History of democracy

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for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, and if this is the principle of justice prevailing, the multitude must of necessity be sovereign and the decision of the majority must be final and must constitute justice, for they say that each of the citizens ought to have an equal share; so that it results that in democracies the poor are more powerful than the rich, because there are more of them and whatever is decided by the majority is sovereign. This then is one mark of liberty which all democrats set down as a principle of the constitution. And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. This is the second principle of democracy, and from it has come the claim not to be governed, preferably not by anybody, or failing that, to govern and be governed in turns; and this is the way in which the second principle contributes to equalitarian liberty.

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was the assembly where Spartans above the age of 30 elected the members of the gerousia and the ephors, and accepted or rejected gerousia's proposals. Finally, the five ephors were Spartans chosen in apella to oversee the actions of the kings and other public officials and, if necessary, depose them. They served for one year and could not be re-elected for a second term. Over the years, the ephors held great influence on the formation of foreign policy and acted as the main executive body of the state. Additionally, they had full responsibility for the Spartan educational system, which was essential for maintaining the high standards of the Spartan army. As

3655: 3836: 3348: 679:, or a system of decision-making within an institution, organization, or state, in which members have a share of power. Modern democracies are characterized by two capabilities of their citizens that differentiate them fundamentally from earlier forms of government: to intervene in society and have their sovereign (e.g., their representatives) held accountable to the international laws of other governments of their kind. Democratic government is commonly juxtaposed with oligarchic and monarchic systems, which are ruled by a minority and a sole monarch respectively. 683:

extent to which these 18th-century democratic revivalists succeeded in turning the democratic ideals of the ancient Greeks into the dominant political institution of the next 300 years is hardly debatable, even if the moral justifications they often employed might be. Nevertheless, the critical historical juncture catalyzed by the resurrection of democratic ideals and institutions fundamentally transformed the ensuing centuries and has dominated the international landscape since the dismantling of the final vestige of the empire following the end of the

3952:. By popular usage, however, the word "democracy" came to mean a form of government in which the government derives its power from the people and is accountable to them for the use of that power. In this sense the United States can be called a democratic republic. Many states allow for policy questions to be decided directly by the people by voting on ballot initiatives or referendums. (Initiatives originate with, or are initiated by, the people while referendums originate with, or are referred to the people by a state's legislative body.) 1661:. The political philosophy developed in Athens was, in the words of Peter Hall, "in a form so complete that hardly added anyone of moment to it for over a millennium". Aristotle systematically analyzed the different systems of rule that the numerous Greek city-states had and divided them into three categories based on how many ruled: the many (democracy/polity), the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), a single person (tyranny, or today: autocracy/monarchy). For Aristotle, the underlying principles of democracy are reflected in his work 1536: 892: 1314:, with a dominating powerful aristocracy. However, this domination led to exploitation, creating significant economic, political, and social problems. These problems were exacerbated early in the 6th century BCE; and, as "the many were enslaved to few, the people rose against the notables". At the same time, a number of popular revolutions disrupted traditional aristocracies. This included Sparta in the second half of the 7th century BCE. The constitutional reforms implemented by Lycurgus in Sparta introduced a 2662: 1254: 790: 2000: 1010:. The duties and privileges on the members of each particular caste—rigid enough to prohibit someone sharing a meal with those of another order—might have affected the roles members were expected to play in the state, regardless of the formality of the institutions. A central tenet of democracy is the notion of shared decision-making power. The absence of any concrete notion of citizen equality across these caste system boundaries leads many scholars to claim that the true nature of 3812: 3118: 2627:

deceased chiefs' successors were selected by the most senior woman within the hereditary lineage in consultation with other women in the clan. Decision making occurred through lengthy discussion and decisions were unanimous, with topics discussed being introduced by a single tribe. Tooker concludes that "...there is virtually no evidence that the framers borrowed from the Iroquois" and that the myth is largely based on a claim made by Iroquois linguist and ethnographer

3594:, to 120 of the world's 192 nations, or 62% having become such democracies. 25 nations, or 13% of the world's nations had "restricted democratic practices" in 1900 and in 2000 16, or 8% of the world's nations were such restricted democracies. Other nations had, and have, various forms of non-democratic rule. The numbers are indicative of the expansion of democracy during the twentieth century, the specifics though may be open to debate (for example, New Zealand enacted 630: 3379: 2535: 1907: 1531:. If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. 1852:

laws, the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances. Despite the obvious power the assemblies had, in practice, the assemblies were the least powerful of the other bodies of government. An assembly was legal only if summoned by a magistrate and it was restricted from any legislative initiative or the ability to debate. And even the candidates for public office, as

1037: 1577:, and they were selected by lot on a daily basis from an annual pool, also chosen by lot. The courts had unlimited power to control the other bodies of the government and its political leaders. Participation by the citizens selected was mandatory, and a modest financial compensation was given to citizens whose livelihood was affected by being "drafted" to office. The only officials chosen by elections, one from each tribe, were the 3808:, as well as other factors such as government manipulation of civil society, "toxic polarization", foreign disinformation campaigns, racism and nativism, excessive executive power, and decreased power of the opposition. Large parts of the world, such as China, Russia, Central and South East Asia, the Middle East and much of Africa have consolidated authoritarian rule rather seeing it weaken. 1427: 1864:' assessment, was owing to the checks each element put on the superiority of any other: a consul at war, for example, required the cooperation of the Senate and the people if he hoped to secure victory and glory, and could not be indifferent to their wishes. This was not to say that the balance was in every way even: Polybius observes that the superiority of the Roman to the 1953:

authority and ultimately controlled the final decisions, having the military might to back up his rule if necessary. By 27 BCE the transition, though subtle, disguised, and relying on personal power over the power of offices, was complete. In that year, Octavian offered back all his powers to the Senate, and in a carefully staged way, the Senate refused and titled Octavian

1884:(which was an ideology and way of life in the democratic Athens) was anathema in the Roman eyes. Rome's core values included order, hierarchy, discipline, and obedience. These values were enforced with laws regulating the private life of an individual. The laws were applied in particular to the upper classes, since the upper classes were the source of Roman moral examples. 3750:" have taken hold, with the ruling parties in both countries considered by the EU and by civil society to be working to undermine democratic governance. Within English-speaking Western democracies, "protection-based" attitudes combining cultural conservatism and leftist economic attitudes were the strongest predictor of support for authoritarian modes of governance. 1892:

conflict between the rich and poor and demands from the latter for reform of the constitution. The background of social unease and the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to the needs of the growing empire led to the rise of a series of over-mighty generals, championing the cause of either the rich or the poor, in the last century BCE.

1059:, and the state with which democratic Athens is most often and most fruitfully compared, was Sparta. Yet Sparta, in its rejection of private wealth as a primary social differentiator, was a peculiar kind of oligarchy and some scholars note its resemblance to democracy. In Spartan government, the political power was divided between four bodies: two 1337: 1840:. The consul was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate. Consuls had power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government and they would preside over the Senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army. The Senate passed decrees, which were called 933:, and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major state decisions. At least in some states, attendance was open to all free men. This body also had full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who rarely receive any mention, obeyed the decisions of the assembly. Elected by the 1148:, making it the world's first written constitution. In the following centuries, Sparta became a military superpower, and its system of rule was admired throughout the Greek world for its political stability. In particular, the concept of equality played an important role in Spartan society. The Spartans referred to themselves as 3921:, T. Buckley, J. Thorley and E. W. Robinson, who examine the origins and the reasons of Athens being the first to developed a sophisticated system of rule that we today call democracy. Despite its flaws (slavery, no women's rights) it is often considered the closest to the ideal democracy and called as 5620:

The key landmark is the Bill of Rights (1689), which established the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown.... The Bill of Rights (1689) then settled the primacy of Parliament over the monarch's prerogatives, providing for the regular meeting of Parliament, free elections to the Commons, free speech

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In 1918 the United Kingdom granted the women over 30 who met a property qualification the right to vote, a second one was later passed in 1928 granting women and men equal rights. On 18 August 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment (Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution was adopted which prohibits

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abolished in the French colonies by the National Convention on 4 February 1794, with Black people made equal to White people ("All men, without distinction of color, residing in the colonies are French citizens and will enjoy all the rights assured by the Constitution"). Slavery was re-established by

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ratified in 1788, created bicameral legislature with members of the House of Representatives elected "by the People of the several states," and members of the Senate elected by the state legislatures. The Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, leaving that to the constituent

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in 1744. Tooker concluded that the documents only indicate that some groups of Iroquois and white settlers realized the advantages of a confederation, and that ultimately there is little evidence to support the idea that eighteenth century colonists were knowledgeable regarding the Iroquois system of

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had built city-states throughout central Italy since the 13th century BCE and in the south were Greek colonies. Similar to other city-states, Rome was ruled by a king elected by the Assemblies. However, social unrest and the pressure of external threats led in 510 BCE the last king to be deposed by a

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Now a fundamental principle of the democratic form of constitution is liberty—that is what is usually asserted, implying that only under this constitution do men participate in liberty, for they assert this as the aim of every democracy. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn;

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in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule, and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. And even though the rights of the individual (probably) were not secured by the Athenian constitution

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had to be over the age of 60 and were elected for life. In theory, any Spartan over that age could stand for election. However, in practice, they were selected from wealthy, aristocratic families. The gerousia possessed the crucial power of legislative initiative. Apella, the most democratic element,

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The practice of "governing by assembly" was at least part of how ancient Phoenicians made important decisions. One source is the story of Wen-Amon, an Egyptian trader who travelled north to the Phoenician city of Byblos around 1100 BCE to trade for Phoenician lumber. After loading his lumber, a group

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The United States of America was and is, a republic, not a direct democracy. A direct democracy can be defined as a form of government in which the people decide matters directly, with prime example the Athenian democracy. A democratic republic, is a form of government in which supreme power resides

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The notion of a secret ballot, where one is entitled to the privacy of their votes, is taken for granted by most today by virtue of the fact that it is simply considered the norm. However, this practice was highly controversial in the 19th century; it was widely argued that no man would want to keep

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and were official advice to a magistrate. However, in practice, it was difficult for a magistrate to ignore the Senate's advice. The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the Senate ultimately

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for selecting officials. Casting lots aimed to ensure that all citizens were "equally" qualified for office, and to avoid any corruption allotment machines were used. Moreover, in most positions chosen by lot, Athenian citizens could not be selected more than once; this rotation in office meant that

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Despite the number of democratic states has continued to grow since 2006, the share of weaker electoral democracies has grown significantly. This is the strongest causal factor behind fragile democracies. As of 2020, authoritarianism and populism are on the rise around the world, with the number of

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What little evidence there is regarding this system indicates chiefs of different tribes were permitted representation in the Iroquois League council, and this ability to represent the tribe was hereditary. The council itself did not practice representative government, and there were no elections;

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had not a modern democratic system but a guild democratic system. The Italian cities in the middle medieval period had "lobbies war" democracies without institutional guarantee systems (a full developed balance of powers). During late medieval and renaissance periods, Venice became an oligarchy and

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Overall, the Spartans were relatively free to criticize their kings and they were able to depose and exile them. However, despite these 'democratic' elements in the Spartan constitution, there are two cardinal criticisms, classifying Sparta as an oligarchy. First, individual freedom was restricted,

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in the second half of the 7th century BCE. In order to prevent another helot revolt, Lycurgus devised the highly militarized communal system that made Sparta unique among the city-states of Greece. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military

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Anthropologists have identified forms of proto-democracy that date back to small bands of hunter-gatherers that predate the establishment of agrarian, sedentary societies and still exist virtually unchanged in isolated indigenous groups today. In these groups of generally 50–100 individuals, often

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Democracy is generally associated with the efforts of the ancient Greeks, whom 18th-century intellectuals considered the founders of Western civilization. These individuals attempted to leverage these early democratic experiments into a new template for post-monarchical political organization. The

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The aftermath of World War II also resulted in the United Nations' decision to partition the British Mandate into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. On 14 May 1948 the state of Israel declared independence and thus was born the first full democracy in the Middle East. Israel is a representative

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World War II also planted seeds of democracy outside Europe and Japan, as it weakened, with the exception of the USSR and the United States, all the old colonial powers while strengthening anticolonial sentiment worldwide. Many restive colonies/possessions were promised subsequent independence in

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and an authority on the culture and history of the Northern Iroquois, has reviewed Weatherford's claims and concluded they are myth rather than fact. The idea that North American Indians had a democratic culture is several decades old, but not usually expressed within historical literature. The

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routed Antony's fleet. Thereafter, there was no one left in the Roman Republic who wanted to, or could stand against Octavian, and the adopted son of Caesar moved to take absolute control. Octavian left the majority of Republican institutions intact, though he influenced everything using personal

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worth of land, being born of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held public office at least once before. New Senators had to be approved by the sitting members. The people of Rome through the assemblies had the final say regarding the election of magistrates, the enactment of new

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continued. The plebs were demanding for definite, written, and secular laws. The patrician priests, who were the recorders and interpreters of the statutes, by keeping their records secret used their monopoly against social change. After a long resistance to the new demands, the Senate in 454 BCE

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Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination of the leadership and

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The work has gained little outright acceptance. Scholars criticize the use of the word "democracy" in this context since the same evidence also can be interpreted to demonstrate a power struggle between primitive monarchy and noble classes, a struggle in which the common people function more like

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rejected limited 'democracy' run by traditionally defined aristocrats, the creation of a legally defined "Title of Nobility" is forbidden by the Constitution. The Americans, as with the British, took their cue from the Roman republic model: only the patrician classes were involved in government.

