Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa

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environment and process allowing freedom of expression and order is required in the first place. This theory, therefore, supports the intervention of outside countries, such as the U.S., in establishing democracy. "If domestic capacities are lacking, external support may be required. Externally supported creation of fragile, yet somewhat functioning institutions is meant to trigger the momentum needed to encourage the evolution of a functioning civil society. The latter will, after a few years of consolidation and post-conflict stability, produce the first wholly internally crafted government. At that time, external involvement, if still provided at that point, can cede." Schnabel argues that democratization in the Middle East must come from both below and above, given that pressure from below will be pointless if the political leadership is opposed to reform, while top-down reform (which has been the norm in the Middle East) is not a fruitful endeavor if the political culture in society is not developed.

2045: 2715: 2390: 2198:. In Iraq and Lebanon, political parties include many religious parties. In the book "Islam and Democracy - A Historical Overview", the author Bernard Lewis draws a comparison of increased democratisation and Islam. This has been seen recently with the 2022 protests in Iran, sometimes referred to as the Mahsa Amini protests which have come about after opposition to extreme Islamic law in the country, limited freedom of expression and violation of women's rights. They started when Mahsa Amini was executed by the state, and has seen solidarity across some Islamic countries as well as professional Iranian footballers in the 2022 world cup, where they refused to sing their national anthem to draw attention to the protests. 33: 5917: 2507:). Some Iranians and political activists dispute the results of these polls arguing that the results of these polls cannot be trusted because people fear to express their real opinion and the limitations on the follow of information allows the state to control the opinion of people living in more traditional parts of the country. Some of these polling organizations have responded to these claims and defended their results as correctly showing the current opinion of Iranians. The polls also showed a divide between the population living in large modern cities like 1837: 1903: 2427:

television) makes him immune from any kind of criticism and unchallengeable. Critics of the system or the Supreme Leader are punished severely. Critical newspapers and political parties are closed, social and political activists like writers, journalists, human right activists, university students, union leaders, lawyers, and politicians are jailed for unreasonably long periods for making simple criticism against the Supreme Leader, the Islamic Republic system,

793: 5721: 1737: 1538: 2630: 4445: 4296: 1804: 1274: 1472: 1439: 1340: 1505: 1406: 1373: 1241: 1971:" has enabled many regimes to stifle democratic progress. The results showed very little progress from 1999 to 2005. The report even states that this pattern may be counter-productive to US interests, with Islamism being the only viable opposition to regimes in many Middle Eastern countries. As an additional measure of US attitudes towards the issue of Middle Eastern democratization, on 14 December 2006, the US Secretary of state 1870: 1771: 1704: 1605: 1572: 1638: 2580: 1671: 1307: 2024:. Most importantly they do not allow citizens to choose between multiple candidates for the presidential election. The constitution of modern Egypt has always given the president a virtual monopoly over the decision-making process, devoting 30 articles (15 percent of the whole constitution) to presidential prerogatives. According to the constitution, the Egyptian president's powers are equivalent to those of the 2889:

Authoritarianism has been exceptionally robust in the MENA region because many of the states have proven willing and able to crush reform initiatives. Moreover, almost every Arab state has been directly involved in some form of international conflict over the past decades. Research suggests that conflict involvement has a direct influence on the country's prospects for democratization.

1982:, drafted by Western-educated Arab intellectuals, is modelled "on universal democratic principles." In addition, Fawcett argues that "Constitutional democracy is viewed not only as an intrinsic good by the putative globalisers who drafted this Report; it is also an instrumental necessity if the region is to stop stagnating and begin to catch up with the rest of the world." 1114:

the US should be to 'pursue peace as though there were no democratization, and pursue democratization as though there were no peace. In other words, the U.S. government should pursue reform and democratization as policy goals in the first instance without worrying excessively about tradeoffs with other goals." The U.S. pressure behind the calling of the

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can be established "only through force" and the help of the United States. Writers such as Michele Dunne, when writing for the Carnegie Paper concurs with the rhetoric of the late Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin (at that time, referring to peace and terrorism) that the foreign policy position of

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may indicate a move towards democracy in some countries which may not be fully captured in the democracy index. In 2015, Tunisia became the first Arab country classified as free since the beginning of Lebanon's civil war 40 years ago. Theories are diverse on the subject. "Revisionist theories" argue

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Other analysts draw different conclusions. Drawing from the work of Alexis de Tocqueville and Robert Putnam, these researchers suggest that independent, nongovernmental associations help foster a participatory form of governance. They cite the lack of horizontal voluntary association as a reason for

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are considered absolute monarchies. The endurance of authoritarian regimes in the Middle East is notable in comparison to the rest of the world. While such regimes have fallen throughout sub-Saharan Africa, for example, they have persisted in the Middle East. Yet Middle Eastern history also includes

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A large number of political parties with very different ideologies, are active in Lebanon, but most of them form political alliances with other groups of similar interests. Even though certain high-profile positions in the government and the seats in the parliament are reserved for specified sects,

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People's memories... have become tuned or conditioned to thinking that the problems in the Middle East must be a chronic condition, not that they are only 30 years old, and not realizing that the reason for the current state of the Middle East was first, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and two, the Cold

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The reasons for the lack of democratization in the Middle East are outlined by analysts such as Albrecht Schnabel, who says that a strong civil society is required to produce leaders and mobilize the public around democratic duties, but in order for such a civil society to flourish, a democratic

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was such a polarizing figure among the Turks. Though he was a Muslim by name, the authoritarian decisions he made in the name of secularism tended to deviate from Islamic tradition. As a result, a trend of a more liberal secularism supporting broader freedom of religion has developed recently in

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is given the duty of interpreting the constitution and verifying that all laws passed the parliament are not against Islamic laws. Many articles of constitution about political freedoms and minority rights (e.g. education in mother language for language minorities) have not been applied at all.

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is almost unlimited and unrestricted in practice. This combined with the view that he is the representative of God held by some religious groups, being the head of the security and armed forces, and controlling the official state media (the radio and television are restricted to state radio and

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Opponents of American intervention in Afghanistan and Iraq have, however, criticized that democracy cannot be imposed from outside. The two countries have since had relatively successful elections, Afghanistan only until 2021, but have also experienced serious security and development problems.

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Therefore, the relationship of the state to civil society is one of the most important indicators of the chances of democracy evolving in a particular country. Poverty, inequality, and low literacy rates also compromise people's commitment to democratic reforms since survival becomes a higher

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in particular widely criticized American intervention as a form of neocolonialism, American political rhetoric during the Afghanistan and Iraq wars centered on the purpose of the wars being to bring democratization in the region, as the invasions of those countries were partly for purposes of

867:, all of which have been blamed for preferring authoritarian regimes because this ostensibly simplifies the business environment, while enriching the governing elite and the companies of the imperial countries. Other explanations include the problem that most of the states in the region are 2553:

is a parliamentary democracy represented by a large number of parties, with universal suffrage for all citizens, regardless of race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation, who are of voting age. Often recognized as the only functional democracy in Arabia and the Middle East, Israel has been

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Other analysts believe that the failure of democratization results from the power of the state. Inspired by Skopcol's work on revolution, Belin argues that democratic transition can only be carried out when the state's coercive apparatus lacks the will or capacity to crush opponents.

