
1157:
1093:
1030:. The nerve tissues which communicate with muscles contain a
979:
865:
374:
Cyanotoxins are often implicated in what are commonly called
289:
278:
45:
3387:
2475:
The Cyanobacteria: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Evolution
1391:(BMAA) is ubiquitously produced by cyanobacteria in marine,
1193:
2793:. Environmental Pollution. Vol. 16. pp. 101–127.
2571:
1841:"Physiology and molecular biology of aquatic cyanobacteria"
769:
270:
118:
3810:
2727:
2591:, Eds: Walsh PJ, Smith SL and Fleming LE. Academic Press,
1988:
1889:
411:, though species of other algae taxa can also cause HABs (
392:. The resulting dense swarm of phytoplankton is called an
205:
Cyanobacteria are considered the most primitive groups of
3938:
Cox PA, Davis DA, Mash DC, Metcalf JS, Banack SA (2015).
3076:
2788:
2589:
Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas
1400:
1274:. Saxitoxin was originally isolated and described by the
1177:
1173:
1137:
in Australia. The outbreak was traced back to a bloom of
3439:
1709:
3889:
Lobner, D; Piana, PM; Salous, AK; Peoples, RW. (2007).
3388:
Clark RF, Williams SR, Nordt SP, Manoguerra AS (1999).
1509:
3637:. USGS National Wildlife Health Center. Archived from
2064:
1827:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
117:
skin rashes. Exposure to the cyanobacteria neurotoxin
2966:
2723:
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2226:
3187:
2732:. Vol. 45. Taylor & Francis. p. 1212.
2680:
2577:
2504:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2442:
Cell and Molecular Biology: Concepts and Experiments
1612:
1180:. There is concern about the way cylindrospermopsin
179:
are ecologically one of the most prolific groups of
4001:
Updated 31 October 2009. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
3937:
3700:
3243:Byth S (July 1980). "Palm Island mystery disease".
2523:Chorus I and Bartram J (eds): 41-111. WHO, Geneva.
1991:
Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology
2782:
2708:
2395:
3110:Moore RE (1977). "Toxins from blue-green algae".
2491:
1510:Stewart I, Webb PM, Schluter PJ, Shaw GR (2006).
1311:Transmission from cyanobacteria to the bald eagle
907:The first nodularin variant to be identified was
4451:
2947:
2922:
1054:. Once it has triggered a contraction, anatoxin-
3549:Wallace R, Melton HK and Schlesinger HR (2009)
1896:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
721:Potential irritant; affects any exposed tissue
461:Cyanotoxins usually target the nervous system (
453:in Australia at an economic cost of $ 10M AUD.
305:, which is why they are usually green or blue.
218:lakes, ponds, and rivers throughout the world.
3569:
3567:
3285:
2698:Review of Marketing and Agricultural Economics
2620:
2618:
2191:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1839:Bullerjahn, George S.; Post, Anton F. (2014).
1838:
370:responsible for the worldwide bloom incidence.
297:organisms. Like true algae, cyanobacteria are
163:Satellite image of cyanobacteria bloom in the
4220:
4020:
3931:
2683:Parramatta: NSW Department of Water Resources
2624:
2472:
2432:
2298:. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc.
2109:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1488:Panou, Manthos; Gkelis, Spyros (2020-01-06),
964:or toxic effects. Almost uniformly, they are
3845:
3474:
1948:
1705:
1703:
1560:
785:Most cyanotoxins have a number of variants (
3804:
3564:
3181:
3144:
2916:
2728:Ingrid Chorus; Jamie Bartram (1999-02-11).
2615:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2438:
1977:
1608:
1606:
1487:
813:. They have the same chemical structure as
4227:
4213:
4027:
4013:
3408:. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11
2695:
2689:
2473:Herrero, Antonia; Flores, Enrique (2008).
2370:
2017:
1762:
1107:. There is continued interest in anatoxin-
1038:. Stimulation of these receptors causes a
3963:
3914:
3787:
3777:
3728:
3718:
3677:
3610:
3592:
3390:"A review of selected seafood poisonings"
3364:
3354:
3336:
3188:Stewart I, Seawright AA, Shaw GR (2008).
3094:
2863:
2674:
2585:"Cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial toxins"
2332:
2254:
2244:
2176:
2158:
2092:
2082:
2041:
1925:
1915:
1866:
1856:
1805:
1795:
1745:
1735:
1700:
1647:
1586:
1537:
1527:
926:from the perspective of cyanobacteria).)
872:of mussels, and in zooplankton. They are
3701:Stewart I, Schluter PJ, Shaw GR (2006).