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By 1840, only three states retained a property qualification, North Carolina (for some state-wide offices only), Rhode Island, and Virginia. In 1856 North Carolina was the last state to end the practice. Tax-paying qualifications were also gone in all but a few states by the Civil War, but they

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and South Australia. The Victorian method involved voters crossing out all the candidates whom he did not approve of. The South Australian method, which is more similar to what most democracies use today, had voters put a mark in the preferred candidate's corresponding box. The Victorian voting

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in archaic Athens and gave Athens its first comprehensive code of law. The constitutional reforms eliminated enslavement of Athenians by Athenians, established rules for legal redress against over-reaching aristocratic archons, and assigned political privileges on the basis of productive wealth

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empire. The new provinces brought wealth to Italy, and fortunes were made through mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates. Slaves were imported to Italy and wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and displace the original peasant farmers. By the late 2nd century this led to renewed

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usually takes shape in small communities or villages when there are face-to-face discussions in a village, council or with a leader who has the backing of village elders or other cooperative forms of government. This becomes more complex on a larger scale, such as when the village and city are

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The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted full U.S. citizenship to America's indigenous peoples, called "Indians" in this Act. (The Fourteenth Amendment guarantees citizenship to persons born in the U.S., but only if "subject to the jurisdiction thereof"; this latter clause excludes certain

1006:, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens—a surprising omission if democratic bodies, not the aristocratic families, actively controlled the republican governments. Another issue is the persistence of the 6317:

Nazifa Alizada, Rowan Cole, Lisa Gastaldi, Sandra Grahn, Sebastian Hellmeier, Palina Kolvani, Jean Lachapelle, Anna Lührmann, Seraphine F. Maerz, Shreeya Pillai, and Staffan I. Lindberg. 2021. Autocratization Turns Viral. Democracy Report 2021. University of Gothenburg: V-Dem Institute.

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Rome's history has helped preserve the concept of democracy over the centuries. The Romans invented the concept of classics and many works from Ancient Greece were preserved. Additionally, the Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries, and today's modern

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Muslims, have traditionally chosen their leaders via community-wide elections of qualified candidates starting in the 8th century. They were distinguished early on in the region by their belief that the ruler needed the consent of the ruled. The leader exercised both religious and secular

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from 1846 onwards, did modern political thinkers start to view the Athenian democracy of Pericles positively. In the late 20th century scholars re-examined the Athenian system of rule as a model of empowering citizens and as a "post-modern" example for communities and organizations alike.

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Although fifth-century BCE Athens is widely considered to have been the first state to develop a sophisticated system of rule that we today call democracy, in recent decades scholars have explored the possibility that advancements toward democratic government occurred independently in the

1470:. Cleisthenes reorganized the population of citizens into ten tribes, with the aim to change the basis of political organization from the family loyalties to political ones, and improve the army's organization. He also introduced the principle of equality of rights for all male citizens, 1367:

of the ancient world. Solon attempted to satisfy all sides by alleviating the suffering of the poor majority without removing all the privileges of the rich minority. Solon divided the Athenians into four property classes, with different rights and duties for each. As the

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attempt to bridge the gap between Rousseau's depiction of the state of nature and Hobbes's depiction of society as inevitably authoritarian through 'social contracts' that enshrine the rights of the citizens, curtail the power of the state, and grant agency through the

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Given Hun Sen's domination over Cambodian politics, some analysts suggest that Cambodia is a personalist dictatorship. Although Hun Sen wields decisive power on many issues, there are key signs suggesting that the current regime in Cambodia is not a personalist

1734:, Sparta's political stability was praised, while the Periclean democracy was described as a system of rule where either the less well-born, the mob (as a collective tyrant), or the poorer classes held power. Only centuries afterwards, after the publication of 2606:. Weatherford speculated that this democracy was founded between the years 1000–1450, that it lasted several hundred years, and that the U.S. democratic system was continually changed and improved by the influence of Native Americans throughout North America. 1268:

Athens is often regarded by western scholars as the birthplace of democracy and remains an important reference point for democracy, as evidenced by the etymological origins of democracy in English and many other languages being traced back to the Greek words

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The two kings served as the head of the government. They ruled simultaneously, but they came from two separate lines. The dual kingship diluted the effective power of the executive office. The kings shared their judicial functions with other members of the

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in a body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according to law. The delegates who wrote the Constitution were fearful of direct democracy; in the words of James Madison:

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In Africa, out of 55 countries, democratization seems almost stalled since 2005 because of the resistance of some 20 non-democratic regimes, most of which originated in the 1980s. In exception to this, in 2016, after losing an election, the president of

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writes: "levels were designed so that no one appeared to be excluded from an election and yet all of the clout resided with the leading men". Moreover, the unequal weight of votes was making a rare practice for asking the lowest classes for their votes.

996:. Despite the assembly's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation were truly popular. The first main obstacle is the lack of evidence describing the popular power of the assembly. This is reflected in the 816:. By this, Jacobsen means a government in which ultimate power rests with the mass of free (non-slave) male citizens, although "the various functions of government are as yet little specialised the power structure is loose". In early Sumer, kings like 988:. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. 3434:

the states and the federal government from denying the right to vote to citizens of the United States on the basis of sex. French women got the right to vote in 1944, but did not actually cast their ballot for the first time until April 29, 1945.

3946:"emocracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention: have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property: and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths." 1112:

noted, ephors were the most important key institution of the state, but because often they were appointed from the whole social body it resulted in very poor men holding office, with the ensuing possibility that they could easily be bribed.

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Over the next few hundred years, various generals would bypass or overthrow the Senate for various reasons, mostly to address perceived injustices, either against themselves or against poorer citizens or soldiers. One of those generals was

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in U.S. involves invention of locally rooted political parties in the United States; networks of party newspapers; new canvassing techniques; use of caucus to select candidates; fixed party names; party loyalty; party platform (Jefferson

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who also was the adopted son of Caesar, rose to prominence. Their combined strength gave the triumvirs absolute power. However, in 31 BCE war between the two broke out. The final confrontation occurred on 2 September 31 BCE, at the naval

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in England decided that "the King by his proclamation or other ways cannot change any part of the common law, or statute law, or the customs of the realm" and that "the King hath no prerogative, but that which the law of the land allows

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Much of Eastern Europe, Latin America, East and Southeast Asia, and several Arab, central Asian and African states, and the not-yet-state that is the Palestinian Authority moved towards greater liberal democracy in the 1990s and 2000s.

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Even though the Solonian reorganization of the constitution improved the economic position of the Athenian lower classes, it did not eliminate the bitter aristocratic contentions for control of the archonship, the chief executive post.

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The political stability of Sparta also meant that no significant changes in the constitution were made. The oligarchic elements of Sparta became even stronger, especially after the influx of gold and silver from the victories in the

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in the modern sense, the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government, but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person.

2750:, an assembly consisting of nobles and representatives of cities from all over the Netherlands. Furthermore, it decided that the sovereignty of the states was better guaranteed by the assembly, instead of a singular autocrat. 4013:

Morris I. The Measure Of Civilization: How Social Development Decides The Fate Of Nations . Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2013. Available from: eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost), Ipswich, MA. Accessed May 18,

2392:("lordships"). They were, in any case in late medieval times, not nearly as democratic as the Athenian-influenced city-states of Ancient Greece (discussed above), but they served as focal points for early modern democracy. 1820:– to formulate a new code, and gave them supreme governmental power in Rome for two years. This commission, under the supervision of a resolute reactionary, Appius Claudius, transformed the old customary law of Rome into 1831:

The political structure as outlined in the Roman constitution resembled a mixed constitution and its constituent parts were comparable to those of the Spartan constitution: two consuls, embodying the monarchic form; the

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1856: US – property ownership requirements were eliminated in all states, giving suffrage to most adult white males. However, tax-paying requirements remained in five states until 1860 and in two states until the 20th

2319:. The new king had to be descended within four generations from a previous king, so this usually became, in practice, a hereditary kingship; although some kingships alternated between lines of cousins. About 80 to 100 3170:, which gave representation to previously under represented urban areas in the U.K. and extended the voting franchise to a wider population. Followed later in the 19th century and 20th century with several further 853:

an old Semitic word meaning assembly, to reach a decision. This shows that Byblos was ruled in part by a popular assembly (drawn from what subpopulation and equipped with exactly what power is not known exactly).

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led to much upheaval, as well as to the establishing of a democracy in Tunisia and some increased democratic rights in Morocco. Egypt saw a temporary democracy before the re-establishment of military rule. The

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1837: February 3: Local election in South Africa (British colony) in the city of Beaufort West, the first city organizing the election of a municipal council after the Cape Town Ordinance of 1836 (Order 9 from

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Determining the continuity and age of independent democracies depends on the criteria applied, but generally the United States is identified as the oldest democracy, while the country with longest history of

1587:, who had to be wealthy, since any funds revealed to have been embezzled were recovered from a treasurer's private fortune. Debate was open to all present and decisions in all matters of policy were taken by 6272: 2231:

reminded the king in a long speech that the power resided with the Swedish people and not with the king. When the king heard the din of swords beating the shields in support of Þorgnýr's speech, he gave in.

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leader of Burma (Myanmar) with the title "state councilor", as she is still not allowed to become president and therefore leads through a figurehead, Htin Kyaw. Human rights, however, have not improved. In

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presided over a radicalization of power that shifted the balance decisively to the poorest sections of society, by passing laws which severely limited the powers of the Council of the Areopagus and allowed

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and Aristotle. In addition, the Spartan women, unlike elsewhere, enjoyed "every kind of luxury and intemperance" including rights such as the right to inheritance, property ownership, and public education.

3682:, from house arrest. Myanmar did not allow Suu Kyi to run for election. However, conditions partially changed with the election of Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy party and her appointment as the 3438:

indigenous peoples.) The act was signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on 2 June 1924. The act further enfranchised the rights of peoples resident within the boundaries of the United States.

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for all who would and could read. The Twelve Tables recognised certain rights and by the 4th century BCE, the plebs were given the right to stand for consulship and other major offices of the state.

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However, democracy in Athens declined not only due to external powers, but due to its citizens, such as Plato and his student Aristotle. Because of their influential works, after the rediscovery of

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announced that the first general elections would take place in 2008, and that he would abdicate the throne in favor of his eldest son. Bhutan is currently undergoing further changes to allow for a

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New waves of democracy swept across Southern Europe in the 1970s, as a number of right-wing nationalist dictatorships fell from power. Later, in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, the

6536: 2890:, enacted by Parliament, set out the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, and limited the power of the monarch. It ensured (with the 5964:"The restructuring of local government in south africa: a historical perspective up to 1994, chap.4 de 'The restructuring of local government with specific reference to the city of Tshwane'" 984:, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate tribes of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the 1376:(Assembly) and to vote. The Ecclesia became, in principle, the sovereign body, entitled to pass laws and decrees, elect officials, and hear appeals from the most important decisions of the 1318:

state that showed, in turn, how inherited governments can be changed and lead to military victory. After a period of unrest between the rich and poor, Athenians of all classes turned to

6001: 2709:. This foreshadowed a democracy of about ten percent of the population of the Commonwealth, consisting of the nobility, who were an electorate for the office of the King. They observed 828:

functioned with councils of elders and "young men" (likely free men bearing arms) that possessed the final political authority, and had to be consulted on all major issues such as war.

6338: 3882:. Citizens' assemblies have been used in Canada (2004, 2006) and the Netherlands (2006) to debate electoral reform, and in Iceland (2009 and 2010) for broader constitutional change. 751:, argue in contrast that cities and early settlements were more varied and unpredictable in terms of how their political systems alternated and evolved from more to less democratic. 6322: 5559: 5537: 2467:

in which farmholders of a rural area connected to a particular church would meet to reach decisions on issues affecting the community and to elect representatives to the provincial

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parliament consisting of an Assembly (Vouli) and a Senate (Gerousia). Power then passed into the hands of a group of Greek politicians, most of whom who had been commanders in the

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proclaims that "All men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

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sent a commission of three patricians to Greece to study and report on the legislation of Solon and other lawmakers. When they returned, the Assembly in 451 BCE chose ten men – a

3518:

which it continues to hold today. Most of the former British and French colonies were independent by 1965 and at least initially democratic; those that were formerly part of the

6182: 1217:, was becoming the hegemonic power in the Greek world and disagreements between Sparta and Athens over supremacy emerged. These led to a series of armed conflicts known as the 1657:(died 348/347), about the relation/position of an individual within a community. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) continued the work of his teacher, Plato, and laid the foundations of 1515:(Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Pericles became distinguished as the Athenians' greatest democratic leader, even though he has been accused of running a 1931:, where he marched on Rome and took supreme power over the republic. Caesar's career was cut short by his assassination at Rome in 44 BCE by a group of Senators including 1872:

was an effect of the latter's greater inclination toward democracy than to aristocracy. Moreover, recent attempts to posit for Rome personal freedom in the Greek sense –

3530:

created much political upheaval in Africa and parts of Asia, with some countries experiencing often rapid changes to and from democratic and other forms of government.