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Polls in 2011 and 2012 in Iran by a number of respected Western polling organizations showed that a considerable majority of Iranians supported the system, including the religious institutions, and trusted the system's handling of elections (including the disputed

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concluded that democracy promotion has been flawed from the beginning in both Iraq and Afghanistan, with corruption rampant in both countries as the United States prepares to withdraw many of its combat troops. On a scale of corruption established by

1985:

The level of democratic process varies widely from country to country. A few countries, such as Saudi Arabia, do not claim to be democracies; however, most of the larger states claim to be democracies, although this claim is in most cases disputed.

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doctrines, the government, and other officials. They have been even threatened by death sentence (though all such verdict in recent years have been dropped in higher courts in recent years) and some have been assassinated by the

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involved transforming ethnically diverse communities coping with the effects of experiencing imperial collapse, colonization, and decolonization in under a century, into a unitary national identity. For most of these emergent

2770:, who served as a general in the Egyptian Armed Forces at the time, was responsible for announcing the overthrow on state television. Many other countries in the region are also calling for democracy and freedom, including: 2409:

The current political system in Iran was designed to allow Iranians to decide their future by themselves without being oppressed by authorities, but in practice only allows a limited democracy. One of the main problems of

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Schnabel, Albrecht. "Democratization and Peacebuilding." Democratization in the Middle East: Experiences, Struggles, Challenges. Ed. Amin Saikal and Albrecht Schnabel. New York: United Nations University Press, 2003. p.

1130:…the outcome of democratization efforts is …contingent upon the degree to which actors' chosen strategies contribute to either reproducing or challenging the relations of power between civil society and the state. 3082: 2892:

However, critics of these theories observe that countries outside the Middle East and North Africa that experience similar democracy-inhibiting factors are more successful in their quest for democratization.

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in the world, according to their own various definitions of the term, and rank countries according to various measures of democracy, including elections, political rights, and freedom of the press.

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Turkey, while some Arab Socialist states have moved away from secularism to some extent, increasingly embracing religion, though many say without really increasing the rights of religious parties.

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served as chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1969 to 2004 and is considered one of the most influential Palestinian leaders. The last national election in Palestine was held

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mandates. While European powers were instrumental in establishing the first independent governments that emerged from the Ottoman Empire, the mandatory period was brief, primarily spanning the

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in which an absolute monarch serves as the source of power in the state and is not legally bound by any constitution and has the powers to regulate his or her respective government.

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War. The Cold War made the United States and other western democracies look the other way when it came to political oppression and allowed them to deal with tyrants and dictators.

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The protests, uprisings and revolutions in the Middle East and North Africa, beginning on 18 December 2010, brought about the overthrow of the Tunisian and Egyptian governments.

2307:. The Shah also tried to modernize Iran's economy and westernize Iran's culture. These and other policies contributed to alienating nationalists, leftists, and religious groups. 1963:, a think tank based in Philadelphia, recently published their table for measurement of democracy within Middle Eastern states. Their contention is that little has changed, post- 1943:

who advocates and campaigns for democracy in Egypt and the wider region, working with the Ibn Khaldun Centre for Development Studies and serving on the Board of Advisors for the

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competed for allies in Southwest Asia and North Africa, and the United States has been accused of supporting dictatorships contrary to its stated democratic principles. The 1957

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Salamey, Imad, and Rhys Payne. "Parliamentary consociationalism in Lebanon: equal citizenry vs. quotated confessionalism." The Impact of Legislatures. Routledge, 2020. 170-192.

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in which the monarch may have strictly ceremonial duties or may have reserve powers, depending on the constitution. Under most modern constitutional monarchies there is also a

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Also, the fourth unchangeable article of constitution states that all other articles of the constitution and all other laws are void if they violate Islamic rules, and the

4512: 4363: 3989:"Coercive Institutions and Coercive Leaders" in Posusney, Marsha Pripstein and Michele Penner Angrist, eds., "Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Regimes and Resistance" 3680:"MENA DEVELOPMENT REPORT">MENA DEVELOPMENT REPORT, "Better Governance for Development in the Middle East and North Africa"The World bank, Washington, D.C. 2003, p. 45. 4374: 5581: 1027:

adopted 1926 during French Mandate was based on the French constitution and guaranteed liberty and equality for all its citizens. The first election in Lebanon during

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2014, which ranks countries according to election processes, pluralism, government functions, political participation, political cultures and fundamental freedoms.

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of 1979 resulted in an electoral system (an Islamic Republic with a constitution), but the system has a limited democracy in practice. One of the main problems of

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in 1918 and the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, many former Ottoman territories not already under European control were colonized by European countries via

4305: 2365:. Iran holds regular national elections by universal suffrage for all citizens (regardless of race, religion, or sex, who are of voting age) for electing the 6008: 5632: 4871: 4384: 4340: 4335: 4310: 2437: 5666: 4394: 4379: 4369: 3136: 4350: 3478: 3408: 2669: 3048: 5980: 5931: 5681: 5611: 2604: 1134:

However, recent academic critics have characterized intervention in the Middle East as a means towards engendering democracy a failure. The 2011 study

3764: 3071: 2504: 5533: 4839: 2855:. Arab Socialism has also fostered secularism, though sometimes in what has been seen as a less democratic context. Secularism is not the same as 5616: 4153: 4064: 3898:

Mark Tessler, "Islam and Democracy in the Middle East: The Impact of Religious Orientations on Attitudes toward Democracy in Four Arab Countries."

4178: 5606: 5589: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 2927: 2335: 895: 2451:, so in theory he is elected indirectly by popular vote, but in practice the system does not satisfy the criteria for a free election since the 5774: 4881: 2319: 2044: 3972:

MENA DEVELOPMENT REPORT, "Better Governance for Development in the Middle East and North Africa" The World bank, Washington, D.C. 2003, p. 45.

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that democracy is slightly incompatible with Middle Eastern values. On the other hand, "post-colonial" theories (such as those put forth by

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in many Middle Eastern countries undermines the capacity to build the kind of individual autonomy and power that helps promote democracy.

5963: 5671: 5507: 5502: 5460: 4427: 4276: 4215: 2763: 821: 5640: 5568: 4844: 2186:. However, some elections in Iran, as the election of city councils satisfies free and democratic election criteria to some extent. In 1143: 1040: 4225: 140: 5647: 5490: 2423: 2322:(in favor of an Islamic Republic) got 98% support of those who voted. The constitution was modeled on the 1958 constitution of the 2851:, who, though he himself had some authoritarian tendencies, helped establish the first modern Middle Eastern secular democracy in 5447: 5372: 2422:

for life (unless the Assembly of Experts decides to remove him, which has never happened). The power of the Supreme Leader under

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in political activities, widespread corruption in the ruling elite, problems with security forces like police and militias like

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Amin saikal and Albrecht Schnabel, "Democratization in the Middle East" United Nations University Press New York, 2003, p. 70.