3236:
3109:
2927:. New York: Academic Press. p. 41.
2550:
2287:
1603:
1354:
1305:
1206:(STX) is one of the most potent natural
1192:
1119:
978:
896:
833:
337:
158:
29:
3531:Chemical Weapons Convention: Schedule 1
3138:
2466:
2375:. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 379–414.
2159:Hã¤Der, Donat-P.; Gao, Kunshan (2015).
1554:
1345:, that prey on these affected animals.
1018:. The progressive symptoms of anatoxin-
323:
14:
4452:
3882:
3813:Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety
3242:
2338:
2293:
2280:, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott,
1365:
1115:
885:were the likely source of hepatotoxic
4208:
4008:
3839:
2445:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 14–.
881:were poisoned by microcystin. Marine
456:
4409:Shutdown of thermohaline circulation
4234:
3653:
3627:
2791:Xenobiotics in the Urban Water Cycle
245:. Cyanotoxins may also take part in
3745:
3381:
3257:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1980.tb131814.x
2562:Harmful algal blooms event response
1022:exposure are loss of coordination,
941:are a group of naturally occurring
24:
3944:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
2343:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2165:Frontiers in Environmental Science
1301:
792:
477:Chemical structure of cyanotoxins
344:Formation of cyanobacterial blooms
25:
4471:
3983:
2583:Stewart I and Falconer IR (2008)
1567:Environmental Health Perspectives
1387:The non-proteinogenic amino acid
1164:tissue and is thought to inhibit
1145:in 1992, which was revised after
1103:. Structurally, it is similar to
1026:, convulsions and rapid death by
911:, produced by the cyanobacterium
264:that obtain their energy through
4282:Environmental impact of shipping
4189:
4188:
3245:The Medical Journal of Australia
3047:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2007.00318.x
2902:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01806.x
2341:The Concise Dictionary of Botany
2043:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02729.x
1963:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2009.04.009
1820:
1436:
1424:
1073:
1036:nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
817:, except they are shorter. In a
488:Primary target organ in mammals
4034:
3694:
3543:
3524:
3503:
3468:
3433:
3330:
3279:
3103:
3070:
3061:
3026:
3003:
2960:
2941:
2880:
2856:10.1128/aem.55.8.1990-1995.1989
2823:
2602:
2534:
2439:Gerald Karp (19 October 2009).
2389:
2373:The Biology of Blue-green algae
2364:
2347:
2339:Allaby M, ed. (1992). "Algae".
2312:
2271:
2220:
2185:
2152:
2058:
1942:
1883:
1050:normally used by the receptor,
829:
198:due to increased anthropogenic
68:, and cause poisonings such as
27:Toxin produced by cyanobacteria
3513:New York Academy of Sciences.
3509:Kao CY and Levinson SR (1986)
2950:Mitt. Infernal. Verein. Limnol
1832:
1688:
1641:
1503:
1481:
1377:
1139:Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
1099:, and it was renamed anatoxin-
650:Skin, gastro-intestinal tract
13:
1:
3635:"Avian vacuolar myelinopathy"
3147:Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
2540:Lindsey R and Scott M (2010)
2521:Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water.
2508:Sivonen K and Jones G (1999)
2418:10.1016/S0043-1354(00)00512-1
2206:10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.017
1475:
1282:"TZ". Saxitoxin is listed in
1257:paralytic shellfish poisoning
1188:
1090:injected into the body cavity
971:
892:
154:
123:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
3860:10.1016/0006-8993(89)90970-0
3825:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2008.04.010
3666:Journal of Wildlife Diseases
3477:Reviews in Fisheries Science
3454:10.1016/0041-0101(84)90082-5
3205:10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_28
2138:10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.021
1737:10.1371/journal.pone.0012576
1006:Toxic effects from anatoxin-
933:
252:Cyanotoxins are produced by
7:
4292:Fish diseases and parasites
2799:10.1007/978-90-481-3509-7_6
1650:"Poisonous Australian Lake"
1448:
1288:Chemical Weapons Convention
1280:chemical weapon designation
844:As with other cyanotoxins,
99:, though cyanobacteria can
10:
4476:
3679:10.7589/0090-3558-40.3.485
2890:Environmental Microbiology
2477:. Caister Academic Press.
2294:Nabors, Murray W. (2004).
2030:Environmental Microbiology
1414:
1389:beta-Methylamino-L-alanine
327:
279:
169:
4364:Nonpoint source pollution
4242:
4184:
4118:
4085:
4042:
3907:10.1016/j.nbd.2006.10.002
3425:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
3159:10.3109/17482960903272942
2746:10.4319/lo.2000.45.5.1212
2612:Accessed 21 January 2011.