5754: 3542: 1502:(499–449 BCE) encouraged the poorest Athenians (who participated in the military campaigns) to demand a greater say in the running of their city. In the late 460s, 5589: 3554: 754:

The concepts (and name) of democracy and constitution as a form of government originated in ancient Athens circa 508 BCE. In ancient Greece, where there were many

3476:

during the 1920s, but it was under effective military rule in the years before and during World War II. The country adopted a new constitution during the postwar

5121: 764:", i.e. citizen body) was contrasted with governance by elites (aristocracy, literally "rule by the best"), by one person (monarchy), by tyrants (tyranny), etc. 1847:

was the force that oversaw such affairs. Also, it managed Rome's civil administration. The requirements for becoming a senator included having at least 100,000

1404:

rather than of noble birth. Some of Solon's reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy.

3274: 1172:, where all citizens irrespective of wealth or status had the same education. This was admired almost universally by contemporaries, from historians such as 899:

were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era. There were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of

2441: 1681:

The Athenian democracy, in its two centuries of life-time, twice voted against its democratic constitution (both times during the crisis at the end of the

1392:(Council of the Hill of Ares), which like the Gerousia in Sparta, was able to check improper actions of the newly powerful Ecclesia. Solon created a mixed 3075: 3307: 2730: 1611:, which had already approved the agenda for the Ecclesia. The Athenian Boule was elected by lot every year and no citizen could serve more than twice. 6547: 4584: 1767: 5883: 5603: 5441: 4108: 2510:

in the 13th century is some of the earliest evidence of this parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people.

5256: 3791:

Countries autocratizing (red) or democratizing (blue) substantially and significantly (2010–2020). Countries in grey are substantially unchanged.

3510:

became a Democratic Republic in 1950 after achieving independence from Great Britain in 1947. After holding its first national elections in 1952,

6368: 5678: 3707:

in 2008. These were however undone by a coup in 2018. Meanwhile, in Thailand military junta twice overthrew democratically elected governments (

6109: 5187: 3658:

A large crowd of protesters, journalists, police and spectators gathered in front of a McDonald's restaurant in Wangfujing, Beijing, during the

1555:

The Athenian democracy of Cleisthenes and Pericles was based on freedom of citizens (through the reforms of Solon) and on equality of citizens (

1372:

did in Lycurgian Sparta, Solon formalized the composition and functions of the governmental bodies. All citizens gained the right to attend the

6606: 6393: 849:

of pirates surrounded Wen-Amon and his cargo ship. The Phoenician prince of Byblos was called in to fix the problem, whereupon he summoned his

6008: 3787: 2989:

From the late 1770s: new Constitutions and Bills explicitly describing and limiting the authority of powerholders, many based on the English

1125:

fitness, and austerity. It is also probable that Lycurgus delineated the powers of the two traditional organs of the Spartan government, the

832:

pawns rather than any kind of sovereign authority. Jacobsen conceded that the vagueness of the evidence prohibits the separation between the

713:

tied closely by familial bonds, decisions are reached by consensus or majority and many times without the designation of any specific chief.

616: 6346: 6204: 2331:

controlled a more or less compact area of land which it could pretty much defend from cattle-raids, and this was divided among its members.

1697:, but democracy was recovered in less than a year in both cases. Reforms following the restoration of democracy after the overthrow of the 611: 6319: 5545: 3764: 3240:, although in many instances forcefully put down, did result in democratic constitutions in some other European countries, among them the 3805: 3299:

is the first nation to introduce universal suffrage by awarding the vote to women (universal male suffrage had been in place since 1879).

2236:

wrote that the people used to obey the king only when they thought his suggestions seemed better, although in war his power was absolute.

658: 4774: 3493: 3553:

also granted voting rights to all Native Americans, irrespective of their home state. The minimum voting age was reduced to 18 by the

2545: 5654: 5350: 3640: 3079: 3020: 27: 5468:"Professor Norman Davies on the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth – the Noble Democracy, which deliberately wanted to avoid an Emperor" 6712: 3359:

The two earliest systems used were the Victorian method and the South Australian method. Both were introduced in 1856 to voters in

2520: 2638:

also practiced elections, but the elected officials elected a supreme speaker, not a ruler. However, a contemporary civilisation,

2417: 3061:

countries changed the semi-negative meaning of the word 'democracy' in Europe, which was until then regarded as synonymous with

2726: 6488: 4922: 3449:

was ultimately a victory for democracy in Western Europe, where representative governments were established that reflected the

1041: 6134: 2294: 1193:

writes "no man was allowed to live as he wished", but as in a "military camp" all were engaged in the public service of their

7374: 7288: 6932: 6669: 6581: 6244: 6099:"Global Survey 2006: Middle East Progress Amid Global Gains in Freedom". Freedom House (2005-12-19). Retrieved on 2007-07-01. 6075: 6048: 5946: 5867: 5840: 5705: 4905: 4824: 4797: 4358: 4293: 3716: 3704: 3008: 2802:. It established, among other things, the illegality of taxation without parliamentary consent and of arbitrary imprisonment. 2747: 2464: 2223:

presided over the assemblies, but the Swedish king functioned as a judge. A famous incident took place circa 1018, when King

1561:) – introduced by Cleisthenes and later expanded by Ephialtes and Pericles. To preserve these principles, the Athenians used 2972:

of Great Britain, chaired cabinet meetings, appointed all other ministers, and developed the doctrine of cabinet solidarity.

5633: 4182: 3277:

to the Constitution, prohibits voting rights discrimination on the basis of race, colour, or previous condition of slavery.

2869: 2864:, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal; one of the documents integral to the 5804: 948:. The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly; in some states, he did so with a council of other nobles. The 3659: 2880: 2558: 2507: 1981:, a title given by Roman troops to their victorious commanders, completing the transition from the Roman Republic to the 1540: 6090:

Rummel 1997, p. 257. "A current list of liberal democracies includes: Andorra, Argentina, ..., Cyprus, ..., Israel, ..."

5655:

Dr Andrew Blick and Professor George Jones — No 10 guest historian series, Prime Ministers and No. 10 (1 January 2012).

3948:

Nevertheless, the framers recognized that the public is required to impose a check to the government, in Madison words:

745:– have flourished in more urban centers, often those with concentrated populations. David Graeber and David Wengrow, in 3549:

by removing all tax placed upon voting, which was a technique commonly used to restrict the African American vote. The

3082:, is adopted on 26 August 1789 and declares that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and proclaimed the 2998: 2865: 2706: 2682: 2599: 7767: 6742: 5328: 7684: 7471: 7437: 7416: 7395: 7353: 7332: 7309: 7267: 7246: 7225: 7204: 7183: 7162: 7139: 7118: 7086: 7065: 7044: 7023: 6993: 6972: 6951: 5738: 5567: 5499: 5425: 5402: 5393: 5301: 5240: 5156: 3776: 3314: 2949: 2702: 2577: 2495: 5407: 5405: 3738:

saw several protest movements leading to a switch from effective oligarchy to more democracy; as of 2019, since the

3398:, as it was preserved in France and temporarily extended to Germany. Already in 1906 full modern democratic rights, 2174:

to enlarge itself so a seat would become available. But as each independent farmer in the country could choose what

6692: 3523: 1452: 1036: 952:

had a primary governing body of 7,077 rajas, presumably the heads of the most important families. In contrast, the

568: 468: 7625:

Lipset, S. M. (March 1959). "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy".

5978: 5963: 2883:. The document gave the colony a representative legislature and granted liberal freedoms to the colony's citizens. 1776: 1701:

removed most law-making authority from the Assembly and placed it in randomly selected law-making juries known as

1601:), in which all male citizens could participate (in some cases with a quorum of 6000). The decisions taken in the 1388:(magistrates), were reserved for citizens of the top two income groups. The retired archons became members of the 6627: 3914: 1771: 651: 5621:

in parliamentary debates, and some basic human rights, most famously freedom from 'cruel or unusual punishment'.

1478:, by expanding access to power to more citizens. During this period, Athenians first used the word "democracy" ( 880:, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century. In addition, 7815: 6514: 6183:"2016, année des coups d'Etat électoraux en Afrique et démocratisation de l'Afrique depuis 1990- 27 avril 2017" 3728: 3016: 2854: 3430:

hurt democratic forces in many countries. The 1930s became a decade of dictators in Europe and Latin America.

2932: 1322:

to act as a mediator between rival factions, and reached a generally satisfactory solution to their problems.

3804:" in the 2010s were attributed to economic inequality and social discontent, personalism, poor management of 3675: 3057:

identifying themselves with the term 'democracy': Political clashes between 'aristocrats' and 'democrats' in

2722: 1569:

The courts formed another important political institution in Athens; they were composed of a large number of

1486:– "rule by the people") to define their new system of government. In the next generation, Athens entered its 1002:, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the 423: 5656: 4069: 3743: 3382:

The three 20th century waves of democracy, based on the number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on

3034: 2628: 2614:

relationship between the Iroquois League and the Constitution is based on a portion of a letter written by

1686: 1448: 483: 2746:

argued that the sovereignty over the Netherlands was not in the hands of the monarch, but in those of the

1281:'force/might'. Literature about the Athenian democracy spans over centuries with the earliest works being 18: 7810: 5891: 3654: 3590:

By the end of the century, the world had changed from having in 1900 not a single liberal democracy with

3407: 3001: 2940: 2907: 2773: 2737: 2228: 2003: 1901: 513: 278: 5607: 3712: 3708: 2358:, of economic, social and religious natures, in the later Middle Ages elected officers for yearly terms. 1824:

and submitted them to the Assembly (which passed them with some changes) and they were displayed in the

7800: 6320:

https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/74/8c/748c68ad-f224-4cd7-87f9-8794add5c60f/dr_2021_updated.pdf

5133:

p. 45 ff. Intermediate sources tend to be colored by the "Free institutions of our Germanic ancestors"

5074: 3262:

1853: Black Africans given the vote for the first time in Southern Africa, in the British-administered

3215: 3026: 2595: 2506:, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The emergence of 2164:

kept a tight hold on his membership, which could in principle be lent or sold. Thus, for example, when

691: 644: 4094: 4074: 2206:, from 1097, one of the oldest parliaments in the world and the first legislature in the modern sense. 5195: 3550: 3534: 3230: 3229:

1848: Universal male suffrage was re-established in France in March of that year, in the wake of the

3223: 3083: 2784: 2666: 2092: 1465: 1373: 3870:, there have been several experiments where citizens and their representatives assemble to exchange 6543: 6220:

an abusive and authoritarian political regime over which an increasingly dictatorial Hun Sen rules.

5779: 3989: 3823: 3546: 3538: 3496:, which preserved a democratic political system as a presidential republic until the presidency of 2718: 2297:. Landowners and the masters of a profession or craft were members of a local assembly, known as a 1949: 1806: 1491: 1120:. He is associated with the drastic reforms that were instituted in Sparta after the revolt of the 548: 393: 253: 2787:, and fellow voyagers on forming a government among themselves, based on majority rule, is signed. 5477: 3703:, protests and political pressure led to a government reform which allowed democratic rights and 3696: 3281: 2920: 2714: 981: 862:

Another claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent "republics" of India,

553: 488: 398: 373: 228: 5412:

Tooker E (1990). "The United States Constitution and the Iroquois League". In Clifton JA (ed.).

3141:

colony in December 1792, in which Nova Scotian immigrants could elect tythingmen and hundredors.

1462:

proposed a complete reform of the system of government, which later was approved by the popular

1384:, which was to prepare the agenda for the Ecclesia. The higher governmental posts, those of the 5264: 4853: 4840: 3867: 3801: 3692: 3201: 2916: 2912: 2861: 2639: 2524: 2487: 2143: 1608: 1479: 1381: 747: 378: 368: 335: 263: 218: 198: 179: 119: 109: 104: 84: 6418:

Greskovitz, Béla (2015). "The Hollowing and Backsliding of Democracy in East-Central Europe".

6151: 6065: 6038: 5938:

The Black loyalists: the search for a promised land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870

5915:"Decree of the National Convention of 4 February 1794, Abolishing Slavery in all the Colonies" 5857: 5830: 5417: 5385: 5379: 4348: 4252:

Isakhan, B. (2007). "Engaging 'Primitive Democracy': Mideast Roots of Collective Governance".

3910: 3835: 3643:

but a threatened regional military intervention forced him to leave. In 2018 dictatorships in

2553: 1447:

of Athens three times from 561 BCE and remained in power until his death in 527 BCE. His sons

1300: 5730: 5693: 5375: 4394: 3879: 3759: 3651:

fell; As of 2019 it remains unclear what type of regimes will emerge in these two countries.

3629: 3616: 3570: 3204: 3178: 2984: 2799: 2791: 2755: 2651: 2499: 2483: 2059: 1935:. In the power vacuum that followed Caesar's assassination, his friend and chief lieutenant, 1364: 433: 413: 388: 383: 363: 325: 300: 5293: 5079: 5028:

This view was already ancient when Polybius brought it to bear on Rome (Walbank 2002: 281).