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decides to remove him which has never happened). Another main problem is the closed loop in the electoral system, the elected

5757: 4576: 4538: 3933: 3842: 2697: 1115: 1082: 2859:, and secular governments have at times denied the rights of Islamists and other religious parties. This is essentially why 6099: 5889: 5442: 5425: 5420: 4941: 4861: 4677: 989:. Interest in national self-determination further increased during the mandatory period, and accelerated as the process of 3406:

Michele Dunne, "Integrating Democracy Promotion into U.S. Middle East Policy", Carnegie Paper No. 50, October 2004. p. 8,

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priority. Some analysts point to MENA's saturation with Islam as an explanation for the region's failure to democratize.

5512: 5472: 5407: 4504: 3740: 3434: 6003: 5958: 4911: 4826: 4657: 4197: 2762:

to respond to the protesters' demands that he did not comply with, Morsi was removed from office in July 2013. Morsi's

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and people living in other more traditional and conservative parts of the country like rural areas and smaller cities.

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Deegan, Heather., "The Middle East and the Problems of Democracy", Open university Press, Philadelphia, 1993, p. 103.

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Marsha Prepstein Posusney, Michele Penner Angrist, eds. "Authoritarianism in the Middle East: regimes and resistance"

3646: 3625: 3312: 2689: 2483: 2378: 2224: 899: 4208: 3112: 5998: 5701: 5696: 5686: 5676: 5072: 4791: 4771: 4766: 4642: 4637: 4191: 2661: 2036:, while also partly accepting this ideology, is generally considered more democratic than other states that do so. 1159:. Despite high corruption, Iraq was the third most democratic country in the Middle East and North Africa in 2024. 731: 631: 930:

the region. The century between 1820 and 1920 saw the Ottoman Empire shrink from encompassing the entirety of the

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Pratt, N (May 2004) "Bringing politics back in: examining the link between globalization and democratization"

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to protect their access to Iranian oil, and to secure routes to ship western military aid to the Soviet Union.

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Danilovich, Alex. "Introducing Iraq's Federal System." Iraqi Federalism and the Kurds. Routledge, 2016. 49-64.

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drastically altered this and effectively displaced an overwhelming amount of Palestinians. As a result, The,

2370: 2256: 1098: 1044: 586: 6051: 5137: 5002: 4285: 4247: 3771: 2750:

led to full-scale civil war. Tunisia and Egypt have held elections that were considered fair by observers.

2236: 1151:, Iraq and Afghanistan are two of the worst-ranked countries in the world, surpassed in corruption by only 1070:, leading, for example, to American intervention on behalf of the democratically elected government in the 959: 646: 2754:

was sworn in as Egypt's first president to gain power through an election on 30 June 2012; however, after

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who is the head of government and exercises effective political power. The Middle Eastern countries with

1939:

There are a number of pro-democracy movements in the Middle East. A prominent figure in this movement is

1020:

was either out of reach due to political instability, or rejected in favor of other forms of government.

676: 441: 5953: 5941: 5412: 5017: 4413: 4262: 2589: 2520: 1148: 996:

During decolonization, current and formerly colonized peoples of Southwest Asia, North Africa, and the

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since 1948 under an elective government with the leadership of prime ministers such as its inaugural,

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Political Liberalization & Democratization in the Arab World: Volume 1, Theoretical Perspectives

962:. During this period, national self-determination movements began in reaction to both the spread of 6036: 5397: 5162: 4987: 4962: 4622: 4023: 4019:

Political Liberalization & Democratization in the Arab World: Volume 2, Comparative Experiences

3992: 3690: 3530: 3359: 2952: 2783: 711: 556: 416: 32: 2860: 2848: 1163: 5329: 5252: 5132: 5022: 4901: 4866: 4816: 3166: 2937: 2922: 2795: 2327: 2232: 2104: 1193: 1024: 860: 716: 651: 561: 536: 391: 167: 37: 4116: 4110: 3712: 3556:"SAAD EDDIN IBRAHIM IN CONVERSATION ABOUT DEMOCRACY IN THE MIDDLE EAST -- LOGOS 4.2 SPRING 2005" 6068: 6046: 5452: 5377: 5349: 5207: 5147: 4806: 4736: 4652: 4647: 4617: 4085: 4079: 2815: 2775: 2739: 2464: 2452: 2448: 2415: 2244: 2049: 541: 531: 498: 426: 381: 361: 342: 282: 272: 267: 247: 147: 4146: 4057: 4027: 4017: 3555: 1950:

When asked about his thoughts regarding the current state of democracy in the region he said:

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grappled with significant political and economic upheaval, both internally and in response to

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the persistence of authoritarianism in the region. Other analysts believe that the lack of a

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of racial and religious minorities, influence and involvement of armed forces especially the

2323: 2292: 2264: 2029: 1995: 596: 576: 551: 546: 526: 488: 463: 153: 4174:, Carnegie Endowment for Ethics and International Peace, Policy Brief 20 (October 20, 2002). 6089: 6061: 6056: 5901: 5743: 5724: 4972: 4946: 4562: 4494: 4454: 4345: 4222: 4203:

Remarks by George W. Bush at the 20th Anniversary of the National Endowment for Democracy,

3804: 3409:"Democracy and Rule of Law Middle East Series - Carnegie Endowment for International Peace" 2917: 2803: 2767: 2743: 2479: 2115: 2053: 1964: 1842: 1135: 1078: 915: 769: 571: 473: 406: 337: 332: 312: 218: 130: 4216:"Free People Will Set the Course of History: Intellectuals, Democracy and American Empire" 3592: 2684:" also transliterated Sheik, Sheyikh, Shaykh, Shayk, Cheikh, Shekh, Shaik and Shaikh. The 8: 5334: 5267: 5222: 5112: 4692: 4667: 4632: 4533: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4459: 4330: 3574: 3100: 2967: 2957: 2947: 2912: 2907: 2856: 2799: 2791: 2673: 2587:

The relevance of particular information in (or previously in) this article or section is

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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is a moderate democratic Islamist party that has come to power in traditionally secular

1978:

Middle East scholar Louise Fawcett notes how the United Nations Development Programme's

5846: 5495: 5390: 5314: 5257: 4746: 4543: 4528: 4518: 4464: 4315: 4134: 4045: 3276: 3023: 3015: 2685: 2563: 2311: 2151: 2061: 2021: 1940: 1742: 1543: 736: 666: 656: 601: 376: 371: 292: 257: 252: 240: 5277: 5217: 5057: 4702: 4499: 4474: 4469: 4325: 4320: 4120: 4089: 4031: 3996: 3929: 3838: 3642: 3621: 3341: 3308: 3268: 3222: 3027: 3007: 2962: 2830:. Research confirms that (in general) people in Islamic societies support democracy. 2491: 2366: 2358: 2315: 2288: 2272: 2228: 2220: 2212: 2108: 2075: 2067: 1960: 1181: 1175: 1126:. Drawing upon the ideas of Middle East scholar Nicola Pratt it can be argued that: 978: 947: 759: 686: 411: 401: 347: 228: 201: 182:

as the Middle Eastern and North African countries with the highest democracy scores.