2071:Photochem. Photobiol. Sci
2003:10.1007/s11157-014-9334-6
1845:Frontiers in Microbiology
1784:Frontiers in Microbiology
1498:10.1101/2020.01.04.894782
1072:
1067:
713:
564:
495:
4399:Plastic pellet pollution
2836:Appl. Environ. Microbiol
2178:10.3389/fenvs.2015.00014
1858:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00359
1797:10.3389/fmicb.2015.01254
1326:Aetokthonos hydrillicola
1290:. According to the book
1082:University of Nottingham
4267:Cultural eutrophication
3895:Neurobiology of Disease
3779:10.1073/pnas.0501526102
3594:10.1126/science.aax9050
2510:"Cyanobacterial Toxins"
2282:A Greek-English Lexicon
1917:10.1073/pnas.0600999103
1382:
1337:or ducks which feed on
390:reproduce exponentially
303:photosynthetic pigments
54:reproduce exponentially
4404:Point source pollution
3999:Environment Canterbury
3996:Dangers of toxic algae
3956:10.1098/rspb.2015.2397
3489:10.1080/20026491051695
2989:10.1126/science.803708
2625:Vasconcelos V (2006).
2545:NASA Earth Observatory
2542:What are phytoplankton
2296:Introduction to Botany
1951:Biotechnology Advances
1362:
1313:
1278:, who assigned it the
1276:United States military
1200:
1152:Cylindrospermopsin is
1127:
1079:Very Fast Death Factor
989:
904:
850:Microcystis aeruginosa
841:
371:
167:
38:
3720:10.1186/1476-069X-5-7
3553:. Penguin Group USA,
2322:Royal Irish Academy.
1627:10.1081/TXR-200057850
1561:Holtcamp, W. (2012).
1529:10.1186/1476-069X-5-6
1358:
1349:Vacuolar myelinopathy
1321:vacuolar myelinopathy
1309:
1196:
1123:
1028:respiratory paralysis
982:
958:secondary metabolites
945:which mostly contain
900:
837:
491:Cyanobacteria genera
341:
328:Further information:
318:inhibitors of enzymes
162:
33:
4414:Silver nanoparticles
3035:Journal of Phycology
1579:10.1289/ehp.120-a110
1516:Environmental Health
1247:sp., among others).
1040:muscular contraction
992:Investigations into
401:harmful algal blooms
382:harmful algal blooms
362:O, etc.), and other
347:Key factors include
324:Harmful algal blooms
4379:Ocean deoxygenation
4374:Ocean acidification
4161:Debromoaplysiatoxin
3770:2005PNAS..102.5074C
3394:Undersea Hyperb Med
3300:2003EnTox..18...78G
2981:1975Sci...187..542C
2848:1989ApEnM..55.1990S
2738:2000LimOc..45.1212C
2646:10.23818/limn.25.30
2410:2001WatRe..35.1354V
2130:2012WatRe..46.1420E
1908:2006PNAS..103.5442T
1728:2010PLoSO...512576M
1666:1878Natur..18...11F
1419:Other cyanotoxins:
1409:Alzheimer's disease
1405:Parkinson's disease
1371:Lipopolysaccharides
1366:Lipopolysaccharides
1272:respiratory failure
1116:Cylindrospermopsins
923:Nodularia spumigena
921:, marine blooms of
914:Nodularia spumigena
887:shellfish poisoning
715:Lipopolysaccharides
617:Cylindrospermopsins
478:
247:chemical signalling
223:secondary compounds
131:Alzheimer's disease
127:Parkinson's disease
70:shellfish poisoning
4369:Nutrient pollution
4262:Aquatic toxicology
4095:Cylindrospermopsin
3950:(1823): 20152397.
3587:(6536): eaax9050.
3536:2013-06-07 at the
3337:Kinnear S (2010).
2567:2016-03-04 at the
2515:2007-01-24 at the
2246:10.3390/md20080007
2084:10.1039/c3pp50418b
1648:Francis G (1878).
1363:
1314:
1232:Cylindrospermopsis
1201:
1143:chemical structure
1131:Cylindrospermopsin
1128:
1125:Cylindrospermopsin
990:
943:chemical compounds
905:
842:
690:Cylindrospermopsis
626:Cylindrospermopsis
476:
457:Chemical structure
372:
196:coastal ecosystems
168:
39:
4447:
4446:
4302:Friendly Floatees
4202:
4201:
3764:(14): 5074–5078.
3641:on 6 October 2014
3356:10.3390/md8030542
3308:10.1002/tox.10103
3214:978-0-387-75864-0
3021:978-0-549-35451-2
2975:(4176): 542–544.