3902: 3898: 3897:

Literature about the Athenian democracy spans over centuries with the earliest works being

3674:

in 2011 made changes to allow certain voting-rights and released a prominent figure in the

3360: 3347: 3148: 3108: 2765: 2642:, along with other Mesoamerican city states, are likely to have practiced collective rule. 2315:, and accepted the election of a new "king"; normally during the old king's lifetime, as a 2117:

were the first parliament of Europe that officially obtained the power to pass legislation.

2042: 1932: 1802: 1708: 1662: 1658: 1289: 1283: 1236: 408: 310: 243: 174: 169: 149: 2661: 2309:

met in annual assembly which approved all common policies, declared war or peace on other

8: 6611: 5912: 5125:, chapters XLIX, LII; pp. 1685,1857 Heritage Club edition (1946). For a recent view, see 3747: 3644: 3415: 3395: 3321: 3285: 3237: 3093: 2990: 2957: 2891: 2887: 2211: 2199: 2096: 2076: 2038: 1723:

conquest of Greece in 146 BCE, Athens was restricted to matters of local administration.

1712: 1503: 1258: 885: 778: 601: 591: 428: 403: 340: 320: 290: 273: 268: 258: 233: 188: 164: 139: 114: 99: 7721:

Weingast, B. (June 1997). "The Political Foundations of the Rule of Law and Democracy".

6720: 6445:

Rhodes-Purdy, Matthew; Madrid, Raúl L. (27 November 2019). "The perils of personalism".

6037:

Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E.; Evans, Andrew D.; Wheeler, William Bruce; Ruff, Julius (2014).

7805: 7746: 7738: 7709: 7671: 7650: 7642: 7613: 7584: 7555: 7507: 7299: 6675: 6470: 6300: 4052: 4044: 3906: 3845: 3595: 3591: 3566: 3515: 3419: 3399: 3289: 3160: 3156: 3131: 3122: 3089: 3041: 2961: 2953: 2370: 1295: 1248: 961: 888:'s invasion of India—mentions that independent and democratic states existed in India. 573: 503: 493: 438: 213: 208: 129: 94: 89: 77: 5936: 3746:. Not all movement has promoted democracy, however. In Poland and Hungary, so-called " 3187: 2224: 2080: 2007: 1205:

effectively maintained the biggest share of power of the various governmental bodies.

7785: 7750: 7617: 7588: 7467: 7433: 7412: 7391: 7370: 7349: 7328: 7321: 7305: 7284: 7263: 7242: 7221: 7200: 7179: 7158: 7135: 7114: 7082: 7061: 7040: 7019: 6989: 6968: 6947: 6928: 6679: 6665: 6587: 6577: 6474: 6462: 6304: 6292: 6240: 6071: 6044: 5942: 5863: 5836: 5734: 5701: 5672: 5495: 5421: 5389: 5297: 5236: 5152: 4901: 4820: 4793: 4354: 4299: 4289: 4116: 4056: 3739: 3373: 3069: 2976: 2810: 2806: 2795: 2780: 2686: 2615: 2610: 2445: 2203: 2088: 2072: 1682: 1516: 1495: 1232: 1218: 1117: 1086: 863: 805: 596: 523: 248: 238: 184: 65: 38: 7654: 6131: 5723: 4787: 3913:. The latest, listed in the References section, include works from scholars such as 2165: 1399:

Overall, Solon devised the reforms of 594 BCE to avert the political, economic, and

729:

examined more broadly as political communities. All other forms of rule – including

7730: 7634: 7605: 7576: 7545: 7499: 6657: 6454: 6427: 6284: 4036: 3679: 3648: 3497: 3462: 3427: 3329: 3167: 3097: 2895: 2591: 2382: 2193: 2102: 2084: 2023: 1994: 1956: 1945: 1911: 1837: 1598: 1523:

recorded Pericles, in the funeral oration, describing the Athenian system of rule:

1007: 985: 949: 944: 916: 676: 533: 528: 478: 305: 193: 154: 144: 124: 7449: 6458: 6239:. Elements in Politics and Society in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. 3473: 1527:

Its administration favors the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a

7461: 7427: 7406: 7385: 7364: 7343: 7278: 7257: 7236: 7215: 7194: 7173: 7129: 7108: 7097: 7076: 7055: 7034: 7013: 6983: 6962: 6885: 6326: 6234: 6138: 5268: 4814: 4577: 4186: 3576: 3458: 3391: 3303: 3054: 2046: 1936: 1716: 1715:(reigned 336–323 BCE) unified Greece, but it was politically overshadowed by the 1653:(470–399 BCE) was the first to raise the question, further expanded by his pupil 1535: 1487: 1060: 1040:

Bas-relief of Lycurgus, one of 23 great lawgivers depicted in the chamber of the

634: 458: 418: 203: 7196:

The early history of Rome: books I-V of The history of Rome from its foundations

7151: 6369:"What's Driving the Rise of Authoritarianism and Populism in Europe and Beyond?" 4178: 3599: 3364:

system also was not completely secret, as it was traceable by a special number.

2180:

represented him, the system could be claimed as an early form of democracy. The

1805:. A new constitution was crafted, but the conflict between the ruling families ( 1645:

Within the Athenian democratic environment, many philosophers from all over the

7662:

Muhlberger, S.; Paine, P. (Spring 1993). "Democracy's Place in World History".

7175:

Patterns of Democracy. Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries

6813: 6795: 6205:"Cambodia's Dirty Dozen: A Long History of Rights Abuses by Hun Sen's Generals" 6132:"Democracy's Century: A Survey of Global Political Change in the 20th Century." 5173: 4708: 4689: 4637: 4520: 3671: 3620: 3527: 3519: 3477: 3454: 3325: 3152: 2980: 2969: 2965: 2822: 2814: 2743: 2698: 2694: 2449: 2366: 2233: 2114: 1752: 1698: 1690: 1646: 1262: 1228: 977: 957: 563: 453: 223: 7550: 7533: 7345:

Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from 478 BC

6591: 6288: 5467: 3950:"dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government" 3623:

and a new constitution with free and open elections.. Later, around 2011, the

1458:

After the fall of tyranny (510 BCE) and before the year 508–507 BCE was over,

1253: 1239:

crushed what remained of the power of the factional city-states to his South.

789: 7794: 6700: 6466: 6296: 5913:

Center for History and New Media, George Mason University (4 February 1794).

5281: 5126: 4344: 4303: 4120: 4089: 3780: 3342: 3263: 3256: 3194: 2994: 2776:, the first representative legislative body in the New World, is established. 2769:

decided that "in many cases, the common law will control Acts of Parliament".

2503: 2242: 1999: 1928: 1919: 1888: 1821: 1566:

no-one could build up a power base through staying in a particular position.

1400: 1380:. All but those in the poorest group might serve, a year at a time, on a new 969: 912: 900: 896: 891: 696: 463: 330: 283: 159: 6431: 4288:(1st American ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Co. pp. 104–105. 4027:

Olson, Mancur (September 1993). "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development".

3190:, with representatives of all Spanish provinces, including those in America. 60: 6899: 5219:

Mazara dopo i Musulmani fino alle Signorie - Dal Vescovado all'Inquisizione

3598:

in 1893, but this is discounted due to lack of complete sovereignty of the

3450: 3446: 3181:

was passed, which took effect across the British Empire from 1 August 1834.

2876: 1982: 1833: 1758:(representative) democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models. 1739: 1720: 1499: 1440: 1369: 1360: 1214: 1210: 1145: 1047:

Ancient Greece, in its early period, was a loose collection of independent

998: 939:, the monarch apparently always belonged to a family of the noble class of 684: 7490:

Bailkey, N. (July 1967). "Early Mesopotamian Constitutional Development".

7153:

The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States

6661: 3117: 6271:

Malka, Ariel; Lelkes, Yphtach; Bakker, Bert N.; Spivack, Eliyahu (2020).

3925:

democracy. It is often compared with modern (representative) democracies.

3918: 3861: 3849: 3624: 3489:

exchange for their support for embattled colonial powers during the war.

3296: 3249: 3171: 3125:

in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.

2838: 2670: 2619: 2491: 2437: 2378: 2279: 2261: 2124: 2034: 1825: 1731: 1459: 1413: 1048: 993: 738: 443: 134: 7675: 7567:

Jacobsen, T. (July 1943). "Primitive Democracy in Ancient Mesopotamia".

7110:

Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750–1850

6110:"How the Westminster Parliamentary System was exported around the World" 5914: 3811: 3030:

states, which mostly enfranchised only adult white males who owned land.

2227:

wanted to pursue the war against Norway against the will of the people.

1618:

in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also

960:, had the assembly open to all men, rich and poor. Early "republics" or 629: 7781: 7742: 7713: 7646: 7511: 6907: 6889: 6867: 6849: 6200: 5289: 4048: 3637: 2902: 2710: 2362: 2265: 2257: 2220: 2128: 2027: 1869: 1551:, Athenian". Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original from c. 430 BCE. 1548: 1520: 973: 825: 518: 448: 315: 7559: 7301:

Oligarchia: The Development of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece

6537:

Democracy Facing Global Challenges: V-Dem Annual Democracy Report 2019

5999: 3418:

in Russia in 1917 inaugurated a few months of liberal democracy under

1434:

with the speaker's platform, the meeting place of the people of Athens

6273:"Who Is Open to Authoritarian Governance within Western Democracies?" 5832:

The Conservative Political Tradition in Britain and the United States

5829:

Aughey, Arthur; Jones, Greta; Riches, William Terence Martin (1992).

5538:"From legal document to public myth: Magna Carta in the 17th century" 3875: 3742:

of February 2014 Ukraine has seen two presidential elections and the

3411: 3383: 3378: 3219: 3062: 2826: 2818: 2521:

Great Law of Peace § Influence on the United States Constitution

1976: 1906: 1810: 1797: 1640: 1562: 1417: 1393: 1389: 1359:

BCE), an Athenian (Greek) of noble descent but moderate means, was a

1221:, with Sparta prevailing in the end. However, the war exhausted both 1173: 1116:

The creator of the Spartan system of rule was the legendary lawgiver

1109: 1056: 941: 821: 817: 801: 794: 774: 742: 717: 672: 543: 498: 358: 45: 7734: 7638: 7503: 7319:

Pomeroy, S. B.; Burstein, S. M.; Donlan, W.; Roberts, J. T. (1999).

7280:

Democracy and knowledge: innovation and learning in classical Athens

6394:"Authoritarian regimes prevailing over democracies across the world" 5381:

Indian givers: how the Indians of the Americas transformed the world

4040: 2727:

Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

2113:) were periodically convened to debate the state of the Realms. The 1144:

The reforms of Lycurgus were written as a list of rules/laws called

7609: 7580: 5511: 3797: 3724: 3700: 3466: 3138: 2846: 2842: 2834: 2645: 2631:

which was exaggerated and misinterpreted after his death in 1937.

2603: 2374: 2253: 1940: 1915: 1865: 1861: 1848: 1785: 1727: 1694: 1650: 1632: 1588: 1544: 1507: 1473: 1421: 1190: 1177: 1164:). It was also reflected in the Spartan public educational system, 1128: 1070: 881: 730: 538: 508: 473: 295: 23: 6841: 5961: 3719:

in order to increase their own power. The authoritarian regime of

3514:

achieved the status of the world's largest liberal democracy with

2288: 1055:. Many of these poleis were oligarchies. The most prominent Greek 812:

epic, myth, and historical records to identify what he has called

7519:

Cartledge, P. (April 1994). "Ancient Greeks and Modern Britons".

5472: 3735: 3720: 3667: 3583:

sphere of influence were also replaced with liberal democracies.

3403: 3245: 3241: 3103: 3058: 2458: 2216: 2137: 2120: 2011: 1961:– "the revered one". He was always careful to avoid the title of 1385: 1315: 1235:

in 371 BCE. It was all brought to an end a few years later, when

1083:(representatives of the citizens who oversaw the kings), and the 1064: 734: 30:

in 63 BCE, depicting a Roman citizen casting a ballot into an urn

6859: 6025:

survived into the 20th century in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island.

5979:"1848 " Désormais le bulletin de vote doit remplacer le fusil "" 3560: 3426:

took over in October. The terrible economic consequences of the

7238:

Will of the People: Original Democracy in Non-Western Societies

7193:

Livy; De Sélincourt, A.; Ogilvie, R. M.; Oakley, S. P. (2002).

6607:"History tells us there are four key threats to U.S. democracy" 5416:. New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A: Transaction Publishers. pp. 5257:"6. Government and Politics. Historical Patterns of Governance" 3871: 3688: 2927: 2731:

Organisation and politics of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

2678: 2635: 2411: 2355: 2316: 2275: 2053: 1781: 1707:. Athens restored its democratic constitution again after King 1512: 1444: 1309: 1136: 1121: 1080: 1052: 1031: 953: 908: 904: 558: 7387:

The First Democracies: Early Popular Government Outside Athens

7192: 6626:

Lieberman, By Suzanne Mettler and Robert C. (10 August 2020).