4198:"Jumpstarting Arab Reform: The Bush Administration's Greater Middle East Initiative" 2463:. This loop limits the possible candidates to those agreeing with the views held by 5807: 5287: 5192: 5167: 5122: 5087: 4926: 4856: 4687: 4246:

Adam Garfinkle, Joshua Muravchik, Jon Alterman, Michele Dunne, J. Scott Carpenter,

3921: 3830: 3462: 3333: 3214: 3185:"Europe map / Map of Europe – Facts, Geography, History of Europe – Worldatlas.com" 2999: 2942: 2747: 2559: 2471: 2456: 2296: 2179: 1972: 1139: 1005: 696: 691: 641: 468: 356: 317: 307: 287: 27:

Overview of the role and situation of democracy in the Middle East and North Africa

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as the only "flawed democracy" and no country as "full democracy" for year 2023.

5834: 5367: 5324: 5262: 5232: 5202: 5172: 5102: 4229: 3205:

Rustow, Dankwart A. (1959). "The Army and the Founding of the Turkish Republic".

3184: 2539: 2216: 1028: 982: 797: 621: 581: 366: 187: 3509: 3466: 3372: 5339: 5237: 5227: 5187: 5152: 5042: 4992: 4876: 4405: 4254: 4223:"What Does Democracy Really Mean In The Middle East? Whatever The West Decides" 4108: 4015: 2398: 2362: 2347: 2331: 2182:, who in turn vet the candidates for all elections including the elections for 2175: 2159: 2119: 2025: 2005: 1090: 1001: 997: 990: 923: 919: 907: 872: 856: 852: 726: 616: 386: 2227:

in the early 20th century. The Constitutional Revolution in 1906 replaced the

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in the Middle East are diverse, from the long history of imperial rule by the

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Pratt, N. (2007),"Democracy and Authoritarianism in the Arab World": London:

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intense competition is usually expected of political parties and candidates.

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who in turn vet the candidates for all elections including the elections for

2443:

Another main problem is the closed loop in the electoral system, the elected

2300: 2252: 2096: 2079:

significant episodes of conflict between rulers and proponents of democracy.

1968: 1055: 868: 864: 626: 493: 446: 322: 3925: 2330:(who were elected by direct popular vote) and Khomeini made himself the new 223: 5874: 5177: 5052: 5032: 2440:

and militias in the past (no such case has been reported in recent years).

2394: 2343: 2240: 2100: 2071: 2057: 1908: 1094: 1059: 986: 970:

and to European colonial incursion prior to the Ottoman Empire's collapse.

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What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East

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has considered the Shah as a close ally and Iran as its main base in the

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represented a significant turning point for the United States' shift in

792: 5853: 5465: 5212: 4997: 4186:"The U.S. Strategy: Democracy and Internal Stability in the Arab World" 2844: 2318:, that asked whether there should be an 'Islamic Republic' or not. The 2088: 681: 611: 478: 4200:, Middle East Intelligence Bulletin (Vol. 6, No. 6-7, June/July 2004). 3280: 2498:

Public opinion of Iranians regarding the political system of 2011–2012

5861: 3256: 2414:'s system is the consolidation of too much power in the hands of the 2355: 2342:(which is made of Islamic scholars elected by direct vote) appointed 2260: 1110: 1017: 1014: 848: 706: 661: 521: 208: 3337: 3218: 3137:"Why Was Tunisia the Only Arab Spring Country That Turned Out Well?" 2979: 5304: 4721: 3386: 2017: 2001: 1086: 1051: 955: 701: 671: 636: 458: 2239:

went under several revisions during the following decades. During

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National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces

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Geissel, Brigitte; Kneuer, Marianne; Lauth, Hans-Joachim (2016).

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democracies in the Middle East and North Africa are according to

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American democracy promotion in the Middle East and North Africa

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of Iran. The constitution received above 99% support in another

2107:, or blended constitution. This form of government differs from 1166:

identified for the year 2023 U-Turn democratization in Tunisia.

1068:

American democracy promotion in the Middle East and North Africa

1031:

was 1922 with universal male suffrage. The first election after

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began in the region following the end of World War II in 1948.

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and the contemporary political and military intervention by the

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stated that democracy in the Middle East was "non-negotiable."

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Min-Hua Huang, "Islam and Democracy: A Global Perspective."

3874:. Oakamoor: Dark River an imprint of Bennion Kearny Limited. 2158:'s system is the consolidation of power in the hands of the 1118:

backfired, resulting in the democratically sound victory of

5841: 5802: 5797: 4188:, Alternatives (Volume 3, No. 2 & 3, Summer/Fall 2004). 2722:", honoring political dissidents killed by security forces. 2676:, or dictatorship; merely a conglomerate of tribes, clans, 2534:, released a report stating that Lebanon ranked the 2nd in 2432: 2411: 2384: 2268: 2248: 2155: 1676: 1643: 1312: 171: 4209:"President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East" 2680:, and communities headed by a select few elders known as " 2284: 2280: 133:

assessed according to various definitions of democracy.

4109:

Brynen, Rex, Bahgat Korany and Paul Noble, eds. (1995).

4016:

Korany, Bahgat, Rex Brynen and Paul Noble, eds. (1998).

3534: 3324:

McCally, Sarah P. (1956). "Party Government in Turkey".

3966: 3479:"Did the wars bring democracy to Afghanistan and Iraq?" 2660:

At some point in history, the area now claimed by both

2603:

by an editor as a result. Please see discussion on the

3861:. New York, NY: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. 4872:

National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change

4084:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 3770:. worldpublicopinions.org. 2010-09-10. Archived from 2263:(who was perceived as being pro-German) with his son 2028:

in parliamentary systems and to the president of the

4250:, Middle East Strategy at Harvard (January 3, 2008). 3912:

Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2018-05-04),

3593:"Interview With The Washington Post Editorial Board" 3435:"Bush Is Conciliatory in Accepting Victory of Hamas" 2467:

and he has the final say over all important issues.