2934:978-0-12-597180-5
2808:978-90-481-3508-0
2755:978-0-419-23930-7
2587:Pages 271–296 in
2484:978-1-904455-15-8
2452:978-0-470-48337-4
2328:978-1-904890-31-7
2305:978-0-8053-4416-5
2077:(10): 1370–1392.
1902:(14): 5442–5447.
1268:flaccid paralysis
1166:protein synthesis
1086:
1085:
783:
782:
293:is restricted to
221:A range of toxic
188:primary producers
108:nitrogen fixation
16:(Redirected from
4467:
4344:Invasive species
4236:Marine pollution
4229:
4222:
4215:
4206:
4205:
4192:
4191:
4029:
4022:
4015:
4006:
4005:
3978:
3977:
3967:
3935:
3929:
3928:
3918:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3843:
3837:
3836:
3808:
3802:
3801:
3791:
3781:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3732:
3722:
3698:
3692:
3691:
3681:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3646:
3631:
3625:
3624:
3614:
3596:
3571:
3562:
3547:
3541:
3528:
3522:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3424:
3416:
3414:
3413:
3385:
3379:
3378:
3368:
3358:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3231:
3225:. Archived from
3194:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3107:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3089:(8): 1367–1371.
3074:
3068:
3065:
3059:
3058:
3030:
3024:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2884:
2878:
2877:
2867:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2773:
2769:
2767:
2759:
2725:
2706:
2705:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2662:
2656:. Archived from
2640:(1–2): 425–432.
2631:
2622:
2613:
2606:
2600:
2581:
2575:
2559:
2548:
2538:
2532:
2506:
2489:
2488:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2404:(5): 1354–1357.
2393:
2387:
2386:
2368:
2362:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2336:
2330:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2291:
2285:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2248:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2124:(5): 1420–1429.
2113:
2107:
2106:
2096:
2086:
2062:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2036:(5): 1239–1253.
2021:
2015:
2014:
1986:
1975:
1974:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1929:
1919:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1870:
1860:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1819:
1809:
1799:
1775:
1760:
1759:
1749:
1739:
1707:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1685:
1674:10.1038/018011d0
1645:
1639:
1638:
1610:
1601:
1600:
1590:
1573:(3): a110–a116.
1558:
1552:
1551:
1541:
1531:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1485:
1465:Microbial toxins
1440:
1428:
1251:and some marine
1077:
1076:
1065:
1064:
1048:neurotransmitter
954:natural products
868:of fish, in the
589:(Oscillatoria),
526:(Oscillatoria),
479:
475:
285:blue-green algae
282:
281:
239:chemical defense
104:hydrogen cyanide
21:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4469:
4468:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4450:
4449:
4448:
4443:
4439:Water pollution
4354:Mercury in fish
4238:
4233:
4203:
4198:
4180:
4176:Aetokthonotoxin
4114:
4081:
4038:
4033:
3986:
3981:
3936:
3932:
3887:
3883:
3844:
3840:
3809:
3805:
3750:
3746:
3699:
3695:
3658:
3654:
3644:
3642:
3633:
3632:
3628:
3572:
3565:
3548:
3544:
3538:Wayback Machine
3529:
3525:
3508:
3504:
3473:
3469:
3438:
3434:
3418:
3417:
3411:
3409:
3386:
3382:
3335:
3331:
3288:Environ Toxicol
3284:
3280:
3241:
3237:
3229:
3215:
3192:
3186:
3182:
3143:
3139:
3124:10.2307/1297756
3118:(12): 797–802.