5659:. Government of the United Kingdom: History of Government Blog 5442:"Democracy Has Existed in the Americas Longer Than We Thought" 5414:

The Invented Indian: cultural fictions and government policies

3731:) in 2017 and effectively implemented a one-man dictatorship. 3504:

democracy with a parliamentary system and universal suffrage.

2131:

in the world, with roots back to the late 9th or 10th century.

1836:, embodying the aristocratic form; and the people through the 7259:

Dēmokratia: a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern

6696: 6036: 4189:. Institute of Historical Research, University of Cambridge. 3511: 3507: 3423: 2821:

freely debated rights to political representation during the

2397: 2343: 2335: 2219:

at the end of February or in early March. As in Iceland, the

1879: 1873: 1868:

constitution (another mixed constitution) at the time of the

1793: 1702: 1654: 1636: 1602: 1592: 1578: 1574: 1556: 1471: 1463: 1426: 1377: 1363:

poet and later a lawmaker; Plutarch ranked him as one of the

1341: 1331: 1319: 1307: 1276: 1270: 1222: 1200: 1194: 1181: 1167: 1165: 1155: 1149: 1134: 1126: 1102: 1096: 1084: 1068: 884:—a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of 809: 759: 755: 7451:

Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India

7318: 6964:

Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC: A Source-based Approach

5694:"The Historical Development of the Office of Prime Minister" 3483: 2964:, succeeding the English parliament. From around 1721–1742, 992:

possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an

824:

power that later Mesopotamian rulers wielded. Rather, major

758:

with different forms of government, democracy ("rule by the

7700:

Rhodes, P. J. (1981). "The Selection of Ephors at Sparta".

6067:

British Society 1680-1880: Dynamism, Containment and Change

5884:"Expansion of Rights and Liberties - The Right of Suffrage" 5134: 3934:

The ancient Greeks did not have a word to use for "rights".

3876:

random selection to form a representative deliberative body

3580: 3134:

a successful slave revolution, established a free republic.

2850: 2674: 2425: 2405: 2347: 2339: 1853: 1583:(generals), where military knowledge was required, and the 1570: 1431: 1407: 930: 872: 6877: 6735: 6000:

Stanley L. Engerman; Kenneth L. Sokoloff (February 2005).

1878:: living as you like – have fallen on stony ground, since 7534:"The Tradition of the Athenian Democracy A. D. 1750–1990" 7323:

Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History

6654:

Backsliding: Democratic Regress in the Contemporary World

6002:"The Evolution of Suffrage Institutions in the New World" 3367: 1325: 6574:

Four Threats: The Recurring Crises of American Democracy

6270: 2168:'s stepson wanted to enter it, Njal had to persuade the 1336: 7106: 6898: 5122:

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

3492:

In 1946, the United States granted independence to the

1306:

Athens emerged in the 7th century BCE, like many other

767: 5374: 5151:. Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans. p. 92. 5049: 5047: 5045: 5043: 5015: 5013: 3796:

people living in democracies less than the end of the

3065:, into a much more positive opposite of 'aristocracy'. 1689:(in 411 BCE) and second Sparta's puppet régime of the 1022:

s is not comparable to truly democratic institutions.

1017: 1011: 962: 934: 924: 873: 864: 5254: 3402:

for all citizens was implemented constitutionally in

3159:

and enacted international treaties to combat foreign

2514: 2502:

implicitly supported what became the English writ of

2387: 2326: 2320: 2310: 2304: 2298: 2286: 929:

seem to include a monarch, usually known by the name

5976: 5862:. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 544. 5370: 5368: 5003: 5001: 4925:. Book 6, section 1317b – via Perseus Project. 2849:) and opposing Parliamentarian groupings became the 2186:

has run nearly continuously to the present day. The

2146:, founded in 930. It consisted of the 39, later 55, 1626: 716:

These types of democracy are commonly identified as

7362: 7107:Heideking, J.; Henretta, J. A.; Becker, P. (2002). 6040:

Discovering the Western Past, Volume II: Since 1500

5040: 5010: 3076:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

2937:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

1988: 1676: 7448: 7363:Raaflaub, K. A.; Ober, J.; Wallace, R. W. (2007). 7320: 7150: 7057:Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC – 1993 AD 7032: 6489:"Global overview of COVID-19: Impact on elections" 6444: 5856:Johnston, Douglas M.; Reisman, W. Michael (2008). 5722: 4476: 4474: 3310:allowing women to stand for election to parliament 2894:of 1688) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, 1293:of Aristotle, continuing in the 16th century with 903:. Among the Mahajanapadas and smaller states, the 5828: 5755:"'Natural Aristocracy' and the U.S. Constitution" 5490:See for example Chapters 1–2 in Maciej Janowski, 5365: 5149:La Diputació del General de Catalunya (1413–1479) 4998: 4914: 4399:. Brill Archive. pp. 93–. GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0. 2609:Elizabeth Tooker, a professor of anthropology at 1948:where the fleet of Octavian under the command of 1780:Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: 1768:History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic 7792: 6925:A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought 6856: 4792:. Translated by Crook, J. A. Oxford: Blackwell. 4789:The Athenian democracy in the age of Demosthenes 4704: 4702: 3605: 2805:1642–1651: The idea of the political party with 2646:Rise of democracy in modern national governments 2010:that the power resides with the people in 1018, 7685:"American Democracy Through Ancient Greek Eyes" 7661: 7596:Larsen, J. A. O. (January 1973). "Demokratia". 7011: 6906:. Translated by Rev. Canon Roberts – via 5855: 5835:. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 114. 5805:"Jefferson, Adams, and the Natural Aristocracy" 5492:Polish Liberal Thought Before 1918: Before 1918 5235:, p. 103. London: Peninsular Publishers, 1982. 4471: 4209: 4207: 4141: 4139: 4137: 3632:also took action to address democratic rights. 3386:scale, another widely used measure of democracy 3004:"the first constitution of its kind in Europe". 2870:history of the parliament of the United Kingdom 2325:coexisted at any time throughout Ireland. Each 2251: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2135: 7033:Dahl, R.; Shapiro, I.; Cheibub, C. A. (2003). 6840: 6651: 6604: 5700:. Princeton University Press. pp. 22–25. 5560:"Magna Carta: Magna Carta in the 17th Century" 4353:. University of California. pp. 146–150. 3457:and Eastern Europe became undemocratic Soviet 3453:of their citizens. However, many countries of 3328:from obstructing legislation from the elected 3186:1810: 24 of September: Opening session of the 2656: 2045:and then that of a unified England before the 7429:The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World 7408:Ancient Greek Democracy: Readings and Sources 6941: 5217: 5061: 5059: 4929: 4699: 4683: 3561:Late Cold War and post-Soviet democratication 3472:Japan had moved towards democracy during the 3461:. In Southern Europe, a number of right-wing 3356:his vote secret unless he was ashamed of it. 2562:that contextualizes different points of view. 2548:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 2498:(1265). The version of Magna Carta signed by 2474: 2431: 2410:– popular assemblies in Slavic countries. In 2395: 2108: 2100: 1614:Overall, the Athenian democracy was not only 652: 6858: 6512: 6180: 6030: 5941:. University of Toronto Press. p. 168. 5313: 4812: 4204: 4173: 4171: 4169: 4134: 3317:, first parliamentary system in middle east. 2928:Eighteenth and nineteenth century milestones 2809:took form in Britain around the time of the 2468: 2456: 2423: 2415: 2403: 2240: 2127:, claims to be one of the oldest continuous 2057: 1967:– "king", and instead took on the titles of 7255: 6149: 6070:. Cambridge University Press. p. 289. 5677:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5494:, Central European University Press, 2004, 4106: 3855: 3197:in Portugal under a Constitutional Charter. 2494:(1215) limiting the authority of the king; 2041:, councils of advisors to the kings of the 1974: 1968: 1962: 1954: 1841: 1815: 1685:of 431 to 404 BCE), establishing first the 7213: 6848:. Translated by William Ellis – via 6652:Haggard, Stephan; Kaufman, Robert (2021). 6417: 6112:. University of Cambridge. 2 December 2013 5780:"Equality: John Adams to Thomas Jefferson" 5250: 5248: 5056: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4514: 4408: 4406: 980:(or Vṛji) League, centered in the city of 659: 645: 7702:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 7549: 7518: 7425: 7234: 6981: 6838: 6625: 6529: 6152:"Iraq's Constitution: A Drafting History" 5859:The Historical Foundations of World Order 4420: 4418: 4384:, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.107 4166: 3484:Decolonisation and civil rights movements 3465:dictatorships (most notably in Spain and 3048:1800: peaceful transition between parties 2723:Szlachta history and political privileges 2594:has argued that the ideas leading to the 2578:Learn how and when to remove this message 7720: 7566: 7404: 7383: 7171: 7002: 6743:"Mapped: The world's oldest democracies" 5962:Belinda Havenga Université of Prétoria. 5411: 4350:Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 4221: 4219: 4197: 4195: 4159: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4151: 4107:Deresiewicz, William (18 October 2021). 3834: 3810: 3786: 3763: 3653: 3377: 3346: 3116: 2931: 2660: 2196:" (assemblies) all over Northern Europe. 2022:The continuations of the early Germanic 1998: 1905: 1775: 1534: 1425: 1408:Democracy under Cleisthenes and Pericles 1335: 1252: 1079:(elders), including the two kings), the 1035: 890: 788: 17: 7682: 7489: 7459: 7297: 7217:The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy 7148: 6960: 6713:"Age of democracies at the end of 2015" 6571: 6386: 6150:Deeks, Ashley; Burton, Matthew (2007). 5888:Online Exhibit: The Charters of Freedom 5384:. New York: Fawcett Columbine. p. 5245: 5222:, Angelo Mazzotta Editore, 2001, p. 30. 5146: 4846: 4843:, where the poor could refuse to serve. 4626: 4582:La democrazias: Storia di un'ideologia, 4458: 4403: 2952:is established after the merger of the 1895: 1396:and democratic system of institutions. 7793: 7699: 7624: 7595: 7531: 7446: 7341: 7095: 6876: 5934: 5720: 5691: 5480:from the original on 13 December 2021. 4785: 4415: 4343: 4337: 4179:"The Socratics' Sparta and Rousseau's" 4022: 4020: 3368:Waves of democracy in the 20th century 3096:in September 1792, but revoked by the 2841:and party colours. Later, the pre-war 2482:The rise of democratic parliaments in 1809:) and the rest of the population, the 1326:Solon and the foundations of democracy 1042:United States House of Representatives 857: 707: 7723:The American Political Science Review 7627:The American Political Science Review 7366:Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece 7127: 6922: 6866:. Translated by G. Booth – via 6199: 6063: 5993: 5590:"Charles I and the Petition of Right" 5177:, tr. Magnus Magnusson, introduction. 4920: 4283: 4216: 4192: 4148: 4085: 4083: 4029:The American Political Science Review 4026: 3866:Under the influence of the theory of 3839:Age of democracies at the end of 2015 3727:dissolved the main opposition party ( 3533:In the United States of America, the 3155:after which the U.K. established the 2342:, a minority sect distinct from both 1761: 7276: 7074: 7053: 6896: 6361: 6236:Cambodia: Return to Authoritarianism 5564:The Society of Antiquaries of London 5512:"Deductie van Vrancken - Wikisource" 4895: 3441: 3336: 3259:in Australia; 1872 in UK; 1892 in US 3137:1792: Local elections instituted in 3092:established for the election of the 3021:American Declaration of Independence 2813:. Soldiers from the Parliamentarian 2528: 1693:(in 404 BCE). Both votes took place 1649:gathered to develop their theories. 768:Potential proto-democratic societies 6693:List of Electoral Democracies FIW23 5890:. National Archives. Archived from 5729:. Oxford University Press. p. 5657:"The Institution of Prime Minister" 5131:Carolingian cavalryman, AD 768–987, 4813:Carson, Lyn; Martin, Brian (1999). 4017: 3660:2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests 3351:A British secret ballot paper, 1880 2881:Frame of Government of Pennsylvania 2618:and a speech by the Iroquois chief 2598:and democracy derived from various 13: 7759: 7369:. University of California Press. 7015:Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought 7012:Clarke, P.; Foweraker, J. (2001). 6988:. University of California Press. 6832: 6827: 6232: 5604:"Britain's unwritten constitution" 5329:"Origins and growth of Parliament" 4382:Political History of Ancient India 4080: 4063: 3480:, with initial elections in 1946. 2866:constitution of the United Kingdom 2600:indigenous peoples of the Americas 2515:Indigenous peoples of the Americas 1227:and Sparta was in turn humbled by 793:The tablet containing the epic of 14: 7827: 7775: 7256:Ober, J.; Hedrick, C. W. (1996). 6874: 6605:Farrell, Henry (14 August 2020). 6542:(Report). V-Dem Institute at the 6156:Cornell International Law Journal 6043:. Cengage Learning. p. 336. 6007:. pp. 16, 35. Archived from 5606:. British Library. Archived from 3777:number of countries autocratizing 3691:, in December 2005, the 4th King 3670:(also known as Burma) the ruling 3541:enforced the 15th Amendment. The 3315:Persian Constitutional Revolution 2950:first Parliament of Great Britain 1887:Rome became the ruler of a great 1627:The birth of political philosophy 1213:. In addition, Athens, after the 6944:A complex study of Ancient India 6915: 6806: 6788: 6779: 6770: 6761: 6705: 6686: 6645: 6619: 6598: 6576:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 6565: 6513:Repucci, Sarah; Slipowitz, Amy. 6506: 6481: 6438: 6411: 6331: 6311: 6264: 6225: 6193: 6174: 6143: 6124: 6102: 6093: 6084: 6057: 5970: 5955: 5935:Walker, James W. St G. (1992) . 5928: 5906: 5876: 5849: 5822: 5797: 5772: 5747: 5714: 5685: 5648: 5626: 5596: 5582: 5530: 5504: 5484: 4771:History of the Peloponnesian War 4653:Robinson, 2003, pp. 54–55, 76–98 4380:Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), 3717:in 2014 changed the constitution 3524:Westminster parliamentary system 3236:1848: Following the French, the 3080:U.S. Declaration of Independence 2533: 2192:was preceded by less elaborate " 1989:Institutions in the medieval era 1711:(reigned 359–336 BCE) and later 1677:Decline, revival, and criticisms 1344:from the National Museum, Naples 628: 7771:(Oxford University Press, 2014) 7569:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 7426:de Sainte, C. G. E. M. (2006). 6187:regardexcentrique.wordpress.com 5460: 5434: 5343: 5321: 5306: 5275: 5225: 5210: 5180: 5165: 5140: 5113: 5104: 5095: 5086: 5068: 5031: 5022: 4989: 4980: 4971: 4962: 4953: 4941: 4889: 4880: 4871: 4833: 4806: 4779: 4763: 4754: 4745: 4736: 4727: 4718: 4674: 4665: 4656: 4647: 4617: 4608: 4599: 4590: 4571: 4562: 4553: 4544: 4535: 4526: 4505: 4496: 4487: 4449: 4440: 4427: 4412:Bongard-Levin, 1996, pp. 61–106 4387: 4374: 4328: 4319: 4310: 4286:The life and death of democracy 4277: 4268: 4259: 4246: 4237: 4228: 3619:led to a toppling of President 2792:renewed interest in Magna Carta 2496:first representative parliament 2215:, which took place annually at 1772:Elections in the Roman Republic 1695:under manipulation and pressure 919:followed republican government. 612:Latin America and the Caribbean 7283:. Princeton University Press. 7262:. Princeton University Press. 7134:. Cambridge University Press. 7113:. Cambridge University Press. 6656:. Cambridge University Press. 6181:Régis Marzin (27 April 2017). 4854:"Boule: ancient Greek council" 4786:Hansen, Mogens Herman (1991). 4523:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 4109:"Human History Gets a Rewrite" 4100: 4007: 3982: 3969: 3905:of Aristotle, continuing with 3830:survey, covering the year 2022 3729:Cambodia National Rescue Party 3017:Virginia Declaration of Rights 2999:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 2707:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 2683:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 1008:four-tiered Varna class system 784: 1: 7007:. Cambridge University Press. 6942:Bongard-Levin, G. M. (1986). 6901:From the Founding of the City 6459:10.1080/13510347.2019.1696310 5951:– via Internet Archive. 4900:. London: Orion. p. 24. 4802:– via Internet Archive. 4435:Kautilya and the Arthashastra 4072:. Updated November 17, 2023. 3958: 3769: 3676:National League for Democracy 3606:Democracy in the 21st century 2430:– the Polish parliament. The 2377:, and similar city-states in 2018:Early institutions included: 1490:, becoming a great center of 1349: 781:, and elsewhere before this. 424:Democracy and economic growth 7532:Hansen, M. H. (April 1992). 7432:. Cornell University Press. 5698:Office of the Prime Minister 5194:(in Italian). Archived from 4816:Random Selection in Politics 4265:Bailkey, 1967, pp. 1211–1236 3963: 3937: 3779:(blue) is higher than those 3617:2003 US-led invasion of Iraq 3610: 3394:was a temporary victory for 3151:banned the trade across the 3035:United States Bill of Rights 2014:, drawing by C. Krogh, 1899. 1880: 1874: 1801:group of aristocrats led by 1796:next to powerful neighbors; 1788:, from a 19th-century fresco 1703: 1603: 1593: 1579: 1557: 1519:. In the following passage, 1472: 1464: 1308: 1277: 1271: 1223: 1201: 1195: 1166: 1156: 1135: 1127: 1103: 1097: 1085: 1069: 843: 760: 702: 617:Middle East and North Africa 484:Peaceful transition of power 7: 7482: 7327:. Oxford University Press. 7220:. Oxford University Press. 7060:. Oxford University Press. 6373:www.worldpoliticsreview.com 5288:, p. 201. Jubilee edition. 5255:Federal Research Division. 4455:Cartledge 2001, p. xii, 276 4243:Jacobsen, 1943, pp. 159–172 3928: 3641:attempted to cling to power 3408:proportional representation 3255:1850s: introduction of the 3002:Constitution of May 3, 1791 2941:National Assembly of France 2908:Two Treatises of Government 2774:Virginia House of Burgesses 2657:Early Modern Era milestones 2432: 2422:developed in 1182 into the 2396: 1939:, and Caesar's grandnephew 1902:History of the Roman Empire 1018: 1012: 963: 956:, during the period around 935: 925: 923:Key characteristics of the 874: 865: 514:Proportional representation 10: 7832: 7768:Democracy: A World History 7683:Strauss, B. (April 1994). 7492:American Historical Review 7214:Macpherson, C. B. (1977). 7081:. Atlantic Monthly Press. 7003:Crawford, Michael (1974). 6546:. May 2019. Archived from 6515:"Democracy under Lockdown" 5977:French National Assembly. 