3827:

The Oxford Handbook of Israeli Politics and Society

3244:. New York, New York: Grove Press. pp. 97–144. 2718:

Over 100,000 people in Bahrain taking part in the "

2295:became the preeminent leader in Iran, and instated 3825:Dowty, Alan (7 June 2018). "Democracy in Israel". 2988:"Measuring the quality of democracy: Introduction" 2985: 2271:'s parliamentary government led by Prime Minister 2126:are generally considered democratic. For example: 1192:The table below shows how countries score on the 6081: 4435: 4284: 3911: 3835:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190675585.013.6_update_001 3507: 3303:, Florian Grotz & Christof Hartmann (2001) 2928:United States foreign policy in the Middle East 2607:considering whether its inclusion is warranted. 2206: 4241:"Is Democracy in the Middle East a Pipedream?" 4077: 3053:Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project 2868:The state, democratization and the Middle East 2350:. The constitution was also amended through a 5751: 4570: 4421: 4270: 3101:Democracy Report 2024, Varieties of Democracy 3040: 2354:in 1989 with 97% support a few months before 2299:from the military as the new Prime Minister. 2020:, but critics assert that these are not full 815: 4115:. London: Lynne Reinner Publishers. p. 3531:"Ibn Khaldun Centre for Development Studies" 3501: 3387:"Carnegie Endowment for International Peace" 3305:Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume I 2538:and 98th out of 167 countries worldwide for 2381:where political parties support candidates. 2314:. In the same year a referendum was held by 1180:There are several that publish and maintain 3986: 3857:Cleveland, W. L., & Bunton, M. (2019). 3829:. Oxford University Press. p. 89–105. 2478:Other problems include the issues with the 2310:The monarchy was overthrown in 1979 by the 2279:by royalist forces supported and funded by 5758: 5744: 4577: 4563: 4428: 4414: 4277: 4263: 3920:, Boulder, CO: Routledge, pp. 58–75, 3872:Israel and Palestine: The complete history 3639:International Relations in the Middle East 3618:International Relations in the Middle East 2142:are considered constitutional monarchies. 2082: 1187: 1144:Watson Institute for International Studies 1041:1949 Israeli Constituent Assembly election 942:, and significant portions of the coastal 822: 808: 4152:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4063:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3982: 3980: 3978: 3459:Review of International Political Economy 3046: 1989: 127:Democracy in Middle East and North Africa 4248:"Can the Middle East Sustain Democracy?" 3105: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3090: 2713: 2388: 2385:Issues with the current political system 2114:Most constitutional monarchies employ a 2043: 1169: 878:This article follows sources that place 31: 3432: 3323: 3134: 3113:"Democracy Index 2023: Age of conflict" 2758:, as well as a 48-hour deadline by the 2746:experienced uprisings. The uprising in 2211:Historically Iranians were ruled by an 1079:terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 14: 6082: 4243:, Yale Global Online (April 25, 2005). 4172:"Democratic Mirage in the Middle East" 4009: 3975: 3572: 3254: 3204: 2992:International Political Science Review 2145: 1201:V-Dem Democracy Indices (14th edition) 5739: 4558: 4409: 4258: 4177:Marina Ottoway and Thomas Carothers, 3824: 3239: 3087: 3049:"Appendix A: Classifying democracies" 2087:Constitutional monarchy is a form of 1116:2006 Palestinian legislative election 1047:was the first free Turkish election. 5890:Turkish occupation of northern Syria 4862:Syrian Revolution General Commission 4179:"Think Again: Middle East Democracy" 3818: 3317: 3248: 3198: 2847:in the Middle East was pioneered by 2623: 2573: 2519:Lebanon has traditionally enjoyed a 2328:Assembly of Experts for Constitution 2243:Iran stayed neutral but in 1941 the 2039: 1043:was the first Israeli election. The 42: 3918:A History of the Modern Middle East 3859:A history of the modern Middle East 3167:"BBC News – Cyprus country profile" 3135:Keating, Joshua (28 January 2015). 1102:organizing democratic governments. 24: 4912:Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet 4827:Society for Development and Change 4218:, Middle East Report (March 2003). 4181:, Foreign Policy (Nov./Dec. 2004). 3765:"Iranian Public on Current Issues" 3485:. Brown University. Archived from 2178:, who appoints the members of the 1980:Arab Human Development Report 2002 25: 6111: 4205:United States Chamber of Commerce 4163: 3641:Gosport: Oxford University Press 3620:Gosport: Oxford University Press 3047:Greenwood, Shannon (2022-12-06). 2998:(5). Sage Publications: 571–579. 2756:protests against him in June 2013 2690:Palestine Liberation Organization 2484:Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps 2219:, at least since the time of the 1066:was the beginning of a policy of 871:, which experience the theorized 5915: 5720: 5719: 4443: 4294: 2628: 2578: 2074:and a few other kingdoms on the 1945:Project on Middle East Democracy 1934: 1901: 1868: 1835: 1802: 1769: 1735: 1702: 1669: 1636: 1603: 1570: 1536: 1503: 1470: 1437: 1404: 1371: 1338: 1305: 1272: 1239: 791: 5765: 5513:Libyan civil war (2011–present) 4892:Constitutional Democratic Rally 4757:National Association for Change 4584: 4102: 4071: 3957: 3947: 3905: 3892: 3877: 3864: 3851: 3797: 3788: 3757: 3726: 3705: 3696: 3683: 3663: 3652: 3631: 3610: 3585: 3573:Sarsar, Saliba (June 1, 2006). 3566: 3548: 3523: 3471: 3451: 3426: 3400: 3379: 3365: 3352: 3294: 3261:The Western Political Quarterly 3233: 3177: 2903:Human rights in the Middle East 2734:which brought about the end of 2494:, and corruption in Judiciary. 2291:nationalized Iranian oil. Shah 1122:, rather than the US-supported 775:Latin America and the Caribbean 38:V-Dem Electoral Democracy Index 5163:Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud 3159: 3147: 3128: 3076: 3065: 2703: 2595:The information may have been 2505:presidential elections in 2009 2361:died increasing the powers of 2338:. After Khomeini's death, the 2259:Iran and replaced Iran's Shah 2070:is common in the Middle East. 1037:1947 Lebanese general election 847:) for the relative absence of 13: 1: 4907:Tunisian General Labour Union 4797:National Transitional Council 4597:Ash-shab yurid isqat an-nizam 4286:Democracy in the Middle East 4081:States and Social Revolutions 3433:Kessler, Glenn (2006-01-27). 2973: 2840:Secularism in the Middle East 2833: 2192:Justice and Development Party 1099:protests against the Iraq War 1045:1950 Turkish general election 587:Democracy and economic growth 5138:Moulaye Ould Mohamed Laghdaf 4836:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party 4436:Elections in the Middle East 3581:– via www.meforum.org. 3575:"Quantifying Arab Democracy" 2569: 2455:appoints the members of the 2401:with Swedish Prime Minister 2207:History of political systems 1213:Democracy Component Indices 1004:from Western nations. Early 973:Following the conclusion of 960:Turkish Constitution of 1921 780:Middle East and North Africa 647:Peaceful transition of power 40:in the Middle East for 2023 18:Democracy in the Middle East 7: 6100:Politics of the Middle East 5518:Egyptian crisis (2011–2014) 4727:February 14 Youth Coalition 3902:, 34(3), 2002, pp. 348–350. 3886:Taiwan Journal of Democracy 3467:10.1080/0969229042000249831 3121:Economist Intelligence Unit 2896: 2730:was brought into a 6-month 2720:March of Loyalty to Martyrs 2556:Jewish and democratic state 2532:Economist Intelligence Unit 2103:, whether it be a written, 2099:within the guidelines of a 950:, to less than half of the 677:Proportional representation 10: 6116: 3805:"CIA - The World Factbook" 3713:"Iran Public Opinion 2010" 2837: 2707: 2514: 1993: 1173: 1149:Transparency International 900:fall of the Ottoman Empire 889: 160:Semi-presidential republic 6029: 5989: 5924: 5913: 5773: 5715: 5656: 5625: 5567: 5526: 5358: 4955: 4942:General People's Congress 4922:Alliance of Yemeni Tribes 4762:National Democratic Party 4711: 4605: 4592: 4450: 4441: 4301: 4292: 3914:"Forging a New Synthesis" 3255:Landau, Jacob M. (1961). 