3108:
3104:
3096:10.1139/v77-189
3075:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3031:
3027:
3009:Yang, X (2007)
3008:
3004:
2965:
2961:
2946:
2942:
2935:
2921:
2917:
2885:
2881:
2828:
2824:
2809:
2787:
2783:
2771:
2770:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2726:
2709:
2694:
2690:
2679:
2675:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2629:
2623:
2616:
2607:
2603:
2582:
2578:
2569:Wayback Machine
2560:
2551:
2539:
2535:
2517:Wayback Machine
2507:
2492:
2485:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2453:
2437:
2433:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2369:
2365:
2352:
2348:
2337:
2333:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2292:
2288:
2276:
2272:
2225:
2221:
2190:
2186:
2157:
2153:
2114:
2110:
2063:
2059:
2022:
2018:
1987:
1978:
1947:
1943:
1888:
1884:
1837:
1833:
1776:
1763:
1708:
1701:
1693:
1689:
1646:
1642:
1611:
1604:
1559:
1555:
1508:
1504:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1451:
1444:
1441:
1432:
1429:
1417:
1385:
1380:
1368:
1360:Aetokthonotoxin
1317:Aetokthonotoxin
1312:
1304:
1302:Aetokthonotoxin
1253:dinoflagellates
1191:
1118:
1081:
1074:
1068:External videos
1042:. The anatoxin-
977:
936:
895:
832:
795:
793:Cyclic peptides
759:(Oscillatoria)
698:Aetokthonotoxin
497:Cyclic peptides
469:) or the skin (
459:
409:dinoflagellates
368:abiotic factors
361:
357:
346:
336:
326:
274:comes from the
174:
157:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4473:
4463:
4462:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4424:Surface runoff
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4322:North Atlantic
4319:
4314:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4287:Eutrophication
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4243:
4240:
4239:
4232:
4231:
4224:
4217:
4209:
4200:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4166:Lyngbyatoxin-a
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4128:
4122:
4120:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4112:
4107:
4104:Microcystin-LR
4097:
4091:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4080:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4048:
4046:
4040:
4039:
4032:
4031:
4024:
4017:
4009:
4003:
4002:
3993:
3985:
3984:External links
3982:
3980:
3979:
3930:
3901:(2): 360–366.
3881:
3848:Brain Research
3838:
3819:(2): 309–313.
3803:
3744:
3707:Environ Health
3693:
3672:(3): 485–492.
3652:
3626:
3563:
3542:
3523:
3502:
3483:(2): 113–390.
3467:
3448:(3): 381–385.
3432:
3380:
3349:(3): 542–564.
3329:
3278:
3235:
3232:on 2013-10-23.
3213:
3180:
3137:
3102:
3069:
3060:
3041:(2): 356–365.
3025:
3002:
2959:
2940:
2933:
2915:
2896:(4): 855–866.
2879:
2822:
2807:
2781:
2772:|journal=
2754:
2707:
2688:
2673:
2614:
2601:
2576:
2549:
2533:
2490:
2483:
2465:
2451:
2431:
2398:Water Research
2388:
2381:
2363:
2346:
2331:
2311:
2304:
2286:
2270:
2239:(2): 117–146.
2219:
2200:(5): 727–733.
2184:
2151:
2118:Water Research
2108:
2057:
2016:
1997:(2): 215–249.
1976:
1957:(4): 521–539.
1941:
1882:
1831:
1761:
1699:
1687:
1660:(444): 11–12.
1640:
1621:(2): 175–207.
1602:
1553:
1502:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1460:Microbial mats
1457:
1450:
1447:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1423:
1416:
1413:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1367:
1364:
1310:
1303:
1300:
1264:sodium channel
1190:
1187:
1182:bioaccumulates
1117:
1114:
1084:
1083:
1070:
1069:
1060:cholinesterase
976:
970:
966:bitter tasting
956:, also called
935:
932:
894:
891:
870:hepatopancreas
854:microcystin-LR
839:Microcystin LR
831:
828:
819:cyclic peptide
794:
791:
781:
780:
777:
775:Nervous system
772:
767:
761:
760:
740:
737:
732:
726:
725:
722:
719:
717:
711:
710:
703:
700:
694:
693:
668:
667:Nerve synapse
665:
659:
658:
651:
648:
646:Lyngbyatoxin-a
642:
641:
622:
619:
613:
612:
605:
604:Nerve synapse
602:
596:
595:
576:
575:Nerve synapse
573:
568:
562:
561:
554:
551:
545:
544:
507:
504:
499:
493:
492:
489:
486:
483:
465:), the liver (
458:
455:
432:eutrophication
359:
355:
352:eutrophication
342:
334:Eutrophication
325:
322:
299:photosynthetic
266:photosynthesis
243:trophic levels
207:photosynthetic
200:eutrophication
170:Main article:
156:
153:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4472:
4461:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4349:Marine debris
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4328:
4327:South Pacific
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4312:Great Pacific
4310:
4309:
4308:
4307:Garbage patch
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4257:Anoxic waters
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4237:
4230:
4225:
4223:
4218:
4216:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4195:
4187:
4186:
4183:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4151:Cyanopeptolin
4149:
4147:
4146:Cyanobacterin
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4117:
4111:
4108:
4105:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4088:
4084:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4030:
4025:
4023:
4018:
4016:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3975:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3934:
3926:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3885:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3842:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3807:
3799:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3740:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3697:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3656:
3640:
3636:
3630:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3570:
3568:
3560:
3559:0-452-29547-5
3556:
3552:
3546:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3527:
3520:
3519:0-89766-354-3
3516:
3512:
3506:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3471:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3428:
3422:
3407:
3403:
3400:(3): 175–84.