5692:Carter, Byrum E. (2015) . 5075:Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4724:Buckley, 1996, pp. 138–140 4596:Pomeroy, 1999, pp. 159–164 4493:Pomeroy, 1999, pp. 149–153 4396:Republics in ancient India 4092:. Updated March 17, 2024. 3891: 3878:is most commonly known as 3859: 3757: 3753: 3744:peaceful transfer of power 3564: 3371: 3340: 3216:Greek Constitution of 1844 3086:character of human rights. 3027:United States Constitution 2833:) and pioneered political 2697:or the Nobles' Democracy ( 2649: 2596:United States Constitution 2590:Professor of anthropology 2518: 1992: 1899: 1765: 1750: 1630: 1483: 1411: 1329: 1246: 1150: 1029: 972:, centered in the city of 692:representative democracies 7551:10.1017/S0017383500023950 7235:Manglapus, R. S. (1987). 7178:. Yale University Press. 7099:The Story of Civilization 6857:Diodorus Siculus (1814). 6572:Mettler, Suzanne (2020). 6325:14 September 2021 at the 6289:10.1017/S1537592720002091 4959:Hansen, (1992), pp. 14–30 4877:Powell, 2001, pp. 300–304 4680:Raaflaub, 2007, pp. 67–72 4234:Robinson, 1997, pp. 16–17 4163:Clarke, 2001, pp. 194–201 3995:. Oxford University Press 3828:Freedom in the World 2023 3535:Voting Rights Act of 1965 3324:restricted the unelected 3231:French Revolution of 1848 3224:Greek War of Independence 3205:first modern constitution 3166:1832: The passing of the 2790:1628: During a period of 2783:, an agreement among the 2756:The Case of Proclamations 2701:Szlachecka) arose in the 2006:teaches the Swedish king 1792:Rome was a city-state in 1543:bearing the inscription " 1242: 1025: 7664:Journal of World History 7411:. Blackwell Publishing. 7405:Robinson, E. W. (2003). 7390:. Franz Steiner Verlag. 7384:Robinson, E. W. (1997). 7304:. Franz Steiner Verlag. 7036:The Democracy Sourcebook 7018:. Taylor & Francis. 7005:Roman Republican Coinage 6982:Cartledge, Paul (2003). 6544:University of Gothenburg 6277:Perspectives on Politics 5147:Sánchez, Isabel (2004). 4742:Raaflaub, 2007 pp. 144–9 4662:Raaflaub, 2007, pp. 60–8 4623:Pomeroy, 1999, pp. 164–5 4541:Buckley, 1996, pp. 65–85 4511:Rhodes 1981, pp. 498–502 4201:Robinson, 1997, pp. 24–5 3977:Roman Republican Coinage 3885: 3856:Contemporary innovations 2968:, regarded as the first 2739:Justificatie of Deductie 2142:, the parliament of the 1180:to philosophers such as 1091:(assembly of Spartans). 569:Wars between democracies 549:Territorial peace theory 394:Democratic confederalism 6927:. John Wiley and Sons. 6432:10.1111/1758-5899.12225 6064:Price, Richard (1999). 5784:press-pubs.uchicago.edu 5721:Davies, Norman (1996). 5636:. The National Archives 5634:"Citizenship 1625-1789" 5353:. The National Archives 5331:. The National Archives 5188:"Storia del Parlamento" 4858:Encyclopædia Britannica 4713:Encyclopædia Britannica 4709:"Cleisthenes of Athens" 4694:Encyclopædia Britannica 4642:Encyclopædia Britannica 4568:Raaflaub 2007, pp. 40–1 4446:Ostwald 2000, pp. 21–25 4424:Sharma 1968, pp. 109–22 4095:Encyclopædia Britannica 4075:Encyclopædia Britannica 3697:constitutional monarchy 3282:William Ewart Gladstone 3123:universal male suffrage 3090:Universal male suffrage 3007:The United States: the 2921:consent of the governed 2829:published a newspaper ( 1910:A fragment of a bronze 1746: 554:Tyranny of the majority 489:Political demonstration 399:Democratic peace theory 374:Deliberative referendum 28:Lucius Cassius Longinus 7455:. Motilal Banarsidass. 7447:Sharma, J. P. (1968). 7131:Violence and Democracy 6776:Cartledge, 1994, p. 27 6628:"The Fragile Republic" 6137:18 August 2000 at the 5376:Weatherford, J. McIver 5314: 5265:US Library of Congress 5218: 5101:Balot, 2009, pp. 164–5 4898:Cities in Civilisation 4839:The exception was the 4760:Raaflaub, 2008, p. 140 3868:deliberative democracy 3840: 3832: 3822:Countries designated " 3802:Democratic backsliding 3792: 3784: 3705:presidential elections 3693:Jigme Singye Wangchuck 3663: 3469:) continued to exist. 3414:system. Likewise, the 3387: 3352: 3306:is the first place to 3288:ushered in the modern 3126: 3053:1780s: development of 2944: 2917:social contract theory 2913:monarchical absolutism 2690: 2685:, in 1697. Painted by 2525:The Dawn of Everything 2475: 2469: 2457: 2424: 2416: 2404: 2388: 2327: 2321: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2295:early medieval Ireland 2287: 2252: 2241: 2229:Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker 2188: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2160: 2158:; and each hereditary 2154: 2148: 2144:Icelandic Commonwealth 2136: 2109: 2101: 2058: 2039:Early Medieval England 2015: 2004:Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker 1975: 1973:– "first citizen" and 1969: 1963: 1955: 1923: 1842: 1816: 1789: 1674: 1552: 1533: 1435: 1345: 1275:'(common) people' and 1265: 1044: 920: 834:Mesopotamian democracy 797: 748:The Dawn of Everything 379:Democratic backsliding 369:Criticism of democracy 31: 7816:Democracy by location 7172:Lijphart, A. (1999). 7102:. Simon and Schuster. 6923:Balot, R. K. (2009). 6662:10.1017/9781108957809 6130:Freedom House. 1999. 5351:"Citizen or Subject?" 5261:A Country Study: Oman 4968:Ober, 1996, pp. 15–16 4733:Raaflaub, 2007, p. 77 4671:Robinson, 2003, p. 76 4614:Raaflaub, 2007, p. 51 4605:Raaflaub, 2007, p. 50 4587:(2004) 2018 pp. 12–13 4559:Pomeroy, 1999, p. 152 4550:Pomeroy, 1999, p. 143 4334:Robinson, 1997, p. 23 4325:Robinson, 1997, p. 22 4274:Robinson, 1997, p. 20 3838: 3826:" in Freedom House's 3824:electoral democracies 3814: 3790: 3767: 3760:Democratic transition 3758:Further information: 3748:illiberal democracies 3657: 3630:Palestinian Authority 3571:Post-Soviet conflicts 3565:Further information: 3381: 3350: 3226:against the Ottomans. 3179:Slavery Abolition Act 3121:The establishment of 3120: 2991:Bill of Rights (1689) 2985:Corsican Constitution 2935: 2860:1679: English Act of 2800:Parliament of England 2719:King Henry's Articles 2664: 2652:Democratic transition 2650:Further information: 2556:by rewriting it in a 2002: 1993:Further information: 1909: 1779: 1719:. Finally, after the 1669: 1607:were executed by the 1538: 1525: 1498:. Greek victories in 1429: 1339: 1330:Further information: 1256: 1247:Further information: 1101:. The members of the 1039: 1030:Further information: 894: 792: 434:Electoral competition 414:Democratic transition 389:Democratic centralism 384:Democratic capitalism 21: 7460:Thorley, J. (1996). 7298:Ostwald, M. (2000). 7199:. Penguin Classics. 7149:Keyssar, A. (2001). 7078:Democracy: a history 6961:Buckley, T. (1996). 6946:. South Asia Books. 6814:"The Federalist #51" 6796:"The Federalist #10" 6767:Strauss, 1994, p. 32 6747:World Economic Forum 5570:on 25 September 2018 5315:Baskische Geschichte 5294:Stacey International 5080:Antiquitates Romanae 4995:Watson, 2005, p. 271 4977:Watson, 2005, p. 285 4896:Hall, Peter (1999). 4886:Raaflaub, 2007, p. 5 4532:Raaflaud 2007, p. 37 4502:Buckley, 1996, p. 76 4284:Keane, John (2009). 4185:28 June 2006 at the 2444:in the republics of 1933:Marcus Junius Brutus 1896:Transition to empire 1860:Roman stability, in 1803:Lucius Junius Brutus 1709:Philip II of Macedon 1659:political philosophy 1237:Philip II of Macedon 409:Democratic socialism 7598:Classical Philology 7342:Powell, A. (2001). 7241:. Greenwood Press. 7096:Durant, W. (1942). 6985:Spartan reflections 6723:on 15 February 2020 6612:The Washington Post 6233:Un, Kheang (2019). 6014:on 11 November 2020 5542:The British Library 5312:Kasper, M. (1997). 5198:on 11 December 2015 5110:Balot, 2009, p. 176 5053:Balot, 2009, p. 216 5037:Balot, 2009, p. 194 5019:Durant, 1942, p. 23 4213:Thorley, 1996, p. 2 3911:Niccolò Machiavelli 3416:February Revolution 3396:democracy in Europe 3286:Midlothian campaign 3238:Revolutions of 1848 3144:The United Kingdom 3094:National Convention 2958:Kingdom of Scotland 2892:Glorious Revolution 2888:Bill of Rights 1689 2381:, Flanders and the 2212:Thing of all Swedes 2200:Sicilian Parliament 1736:A History of Greece 1717:Hellenistic empires 1713:Alexander the Great 1301:Niccolò Machiavelli 1259:Acropolis of Athens 1162:men of equal status 1077:Council of Gerontes 886:Alexander the Great 858:Indian subcontinent 838:primitive oligarchy 814:primitive democracy 779:Indian subcontinent 726:primitive democracy 724:. In this sense, a 722:primitive democracy 708:Prehistoric origins 635:Politics portal 429:Democracy promotion 404:Democratic republic 7811:Types of democracy 7463:Athenian Democracy 7128:Keane, J. (2004). 6861:Historical Library 6839:Aristotle (1912). 6785:Ober, 1996, p. 107 6209:Human Rights Watch 5610:on 8 December 2015 5548:on 18 October 2017 5271:on 9 January 2009. 4254:Middle East Policy 4070:"Political System" 3880:citizens' assembly 3846:universal suffrage 3841: 3833: 3793: 3785: 3664: 3596:universal suffrage 3592:universal suffrage 3567:Post-Soviet states 3522:often adopted the 3516:universal suffrage 3420:Alexander Kerensky 3400:universal suffrage 3388: 3353: 3290:political campaign 3157:Blockade of Africa 3132:Haitian Revolution 3127: 3042:First Party System 3019:is published; the 2962:Acts of Union 1707 2954:Kingdom of England 2945: 2898:would not prevail. 2857:in the Parliament. 2798:was passed by the 2721:(1573). See also: 2691: 2442:judicial authority 2152:; each owner of a 2115:Corts of Catalonia 2016: 1924: 1790: 1762:The Roman Republic 1553: 1436: 1346: 1266: 1249:Athenian democracy 1199:. And second, the 1045: 921: 798: 574:Waves of democracy 534:Right to candidacy 504:Popular referendum 494:Political equality 364:Citizens' assembly 32: 7801:Political history 7786:Our World in Data 7538:Greece & Rome 7376:978-0-520-24562-4 7290:978-0-691-13347-8 7277:Ober, J. (2008). 7075:Dunn, J. (2006). 7054:Dunn, J. (1994). 6934:978-1-4051-5143-6 6717:Our World in Data 6671:978-1-108-95780-9 6583:978-1-250-24442-0 6349:on 17 August 2018 6246:978-1-108-61286-9 6077:978-0-521-65701-3 6050:978-1-111-83717-4 5948:978-0-8020-7402-7 5869:978-90-474-2393-5 5842:978-0-8386-3500-1 5725:Europe: A History 5707:978-1-4008-7826-0 5516:nl.wikisource.org 5476:. 27 March 2008. 5231:J. R. C. Carter, 5007:Livy, 2002, p. 23 4986:Livy, 2002, p. 34 4907:978-0-7538-0815-3 4826:978-0-275-96702-4 4799:978-0-631-18017-3 4751:Ober, 2008, p. 63 4433:Trautmann T. R., 4360:978-0-520-24225-8 4295:978-0-393-05835-2 4225:Dunn, 2006, p. 13 4181:(seminar notes). 3806:COVID-19 pandemic 3740:Maidan revolution 3551:Voting Rights Act 3526:. The process of 3478:Allied occupation 3442:Post–World War II 3374:Wave of democracy 3337:The secret ballot 3070:French Revolution 2977:Corsican Republic 2817:and a faction of 2811:English Civil War 2796:Petition of Right 2781:Mayflower Compact 2766:Dr. Bonham's Case 2703:Kingdom of Poland 2687:Bernardo Bellotto 2616:Benjamin Franklin 2611:Temple University 2588: 2587: 2580: 2542:This article may 2204:kingdom of Sicily 2073:Iberian Peninsula 1843:senatus consultum 1683:Pelopponesian War 1517:political machine 1233:Battle of Leuctra 1219:Peloponnesian War 820:did not hold the 806:Thorkild Jacobsen 669: 668: 524:Right to petition 7823: 7754: 7717: 7696: 7679: 7658: 7621: 7592: 7563: 7553: 7528: 7515: 7498:(4): 1211–1236. 7477: 7456: 7454: 7443: 7422: 7401: 7380: 7359: 7338: 7326: 7315: 7294: 7273: 7252: 7231: 7210: 7189: 7168: 7156: 7145: 7124: 7103: 7092: 7071: 7050: 7029: 7008: 6999: 6978: 6957: 6938: 6911: 6905: 6893: 6884:. Translated by 6883: 6871: 6865: 6853: 6847: 6822: 6821: 6818:constitution.org 6810: 6804: 6803: 6800:constitution.org 6792: 6786: 6783: 6777: 6774: 6768: 6765: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6739: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6728: 6719:. Archived from 6709: 6703: 6690: 6684: 6683: 6649: 6643: 6642: 6640: 6638: 6623: 6617: 6616: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6569: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6558: 6552: 6541: 6533: 6527: 6526: 6524: 6522: 6510: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6499: 6485: 6479: 6478: 6442: 6436: 6435: 6415: 6409: 6408: 6406: 6404: 6390: 6384: 6383: 6381: 6379: 6365: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6354: 6345:. Archived from 6335: 6329: 6315: 6309: 6308: 6268: 6262: 6261: 6255: 6253: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6217: 6215: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6147: 6141: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6106: 6100: 6097: 6091: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6034: 6028: 6027: 6021: 6019: 6013: 6006: 5997: 5991: 5990: 5988: 5986: 5974: 5968: 5967: 5966:. pp. 4–93. 5959: 5953: 5952: 5932: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5921: 5910: 5904: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5853: 5847: 5846: 5826: 5820: 5819: 5817: 5815: 5801: 5795: 5794: 5792: 5790: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5751: 5745: 5744: 5728: 5718: 5712: 5711: 5689: 5683: 5682: 5676: 5668: 5666: 5664: 5652: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5641: 5630: 5624: 5623: 5617: 5615: 5600: 5594: 5593: 5592:. UK Parliament. 5586: 5580: 5579: 5577: 5575: 5566:. Archived from 5556: 5555: 5553: 5544:. Archived from 5534: 5528: 5527: 5525: 5523: 5508: 5502: 5488: 5482: 5481: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5453: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5409: 5400: 5399: 5372: 5363: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5347: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5325: 5319: 5317: 5310: 5304: 5279: 5273: 5272: 5267:. Archived from 5252: 5243: 5229: 5223: 5221: 5216:Enzo Gancitano, 5214: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5203: 5184: 5178: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5144: 5138: 5117: 5111: 5108: 5102: 5099: 5093: 5090: 5084: 5072: 5066: 5063: 5054: 5051: 5038: 5035: 5029: 5026: 5020: 5017: 5008: 5005: 4996: 4993: 4987: 4984: 4978: 4975: 4969: 4966: 4960: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4939: 4933: 4927: 4926: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4878: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4850: 4844: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4783: 4777: 4767: 4761: 4758: 4752: 4749: 4743: 4740: 4734: 4731: 4725: 4722: 4716: 4706: 4697: 4687: 4681: 4678: 4672: 4669: 4663: 4660: 4654: 4651: 4645: 4635: 4624: 4621: 4615: 4612: 4606: 4603: 4597: 4594: 4588: 4575: 4569: 4566: 4560: 4557: 4551: 4548: 4542: 4539: 4533: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4509: 4503: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4485: 4478: 4469: 4462: 4456: 4453: 4447: 4444: 4438: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4413: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4391: 4385: 4378: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4367: 4341: 4335: 4332: 4326: 4323: 4317: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4281: 4275: 4272: 4266: 4263: 4257: 4250: 4244: 4241: 4235: 4232: 4226: 4223: 4214: 4211: 4202: 4199: 4190: 4177:Paul Cartledge. 