3242:The wretched of the earth 2637:This section needs to be 2545: 2379:City and Village Councils 2225:Constitutional Revolution 2124:Constitutional monarchies 1212: 1209: 1206: 5600:death of Muammar Gaddafi 4988:Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa 4963:Women in the Arab Spring 4792:National Liberation Army 4772:Revolutionary Socialists 4767:National Salvation Front 4170:Marina Ottoway, et al., 4024:Lynne Rienner Publishers 3993:Lynne Rienner Publishers 3691:Lynne Rienner Publishers 3508:V-Dem Institute (2024). 3360:Lynne Rienner Publishers 3004:10.1177/0192512116669141 2953:Territorial peace theory 2438:Ministry of Intelligence 1056:United States of America 958:in 1923 by amending the 732:Wars between democracies 712:Territorial peace theory 557:Democratic confederalism 156:: Syria, Tunisia, Turkey 5569:International reactions 5330:Abdul Majeed al-Zindani 5253:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali 5133:Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz 5023:Mohamed Hussein Tantawy 4867:Syrian National Council 4817:Women to drive movement 4078:Skocpol, Theda (1979). 3926:10.4324/9780429495502-6 3389:. Carnegieendowment.org 3326:The Journal of Politics 2938:Democratic peace theory 2923:Women in the Arab world 2233:constitutional monarchy 2223:(550 B.C.E.) until the 2201: 2083:Constitutional monarchy 1967:, and if anything the " 1194:V-Dem Democracy indices 1188:V-Dem Democracy indices 1083:U.S. war in Afghanistan 1025:Constitution of Lebanon 906:movements to emerge in 886:, not the Middle East. 717:Tyranny of the majority 652:Political demonstration 562:Democratic peace theory 537:Deliberative referendum 168:V-Dem Democracy indices 150:: Iraq, Israel, Lebanon 5885:North Syria Federation 5350:Mohammed Ali al-Houthi 5208:Muhammad Naji al-Otari 4807:February 25th Movement 4737:April 6 Youth Movement 4234:The London Independent 3693:, London, 2005, p. 43. 3257:"Elections in Lebanon" 3240:Fanon, Frantz (2004). 2723: 2418:who is elected by the 2406: 2217:several thousand years 2176:Supreme Leader of Iran 2064: 2050:Salman of Saudi Arabia 1990:Presidential republics 1957: 1164:V-Dem Democracy Report 1132: 952:modern state of Turkey 542:Democratic backsliding 532:Criticism of democracy 148:Parliamentary republic 122: 6095:Democracy by location 5595:military intervention 5345:Abdul-Malik al-Houthi 5320:Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi 5300:United Arab Emirates: 5108:Saif al-Islam Gaddafi 3889:, 1(2), 2005, p. 110. 3579:Middle East Quarterly 2879:market-driven economy 2861:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 2849:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk 2760:Egyptian Armed Forces 2717: 2708:Further information: 2530:In January 2015, the 2392: 2324:French Fifth Republic 2293:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 2265:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 2166:for life (unless the 2052:, Egyptian President 2047: 2030:French Fifth Republic 1996:Presidential republic 1952: 1170:Measures of democracy 1128: 1033:Lebanese independence 597:Electoral competition 577:Democratic transition 552:Democratic centralism 547:Democratic capitalism 154:Presidential republic 35: 5902:United Arab Emirates 5243:Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb 5048:Khaled Mohamed Saeed 4973:Abdelaziz Bouteflika 4539:United Arab Emirates 4390:United Arab Emirates 4211:, (6 November 2003). 4207:, Washington, D.C., 3987:Bellin, Eva (2005). 3900:Comparative Politics 3870:Carroll, I. (2019). 3560:www.logosjournal.com 2918:Islam and secularism 2768:Abdel Fattah el-Sisi 2116:parliamentary system 2054:Abdel Fattah el-Sisi 1843:United Arab Emirates 954:. Turkey declared a 926:began to target and 916:Second French Empire 572:Democratic socialism 190:rated in the region 141:system of government 5335:Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar 5268:Rashid al-Ghannushi 5223:Wael Nader al-Halqi 5113:Mustafa Abdul-Jelil 5003:Ali Jawad al-Sheikh 4184:Adnan M. Hayajneh, 3734:"Executive Summary" 3616:Fawcett, L. (2005) 3510:"The V-Dem Dataset" 2968:Democracy in Europe 2958:Democracy in Africa 2948:Religious democracy 2913:Islam and democracy 2908:Islam and modernity 2857:freedom of religion 2668:operated without a 2523:democratic system. 2461:Assembly of Experts 2445:Assembly of Experts 2424:Iran's constitution 2420:Assembly of Experts 2375:Assembly of Experts 2340:Assembly of Experts 2184:Assembly of Experts 2172:Assembly of Experts 2168:Assembly of Experts 2164:Assembly of Experts 2146:Islamic governments 2056:and U.S. President 2022:multi-party systems 1203: 1072:1958 Lebanon crisis 1064:Eisenhower Doctrine 840:Tunisian Revolution 798:Politics portal 592:Democracy promotion 567:Democratic republic 184:The Economist Group 6009:Metropolitan areas 5641:domestic responses 5626:Domestic reactions 5315:Ali Abdullah Saleh 5258:Mohamed Ghannouchi 4747:Muslim Brotherhood 4228:2016-03-03 at the 4192:Democracy in Yemen 4145:has generic name ( 4056:has generic name ( 3995:. pp. 21–38. 3439:Washingtonpost.com 3124:. 2024. p. 3. 2724: 2692:(PLO) was formed. 2686:two state solution 2564:Benjamin Netanyahu 2407: 2312:Iranian Revolution 2162:who is elected by 2152:Iranian Revolution 2065: 2062:2017 Riyadh Summit 1965:September 11, 2001 1941:Saad Eddin Ibrahim 1210:Democracy Indices 1199: 1109:Some believe that 902:set the stage for 737:Waves of democracy 697:Right to candidacy 667:Popular referendum 657:Political equality 527:Citizens' assembly 123: 6077: 6076: 5733: 5732: 5278:Beji Caid Essebsi 5218:Riyad Farid Hijab 5058:Mohamed ElBaradei 4606:Events by country 4552: 4551: 4403: 4402: 3935:978-0-429-49550-2 3844:978-0-19-067558-5 3637:Fawcett, L(2005) 2963:Democracy in Asia 2738:'s 41-year rule. 2658: 2657: 2622: 2621: 2492:Ansar-e Hezbollah 2359:Ruhollah Khomeini 2316:Ruhollah Khomeini 2289:Mohammed Mosaddeq 2275:was toppled in a 2273:Mohammed Mosaddeq 2229:absolute monarchy 2221:Achaemenid Empire 2213:absolute monarchy 2109:absolute monarchy 2076:Arabian Peninsula 2068:Absolute monarchy 2040:Absolute monarchy 2016:, regularly hold 1961:Middle East Forum 1932: 1931: 1182:democracy indices 1176:Democracy indices 979:League of Nations 948:Arabian Peninsula 832: 831: 687:Right to petition 162:: Algeria, Egypt. 120: 119: 108: 0.000–0.099 102: 0.100–0.199 94: 0.200–0.299 88: 0.300–0.399 82: 0.400–0.499 76: 0.500–0.599 68: 0.600–0.699 62: 0.700–0.799 56: 0.800–0.899 50: 0.900–1.000 16:(Redirected from 6107: 5964:Modern conflicts 5919: 5760: 5753: 5746: 5737: 5736: 5723: 5722: 5288:Mohamed Bouazizi 5193:Hassan al-Turabi 5168:Khaled al-Johani 5123:Mohammed Nabbous 5088:Marouf al-Bakhit 5083:King Abdullah II 4882:Foreign fighters 4857:Free Syrian Army 4845:National Command 4840:Regional Command 4579: 4572: 4565: 4556: 4555: 4447: 4430: 4423: 4416: 4407: 4406: 4298: 4279: 4272: 4265: 4256: 4255: 4236:(8 August 2005). 4214:Robert Blecher, 4158: 4157: 4150: 4144: 4140: 4138: 4130: 4106: 4100: 4099: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4061: 4055: 4051: 4049: 4041: 4013: 4007: 4006: 3984: 3973: 3970: 3964: 3961: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3942: 3909: 3903: 3896: 3890: 3881: 3875: 3868: 3862: 3855: 3849: 3848: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3812: 3801: 3795: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3782: 3776: 3769: 3761: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3751: 3745: 3739:. 