3399:
3395:
3391:
3384:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3239:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3106:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3073:
3064:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2936:
2930:
2926:
2919:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2883:
2875:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2842:(8): 1990–5.
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2785:
2777:
2765:
2757:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2684:
2677:
2663:on 2011-07-23
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2621:
2619:
2611:
2605:
2598:
2597:0-12-372584-4
2594:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2546:
2543:
2537:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2486:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2454:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2435:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2392:
2384:
2382:0-632-09040-5
2378:
2374:
2367:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2342:
2335:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2307:
2301:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2188:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1823:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1722:(9): e12576.
1721:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1696:
1691:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1615:Toxin Reviews
1609:
1607:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1480:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1452:
1439:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1421:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1375:
1372:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1350:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1308:
1299:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1226:Aphanizomenon
1222:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1195:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1095:
1091:
1080:
1071:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1052:acetylcholine
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1002:
1001:cyanobacteria
998:
997:
988:
987:
981:
975:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
948:
944:
940:
931:
927:
924:
920:
916:
915:
910:
903:
899:
890:
888:
884:
880:
875:
871:
867:
861:
859:
855:
851:
847:
840:
836:
827:
824:
823:bioaccumulate
820:
816:
812:
811:peptide bonds
808:
804:
800:
790:
788:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
762:
758:
757:
752:
751:
746:
745:
741:
738:
736:
735:Aplysiatoxins
733:
731:
728:
727:
723:
720:
718:
716:
712:
709:
708:
704:
701:
699:
696:
695:
692:
691:
686:
685:
680:
679:
678:Aphanizomenon
674:
673:
669:
666:
664:
661:
660:
657:
656:
652:
649:
647:
644:
643:
640:
639:
634:
633:
632:Aphanizomenon
628:
627:
623:
620:
618:
615:
614:
611:
610:
606:
603:
601:
598:
597:
594:
593:
592:Aphanizomenon
588:
587:
582:
581:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
563:
560:
559:
555:
552:
550:
547:
546:
543:
542:
537:
536:
531:
530:
525:
524:
519:
518:
513:
512:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
494:
490:
487:
484:
481:
480:
474:
472:
468:
464:
454:
452:
448:
443:
441:
435:
433:
428:
426:
425:raphidophytes
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
395:
391:
387:
386:phytoplankton
383:
379:
378:
369:
365:
353:
350:
349:anthropogenic
345:
340:
335:
331:
321:
319:
315:
311:
306:
304:
300:
296:
292:
291:
286:
277:
273:
272:
268:. The prefix
267:
263:
259:
255:
254:cyanobacteria
250:
248:
244:
240:
235:
232:
228:
227:phytoplankton
224:
219:
217:
213:
208:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
182:
178:
177:Cyanobacteria
173:
172:Cyanobacteria
166:
161:
152:
149:
145:
144:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
111:
109:
105:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
50:cyanobacteria
47:
43:
37:
32:
19:
4434:Urban runoff
4394:Plastic bags
4317:Indian Ocean
4271:
4252:Anoxic event
4171:Microviridin
4126:Aplysiatoxin
4100:Microcystins
4087:Hepatotoxins
4062:Antillatoxin
4035:
3947:
3943:
3933:
3898:
3894:
3884:
3854:(1): 64–71.
3851:
3847:
3841:
3816:
3812:
3806:
3761:
3757:
3747:
3710:
3706:
3696:
3669:
3665:
3655:
3643:. Retrieved
3639:the original
3629:
3584:
3580:
3550:
3545:
3526:
3510:
3505:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3421:cite journal
3410:. Retrieved
3397:
3393:
3383:
3346:
3343:Marine Drugs
3342:
3332:
3294:(2): 78–93.
3291:
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3251:(1): 40–42.