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2842: 2836: 2712: 2706: 2654: 2648: 2645: 2642: 2633: 2629: 2618: 2612: 2609: 2594: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2554:consistently a 2548: 2540:Democracy Index 2517: 2500: 2387: 2336:1979 referendum 2320:1979 referendum 2209: 2204: 2148: 2085: 2042: 1998: 1992: 1937: 1902: 1900: 1869: 1867: 1836: 1834: 1803: 1801: 1770: 1768: 1736: 1734: 1703: 1701: 1670: 1668: 1637: 1635: 1604: 1602: 1571: 1569: 1537: 1535: 1504: 1502: 1471: 1469: 1438: 1436: 1405: 1403: 1372: 1370: 1339: 1337: 1306: 1304: 1273: 1271: 1240: 1238: 1200: 1190: 1178: 1172: 983:interwar period 892: 834:Events of the " 828: 790: 785: 784: 750: 742: 741: 622:Majoritarianism 582:Democratization 517: 509: 508: 243: 233: 202:Politics series 188:Democracy Index 170:ranked in 2024 121: 115: 111: 109: 105: 103: 99: 95: 91: 89: 85: 83: 79: 77: 73: 69: 65: 63: 59: 57: 53: 51: 47: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6113: 6103: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6065: 6064: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6033: 6031: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5995: 5993: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5983: 5981:Water conflict 5978: 5976:Water politics 5973: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5961: 5951: 5950: 5949: 5939: 5934: 5932:Climate change 5928: 5926: 5922: 5921: 5914: 5912: 5910: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5866: 5865: 5858: 5844: 5839: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5811: 5810: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5779: 5777: 5771: 5770: 5763: 5762: 5755: 5748: 5740: 5731: 5730: 5728: 5727: 5716: 5713: 5712: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5663: 5661: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5644: 5643: 5635: 5629: 5627: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5603: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5584: 5579: 5573: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5530: 5528: 5527:UN Resolutions 5524: 5523: 5521: 5520: 5515: 5510: 5505: 5503:United Kingdom 5500: 5499: 5498: 5493: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5469: 5468: 5463: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5400: 5395: 5394: 5393: 5388: 5380: 5375: 5370: 5364: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5353: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5340:Sadiq al-Ahmar 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5308: 5307: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5246: 5245: 5240: 5238:Moaz al-Khatib 5235: 5230: 5228:Maher al-Assad 5225: 5220: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5196: 5195: 5190: 5188:Omar al-Bashir 5181: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5156: 5155: 5153:Abbas El Fassi 5150: 5141: 5140: 5135: 5126: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5110: 5105: 5096: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5076: 5075: 5073:Bassem Youssef 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5050: 5045: 5043:Kamal Ganzouri 5040: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4993:Hasan Mushaima 4990: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4966: 4965: 4959: 4957: 4956:Notable people 4953: 4952: 4950: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4885: 4884: 4879: 4877:Hizb ut-Tahrir 4874: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4848: 4847: 4842: 4830: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4810: 4809: 4800: 4799: 4794: 4785: 4784: 4779: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4759: 4754: 4744: 4739: 4730: 4729: 4724: 4715: 4713: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4698:Western Sahara 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4609: 4607: 4603: 4602: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4582: 4581: 4574: 4567: 4559: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4451: 4449: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4433: 4432: 4425: 4418: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4398: 4397: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4353: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4318: 4313: 4308: 4302: 4300: 4293: 4290: 4289: 4282: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4259: 4252: 4251: 4244: 4239:Fawaz Gergez, 4237: 4219: 4212: 4201: 4196:Gary Gambill, 4194: 4189: 4182: 4175: 4167: 4165: 4164:External links 4162: 4160: 4159: 4125: 4101: 4094: 4070: 4036: 4008: 4001: 3974: 3965: 3956: 3946: 3934: 3904: 3891: 3876: 3863: 3850: 3843: 3817: 3796: 3787: 3756: 3725: 3704: 3695: 3682: 3673: 3662: 3651: 3630: 3609: 3584: 3565: 3547: 3522: 3500: 3489:on 3 July 2011 3470: 3461:11:2, p 331, 3450: 3425: 3399: 3378: 3364: 3351: 3332:(2): 297–323. 3316: 3293: 3247: 3232: 3213:(4): 513–552. 3207:World Politics 3197: 3176: 3158: 3146: 3127: 3104: 3086: 3075: 3064: 3039: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2971: 2970: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2905: 2898: 2895: 2869: 2866: 2838:Main article: 2835: 2832: 2705: 2702: 2656: 2655: 2636: 2634: 2627: 2620: 2619: 2613:September 2022 2586: 2584: 2577: 2571: 2568: 2547: 2544: 2516: 2513: 2499: 2496: 2465:Supreme Leader 2453:Supreme Leader 2449:Supreme Leader 2416:Supreme Leader 2405:, Tehran, 2017 2399:Hassan Rouhani 2386: 2383: 2363:Supreme Leader 2348:Supreme Leader 2332:Supreme Leader 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2160:Supreme Leader 2147: 2144: 2120:prime minister 2084: 2081: 2041: 2038: 2026:prime minister 2006:Arab Socialism 1994:Main article: 1991: 1988: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1897: 1896: 1893: 1890: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1864: 1863: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1812: 1798: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1788: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1765: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1731: 1730: 1727: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1715: 1712: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1682: 1679: 1665: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1655: 1652: 1649: 1646: 1632: 1631: 1628: 1625: 1622: 1619: 1616: 1613: 1599: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1559: 1556: 1553: 1550: 1547: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1499: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1466: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1433: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1414: 1400: 1399: 1396: 1393: 1390: 1387: 1384: 1381: 1367: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1348: 1334: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1301: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1235: 1234: 1231: 1230:Participatory 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1208: 1189: 1186: 1174:Main article: 1171: 1168: 1091:foreign policy 1077:Following the 1029:French Mandate 1002:neocolonialism 998:horn of Africa 991:decolonization 924:British Empire 920:Italian Empire 908:Southwest Asia 891: 888: 873:resource curse 869:rentier states 857:United Kingdom 853:Ottoman Empire 838:" such as the 830: 829: 827: 826: 819: 812: 804: 801: 800: 787: 786: 783: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 751: 748: 747: 744: 743: 740: 739: 734: 729: 727:War referendum 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 659: 654: 649: 644: 639: 634: 629: 624: 619: 617:Libertarianism 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 589: 584: 579: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 539: 534: 529: 524: 518: 516:Related topics 515: 514: 511: 510: 507: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 