3248:
3244:
3238:
3227:the original
3196:
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3086:
3083:Can. J. Chem
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2835:
2825:
2790:
2784:
2729:
2701:
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2691:
2682:
2676:
2665:. Retrieved
2658:the original
2637:
2633:
2604:
2588:
2579:
2536:
2520:
2474:
2468:
2456:. Retrieved
2441:
2434:
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2397:
2391:
2372:
2366:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2340:
2334:
2319:
2314:
2295:
2289:
2284:, on Perseus
2281:
2273:
2236:
2233:Marine Drugs
2232:
2222:
2197:
2193:
2187:
2168:
2164:
2154:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2074:
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1994:
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1618:
1614:
1570:
1566:
1556:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1489:
1483:
1470:Microviridin
1443:Aplysiatoxin
1418:
1386:
1369:
1347:
1324:
1315:
1291:
1261:
1244:Planktothrix
1242:
1236:
1230:
1224:
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1211:
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1138:
1129:
1108:
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1087:
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991:
985:
973:
962:psychotropic
937:
928:
922:
912:
906:
862:
857:
849:
846:microcystins
843:
830:Microcystins
796:
784:
756:Planktothrix
754:
748:
742:
705:
688:
682:
676:
670:
653:
636:
630:
624:
607:
590:
586:Planktothrix
584:
578:
556:
541:Anabaenopsis
539:
535:Hapalosiphon
533:
527:
523:Planktothrix
521:
515:
509:
502:Microcystins
467:hepatotoxins
460:
451:Barwon River
444:
436:
429:
398:
381:
375:
373:
343:
307:
301:and contain
288:
284:
269:
251:
236:
220:
216:hypertrophic
204:
181:phototrophic
175:
148:Murray River
141:
139:
112:
92:
81:hepatotoxins
74:
48:produced by
41:
40:
4460:Cyanotoxins
4247:Algal bloom
4141:Coibamide A
4136:Caldoramide
4131:Apratoxin A
4044:Neurotoxins
4036:Cyanotoxins
2704:(1): 77–86.
2094:11336/24725
1378:Amino acids
1249:Puffer fish
1223:spp., some
1208:neurotoxins
1135:Palm Island
1034:called the
909:nodularin-R
902:Nodularin-R
874:hepatotoxic
807:amino acids
801:is a short
750:Schizothrix
730:Polyketides
707:Aetokthonos
511:Microcystis
485:Cyanotoxin
471:dermatoxins
463:neurotoxins
440:thermocline
421:haptophytes
417:flagellates
394:algal bloom
330:Algal bloom
231:zooplankton
184:prokaryotes
165:Great Lakes
135:neurotoxins
77:neurotoxins
42:Cyanotoxins
36:algal bloom
18:Cyanotoxins
4419:Stormwater
4272:Cyanotoxin
4072:Kalkitoxin
4057:Guanitoxin
4052:Anatoxin-a
3645:24 October
3412:2008-08-12
3112:BioScience
3015:ProQuest.
2956:: 285–295.
2667:2011-01-26
2529:0419239308
2458:26 January
2361:: 383-395.
1476:References
1431:Guanitoxin
1393:freshwater
1343:bald eagle
1284:schedule 1
1189:Saxitoxins
1170:covalently
1016:neurotoxin
919:Baltic Sea
893:Nodularins
879:sea otters
809:linked by
765:Amino Acid
600:Guanitoxin
571:Anatoxin-a
549:Nodularins
482:Structure
310:wastewater
295:eukaryotic
155:Background
101:catabolize
89:endotoxins
85:cytotoxins
4429:Upwelling
4384:Oil spill
4359:Microbead
4297:Fish kill
4277:Dead zone
4156:Cyclamide
4110:Nodularin
4077:Saxitoxin
3990:Cyanosite
3876:140209787
3603:0036-8075
3153:: 74–78.
2817:1566-0745
2774:ignored (
2764:cite book
2634:Limnetica
1455:Dinotoxin
1215:giganteus
1213:Saxidomus
1204:Saxitoxin
1198:Saxitoxin
1147:synthesis
1024:twitching
994:anatoxin-
984:Anatoxin-
972:Anatoxin-
939:Alkaloids
934:Alkaloids
787:analogues
663:Saxitoxin
566:Alkaloids
558:Nodularia
405:fish kill
377:red tides
314:bioactive
212:eutrophic
192:estuarine
66:shellfish
4454:Category
4389:Particle
4194:Category
3974:26791617
3925:17098435
3833:18538391
3798:15809446
3739:16563160
3713:(1): 7.
3688:15465716
3621:33766860
3534:Archived
3497:86185142
3406:10485519
3375:20411114
3324:25219655
3316:12635096
3223:18461786
3175:41880444
3167:19929737
3055:84284928
2910:19128321
2654:59434407
2565:Archived
2513:Archived
2426:11268858
2265:18728763
2214:17207510
2146:22178305
2103:25191675
2052:22429476
2011:84452003
1971:19393308
1936:16569695
1877:25076944
1816:26635737
1790:: 1254.
1756:20844747
1716:PLOS ONE
1695:Anatoxin
1682:46276288
1635:85651107
1597:22382274
1548:16563159
1522:(1): 6.