450: 449: 444: 439: 434: 429: 419: 417:Representative 414: 409: 404: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 359: 354: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 244: 239: 238: 235: 234: 232: 231: 226: 221: 215: 212: 211: 205: 204: 164: 163: 157: 151: 118: 117: 110: 104: 98: 96: 90: 84: 78: 72: 70: 64: 58: 52: 46: 41: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6112: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6070: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6059: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6028: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5999:Ethnic groups 5997: 5996: 5994: 5992: 5988: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5923: 5918: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5852: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5845: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5780: 5778: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5761: 5756: 5754: 5749: 5747: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5726: 5718: 5717: 5714: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5655: 5649: 5646: 5642: 5639: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5624: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5572: 5570: 5566: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5514: 5511: 5509: 5508:United States 5506: 5504: 5501: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5458: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5365: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5310: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5294: 5293:Chokri Belaid 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5283:Hamadi Jebali 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5273:Fouad Mebazaa 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5198: 5197: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5183: 5182: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5160:Saudi Arabia: 5158: 5157: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5128: 5127: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5118:Mahmud Gebril 5116: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5094: 5091: 5089: 5086: 5084: 5081: 5078: 5077: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5068:Hesham Qandil 5066: 5064: 5063:Mohamed Morsi 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5018:Omar Suleiman 5016: 5014: 5013:Hosni Mubarak 5011: 5008: 5007: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4979: 4978:Ahmed Ouyahia 4976: 4974: 4971: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4961: 4960: 4958: 4954: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4902:Popular Front 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4814:Saudi Arabia: 4812: 4811: 4808: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4787: 4786: 4783: 4782:Ultras Ahlawy 4780: 4778: 4775: 4773: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4752: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4732: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4610: 4608: 4604: 4599: 4598: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4575: 4573: 4568: 4566: 4561: 4560: 4557: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4431: 4426: 4424: 4419: 4417: 4412: 4411: 4408: 4396: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4347: 4344: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4307: 4304: 4303: 4297: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4261: 4260: 4257: 4249: 4245: 4242: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4221:Robert Fisk, 4220: 4217: 4213: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4199: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4168: 4155: 4148: 4143:|author= 4136: 4128: 4126:1-55587-579-3 4122: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4105: 4097: 4095:0-521-29499-1 4091: 4087: 4083: 4082: 4074: 4066: 4059: 4054:|author= 4047: 4039: 4037:1-55587-599-8 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4020: 4012: 4004: 4002:1-58826-342-8 3998: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3969: 3960: 3950: 3937: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3908: 3901: 3895: 3888: 3887: 3880: 3873: 3867: 3860: 3854: 3846: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3821: 3806: 3800: 3791: 3777:on 2012-02-25 3773: 3766: 3760: 3746:on 2013-07-23 3742: 3735: 3729: 3715:. Docstoc.com 3714: 3708: 3699: 3692: 3686: 3677: 3671: 3666: 3660: 3655: 3648: 3647:0-19-926963-7 3644: 3640: 3634: 3627: 3626:0-19-926963-7 3623: 3619: 3613: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3561: 3557: 3551: 3537:on 2018-03-30 3536: 3532: 3526: 3511: 3504: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3454: 3440: 3436: 3429: 3415:on 2007-02-14 3414: 3410: 3403: 3388: 3382: 3374: 3368: 3361: 3355: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3314: 3313:0-19-924958-X 3310: 3306: 3302: 3301:Dieter Nohlen 3297: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3251: 3243: 3236: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3201: 3186: 3180: 3173:. March 2012. 3172: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3142: 3138: 3131: 3123: 3122: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3084: 3079: 3073: 3068: 3054: 3050: 3043: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2982: 2978: 2969: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2956: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2880: 2874: 2865: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2841: 2831: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2752:Mohamed Morsi 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2694:Yasser Arafat 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2652: 2640: 2635: 2626: 2625: 2616: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2585: 2576: 2575: 2567: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2528: 2524: 2522: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2473: 2468: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2404: 2403:Stefan Löfven 2400: 2396: 2391: 2382: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2369:, members of 2368: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2301:United States 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2253:Great Britain 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2199: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2097:head of state 2094: 2090: 2080: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1997: 1987: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1969:War on Terror 1966: 1962: 1956: 1951: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1935:Current state 1927: 1924: 1921: 1918: 1915: 1912: 1910: 1899: 1898: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1866: 1865: 1861: 1858: 1855: 1852: 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1236: 1233:Deliberative 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1216: 1205: 1197: 1195: 1185: 1183: 1177: 1167: 1165: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1131: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1003: 999: 994: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 971: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 887: 885: 881: 876: 874: 870: 866: 865:United States 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 841: 837: 825: 820: 818: 813: 811: 806: 805: 803: 802: 799: 794: 789: 788: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 752: 746: 745: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 702:Right to vote 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 648: 645: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 628: 627:Majority rule 625: 623: 620: 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