1449:See also
1397:brackish
1339:hydrilla
1331:hydrilla
1292:Spycraft
1241:sp. and
1220:Anabaena
1097:alkaloid
1032:receptor
950:nitrogen
883:bivalves
815:proteins
672:Anabaena
638:Umezakia
609:Anabaena
580:Anabaena
517:Anabaena
262:bacteria
115:pruritic
97:cyanides
56:to form
4339:Hypoxia
3965:4795023
3916:3959771
3868:2551452
3766:Bibcode
3730:1489932
3612:8318203
3581:Science
3462:6474491
3442:Toxicon
3366:2857366
3296:Bibcode
3265:7432268
3132:1297756
2977:Bibcode
2969:Science
2874:2506812
2844:Bibcode
2734:Bibcode
2406:Bibcode
2256:2525484
2194:Toxicon
2126:Bibcode
1927:1459374
1904:Bibcode
1868:4099938
1851:: 359.
1807:4646972
1747:2936937
1724:Bibcode
1662:Bibcode
1588:3295368
1539:1513208
1415:Gallery
1286:of the
1238:Lyngbya
1176:and/or
1172:modify
1168:and to
1105:cocaine
1014:) as a
1012:neurons
803:polymer
799:peptide
744:Lyngbya
684:Lyngbya
655:Lyngbya
447:Darling
413:diatoms
125:(ALS),
106:during
4102:(e.g.
3972:
3962:
3923:
3913:
3874:
3866:
3831:
3796:
3789:555964
3786:
3737:
3727:
3686:
3619:
3609:
3601:
3557:
3517:
3495:
3460:
3404:
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3314:
3273:273293
3271:
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3130:
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3019:
2997:803708
2995:
2931:
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2872:
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2862:
2815:
2805:
2752:
2652:
2595:
2527:
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2302:
2278:κύανος
2263:
2253:
2212:
2144:
2101:
2050:
2009:
1969:
1934:
1924:
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1865:
1814:
1804:
1754:
1744:
1680:
1654:Nature
1633:
1595:
1585:
1546:
1536:
1229:spp.,
1162:kidney
621:Liver
553:Liver
529:Nostoc
506:Liver
364:biotic
280:κύανoς
258:phylum
194:, and
143:Nature
129:, and
91:. The
87:, and
62:poison
58:blooms
46:toxins
4119:Other
3872:S2CID
3493:S2CID
3320:S2CID
3269:S2CID
3230:(PDF)
3193:(PDF)
3171:S2CID
3128:JSTOR
3051:S2CID
2661:(PDF)
2650:S2CID
2630:(PDF)
2007:S2CID
1678:S2CID
1631:S2CID
1335:coots
1235:sp.,
1158:liver
1154:toxic
1094:amine
947:basic
866:liver
739:Skin
290:algae
276:Greek
93:cyano
4334:GASB
4067:BMAA
3970:PMID
3921:PMID
3864:PMID
3829:PMID
3794:PMID
3758:PNAS
3735:PMID
3684:PMID
3647:2013
3617:PMID
3599:ISSN
3555:ISBN
3515:ISBN
3458:PMID
3427:link
3402:PMID
3371:PMID
3312:PMID
3261:PMID
3219:PMID
3209:ISBN
3163:PMID
3017:ISBN
2993:PMID
2929:ISBN
2906:PMID
2870:PMID
2813:ISSN
2803:ISBN
2776:help
2750:ISBN
2593:ISBN
2572:NOAA
2525:ISBN
2479:ISBN
2460:2011
2447:ISBN
2422:PMID
2377:ISBN
2324:ISBN
2300:ISBN
2261:PMID
2210:PMID
2142:PMID
2099:PMID
2048:PMID
1967:PMID
1932:PMID
1873:PMID
1812:PMID
1752:PMID
1593:PMID
1544:PMID
1407:and
1383:BMAA
1160:and
779:All
770:BMAA
724:All
423:and
366:and
332:and
271:cyan
256:, a
229:and
119:BMAA
44:are
3960:PMC
3952:doi
3948:283
3911:PMC
3903:doi
3856:doi
3852:497
3821:doi
3784:PMC
3774:doi
3762:102
3725:PMC
3715:doi
3674:doi
3607:PMC
3589:doi
3585:371
3485:doi
3450:doi
3361:PMC
3351:doi
3304:doi
3253:doi
3201:doi
3155:doi
3120:doi
3091:doi
3043:doi
2985:doi
2973:187
2898:doi
2860:PMC
2852:doi
2795:doi
2742:doi
2642:doi
2519:In
2414:doi
2359:198
2251:PMC
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2173:doi
2134:doi
2089:hdl
2079:doi
2038:doi
1999:doi
1959:doi
1922:PMC
1912:doi
1900:103
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1732:doi
1670:doi
1623:doi
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1174:DNA
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