4175: 4164: 4161: 4146: 4145:Dunn, 1994, p. 2 4143: 4132: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4104: 4098: 4087: 4078: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4024: 4015: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3986: 3980: 3973: 3941: 3932: 3895: 3821: 3819: 3774: 3771: 3680:Aung San Suu Kyi 3577:communist states 3539:Civil Rights Act 3498:Ferdinand Marcos 3459:satellite states 3428:Great Depression 3308:pass legislation 3168:Great Reform Act 3055:social movements 3009:Founding Fathers 2943:, 26 August 1789 2939:approved by the 2896:royal absolutism 2592:Jack Weatherford 2583: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2559:balanced fashion 2537: 2536: 2529: 2478: 2476:Juntos Generales 2472: 2462: 2436:was the highest 2435: 2429: 2421: 2409: 2401: 2391: 2383:Hanseatic league 2365:(republics) of 2330: 2324: 2314: 2308: 2302: 2292: 2274:The election of 2269: 2246: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2141: 2112: 2106: 2063: 1995:Medieval commune 1980: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1946:Battle of Actium 1922:, 1st century CE 1912:equestrian order 1883: 1877: 1845: 1819: 1706: 1606: 1599:direct democracy 1596: 1582: 1560: 1541:bust of Pericles 1485: 1477: 1469: 1358: 1354: 1351: 1313: 1280: 1274: 1226: 1204: 1198: 1171: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1140: 1132: 1106: 1100: 1090: 1074: 1021: 1015: 966: 938: 928: 877: 868: 763: 685:Second World War 677:political system 661: 654: 647: 633: 632: 529:Right to protest 479:Nomination rules 34: 33: 7831: 7830: 7826: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7821: 7820: 7791: 7790: 7778: 7765:Kaplan, Temma. 7762: 7760:Further reading 7757: 7735:10.2307/2952354 7639:10.2307/1951731 7504:10.2307/1847791 7485: 7480: 7474: 7440: 7419: 7398: 7377: 7356: 7335: 7312: 7291: 7270: 7249: 7228: 7207: 7186: 7165: 7157:. Basic Books. 7142: 7121: 7089: 7068: 7047: 7026: 6996: 6975: 6954: 6935: 6918: 6886:Benjamin Jowett 6835: 6833:Primary sources 6830: 6828:General sources 6825: 6812: 6811: 6807: 6794: 6793: 6789: 6784: 6780: 6775: 6771: 6766: 6762: 6752: 6750: 6749:. 8 August 2019 6741: 6740: 6736: 6726: 6724: 6711: 6710: 6706: 6691: 6687: 6672: 6650: 6646: 6636: 6634: 6632:Foreign Affairs 6624: 6620: 6603: 6599: 6584: 6570: 6566: 6556: 6554: 6550: 6539: 6535: 6534: 6530: 6520: 6518: 6517:. Freedom House 6511: 6507: 6497: 6495: 6487: 6486: 6482: 6447:Democratization 6443: 6439: 6416: 6412: 6402: 6400: 6392: 6391: 6387: 6377: 6375: 6367: 6366: 6362: 6352: 6350: 6337: 6336: 6332: 6327:Wayback Machine 6316: 6312: 6269: 6265: 6251: 6249: 6247: 6230: 6226: 6213: 6211: 6198: 6194: 6179: 6175: 6165: 6163: 6148: 6144: 6139:Wayback Machine 6129: 6125: 6115: 6113: 6108: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6094: 6089: 6085: 6078: 6062: 6058: 6051: 6035: 6031: 6017: 6015: 6011: 6004: 5998: 5994: 5984: 5982: 5975: 5971: 5960: 5956: 5949: 5933: 5929: 5919: 5917: 5911: 5907: 5897: 5895: 5882: 5881: 5877: 5870: 5854: 5850: 5843: 5827: 5823: 5813: 5811: 5803: 5802: 5798: 5788: 5786: 5778: 5777: 5773: 5763: 5761: 5759:National Review 5753: 5752: 5748: 5741: 5719: 5715: 5708: 5690: 5686: 5670: 5669: 5662: 5660: 5653: 5649: 5639: 5637: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5613: 5611: 5602: 5601: 5597: 5588: 5587: 5583: 5573: 5571: 5558: 5551: 5549: 5536: 5535: 5531: 5521: 5519: 5510: 5509: 5505: 5489: 5485: 5466: 5465: 5461: 5451: 5449: 5448:. 20 March 2017 5440: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5410: 5403: 5396: 5373: 5366: 5356: 5354: 5349: 5348: 5344: 5334: 5332: 5327: 5326: 5322: 5311: 5307: 5280: 5276: 5253: 5246: 5230: 5226: 5215: 5211: 5201: 5199: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5170: 5166: 5159: 5145: 5141: 5118: 5114: 5109: 5105: 5100: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5073: 5069: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5041: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5023: 5018: 5011: 5006: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4985: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4967: 4963: 4958: 4954: 4946: 4942: 4934: 4930: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4872: 4862: 4860: 4852: 4851: 4847: 4838: 4834: 4827: 4811: 4807: 4800: 4784: 4780: 4768: 4764: 4759: 4755: 4750: 4746: 4741: 4737: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4719: 4707: 4700: 4688: 4684: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4636: 4627: 4622: 4618: 4613: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4595: 4591: 4578:Luciano Canfora 4576: 4572: 4567: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4540: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4479: 4472: 4463: 4459: 4454: 4450: 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1937:Marcus Antonius 1904: 1898: 1774: 1764: 1755: 1749: 1679: 1643: 1629: 1455:succeeded him. 1424: 1410: 1356: 1352: 1334: 1328: 1251: 1245: 1034: 1028: 860: 846: 787: 770: 710: 705: 665: 627: 622: 621: 587: 579: 578: 459:Majoritarianism 419:Democratization 354: 346: 345: 80: 70: 39:Politics series 12: 11: 5: 7829: 7819: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7789: 7788: 7777: 7776:External links 7774: 7773: 7772: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7755: 7729:(2): 245–263. 7718: 7708:(4): 498–502. 7697: 7680: 7659: 7622: 7610:10.1086/365921 7593: 7581:10.1086/370672 7575:(3): 159–172. 7564: 7529: 7516: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7478: 7472: 7457: 7444: 7438: 7423: 7417: 7402: 7396: 7381: 7375: 7360: 7354: 7339: 7333: 7316: 7310: 7295: 7289: 7274: 7268: 7253: 7247: 7232: 7226: 7211: 7205: 7190: 7184: 7169: 7163: 7146: 7140: 7125: 7119: 7104: 7093: 7087: 7072: 7066: 7051: 7045: 7030: 7024: 7009: 7000: 6994: 6979: 6973: 6958: 6952: 6939: 6933: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6894: 6872: 6854: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6823: 6805: 6787: 6778: 6769: 6760: 6734: 6704: 6685: 6670: 6644: 6618: 6597: 6582: 6564: 6553:on 5 June 2019 6528: 6505: 6480: 6453:(2): 321–339. 6437: 6410: 6385: 6360: 6330: 6310: 6283:(3): 808–827. 6263: 6245: 6224: 6192: 6173: 6142: 6123: 6101: 6092: 6083: 6076: 6056: 6049: 6029: 5992: 5969: 5954: 5947: 5927: 5905: 5894:on 6 July 2016 5875: 5868: 5848: 5841: 5821: 5796: 5771: 5746: 5739: 5713: 5706: 5684: 5647: 5625: 5595: 5581: 5529: 5503: 5483: 5459: 5433: 5426: 5401: 5394: 5364: 5342: 5320: 5305: 5274: 5244: 5233:Tribes in Oman 5224: 5209: 5179: 5164: 5157: 5139: 5112: 5103: 5094: 5085: 5067: 5055: 5039: 5030: 5021: 5009: 4997: 4988: 4979: 4970: 4961: 4952: 4940: 4928: 4913: 4906: 4888: 4879: 4870: 4845: 4832: 4825: 4805: 4798: 4778: 4762: 4753: 4744: 4735: 4726: 4717: 4698: 4690:"Peisistratus" 4682: 4673: 4664: 4655: 4646: 4625: 4616: 4607: 4598: 4589: 4570: 4561: 4552: 4543: 4534: 4525: 4513: 4504: 4495: 4486: 4470: 4457: 4448: 4439: 4426: 4414: 4402: 4386: 4373: 4359: 4345:Thapar, Romila 4336: 4327: 4318: 4309: 4294: 4276: 4267: 4258: 4256:14(3), 97–117. 4245: 4236: 4227: 4215: 4203: 4191: 4165: 4147: 4133: 4099: 4079: 4062: 4035:(3): 567–576. 4016: 4006: 3981: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3960: 3957: 3955: 3954: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3927: 3896: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3857: 3854: 3815: 3755: 3752: 3672:military junta 3621:Saddam Hussein 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3562: 3559: 3555:26th Amendment 3543:24th Amendment 3528:decolonisation 3520:British Empire 3485: 3482: 3443: 3440: 3369: 3366: 3341:Main article: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3333: 3322:Parliament Act 3318: 3311: 3300: 3293: 3278: 3275:15th Amendment 3271: 3267: 3260: 3253: 3234: 3227: 3212: 3208: 3198: 3191: 3184: 3183: 3182: 3175: 3164: 3153:British Empire 3142: 3135: 3115: 3114: 3113: 3112: 3101: 3087: 3066: 3051: 3050: 3049: 3046: 3038: 3031: 3024: 3005: 2987: 2981:Pasquale Paoli 2973: 2970:prime minister 2966:Robert Walpole 2929: 2926: 2925: 2924: 2915:and promoting 2905:published the 2899: 2884: 2873: 2858: 2853:party and the 2839:pamphleteering 2823:Putney Debates 2815:New Model Army 2803: 2788: 2777: 2770: 2761: 2751: 2748:States-General 2744:Dutch Republic 2734: 2715:Pacta conventa 2699:Rzeczpospolita 2695:Golden Liberty 2658: 2655: 2647: 2644: 2602:including the 2586: 2585: 2541: 2539: 2532: 2516: 2513: 2512: 2511: 2480: 2465:Basque Country 2463:system of the 2453: 2393: 2386:others became 2367:medieval Italy 2359: 2352: 2332: 2283: 2282:(8th century). 2272: 2271: 2270: 2248: 2237: 2234:Adam of Bremen 2207: 2197: 2132: 2118: 2069: 2056:custom of the 2050: 2043:petty kingdoms 2037:(folkmoot) of 1990: 1987: 1897: 1894: 1870:Hannibalic War 1763: 1760: 1753:Roman Republic 1748: 1745: 1699:Thirty Tyrants 1691:Thirty Tyrants 1678: 1675: 1628: 1625: 1409: 1406: 1327: 1324: 1263:Leo von Klenze 1244: 1241: 1027: 1024: 958:Gautama Buddha 859: 856: 845: 842: 786: 783: 769: 766: 709: 706: 704: 701: 667: 666: 664: 663: 656: 649: 641: 638: 637: 624: 623: 620: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 594: 588: 585: 584: 581: 580: 577: 576: 571: 566: 564:War referendum 561: 556: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 454:Libertarianism 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 355: 353:Related topics 352: 351: 348: 347: 344: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 287: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 256: 254:Representative 251: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 81: 76: 75: 72: 71: 69: 68: 63: 58: 52: 49: 48: 42: 41: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7828: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7787: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7770: 7769: 7764: 7763: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7698: 7694: 7690: 7689:History Today 7686: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7665: 7660: 7656: 7652: 7648: 7644: 7640: 7636: 7633:(1): 69–105. 7632: 7628: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7570: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7521:History Today 7517: 7513: 7509: 7505: 7501: 7497: 7493: 7488: 7487: 7475: 7473:0-415-12967-2 7469: 7466:. Routledge. 7465: 7464: 7458: 7453: 7452: 7445: 7441: 7439:0-8014-1442-3 7435: 7431: 7430: 7424: 7420: 7418:0-631-23394-6 7414: 7410: 7409: 7403: 7399: 7397:3-515-06951-8 7393: 7389: 7388: 7382: 7378: 7372: 7368: 7367: 7361: 7357: 7355:0-415-26280-1 7351: 7348:. Routledge. 7347: 7346: 7340: 7336: 7334:0-19-509742-4 7330: 7325: 7324: 7317: 7313: 7311:3-515-07680-8 7307: 7303: 7302: 7296: 7292: 7286: 7282: 7281: 7275: 7271: 7269:0-691-01108-7 7265: 7261: 7260: 7254: 7250: 7248:0-313-25837-6 7244: 7240: 7239: 7233: 7229: 7227:0-19-289106-5 7223: 7219: 7218: 7212: 7208: 7206:0-14-044809-8 7202: 7198: 7197: 7191: 7187: 7185:0-300-07893-5 7181: 7177: 7176: 7170: 7166: 7164:0-465-02969-8 7160: 7155: 7154: 7147: 7143: 7141:0-521-54544-7 7137: 7133: 7132: 7126: 7122: 7120:0-521-80066-8 7116: 7112: 7111: 7105: 7101: 7100: 7094: 7090: 7088:0-87113-931-6 7084: 7080: 7079: 7073: 7069: 7067:0-19-827934-5 7063: 7059: 7058: 7052: 7048: 7046:0-262-54147-5 7042: 7039:. MIT Press. 7038: 7037: 7031: 7027: 7025:0-415-19396-6 7021: 7017: 7016: 7010: 7006: 7001: 6997: 6995:0-520-23124-4 6991: 6987: 6986: 6980: 6976: 6974:0-415-09958-7 6970: 6967:. Routledge. 6966: 6965: 6959: 6955: 6953:81-202-0141-8 6949: 6945: 6940: 6936: 6930: 6926: 6921: 6920: 6916:Print sources 6909: 6904: 6902: 6897:Livy (1905). 6895: 6891: 6887: 6882: 6880: 6873: 6869: 6864: 6862: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6844: 6837: 6836: 6819: 6815: 6809: 6801: 6797: 6791: 6782: 6773: 6764: 6748: 6744: 6738: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6708: 6702: 6701:Freedom House 6698: 6694: 6689: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6667: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6648: 6633: 6629: 6622: 6614: 6613: 6608: 6601: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6579: 6575: 6568: 6549: 6545: 6538: 6532: 6516: 6509: 6494: 6490: 6484: 6476: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6441: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6420:Global Policy 6414: 6399: 6395: 6389: 6374: 6370: 6364: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6334: 6328: 6324: 6321: 6314: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6267: 6260: 6259:dictatorship. 6248: 6242: 6238: 6237: 6228: 6221: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6196: 6188: 6184: 6177: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6146: 6140: 6136: 6133: 6127: 6111: 6105: 6096: 6087: 6079: 6073: 6069: 6068: 6060: 6052: 6046: 6042: 6041: 6033: 6026: 6010: 6003: 5996: 5980: 5973: 5965: 5958: 5950: 5944: 5940: 5939: 5931: 5916: 5909: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5879: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5860: 5852: 5844: 5838: 5834: 5833: 5825: 5810: 5806: 5800: 5785: 5781: 5775: 5760: 5756: 5750: 5742: 5740:0-19-820171-0 5736: 5732: 5727: 5726: 5717: 5709: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5688: 5680: 5674: 5658: 5651: 5635: 5629: 5622: 5609: 5605: 5599: 5591: 5585: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5517: 5513: 5507: 5501: 5500:963-9241-18-0 5497: 5493: 5487: 5479: 5475: 5474: 5469: 5463: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5429: 5427:1-56000-745-1 5423: 5419: 5415: 5408: 5406: 5397: 5395:0-449-90496-2 5391: 5387: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5371: 5369: 5352: 5346: 5330: 5324: 5316: 5309: 5303: 5302:0-905743-63-6 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5282:Donald Hawley 5278: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5251: 5249: 5242: 5241:0-907151-02-7 5238: 5234: 5228: 5220: 5213: 5197: 5193: 5192:Il Parlamento 5189: 5183: 5176: 5175: 5168: 5160: 5158:9788472837508 5154: 5150: 5143: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5127:David Nicolle 5124: 5123: 5116: 5107: 5098: 5092:Polybius 6.51 5089: 5082: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5062: 5060: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5034: 5025: 5016: 5014: 5004: 5002: 4992: 4983: 4974: 4965: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4938: 4932: 4924: 4917: 4909: 4903: 4899: 4892: 4883: 4874: 4859: 4855: 4849: 4842: 4836: 4828: 4822: 4819:. Greenwood. 4818: 4817: 4809: 4801: 4795: 4791: 4790: 4782: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4757: 4748: 4739: 4730: 4721: 4714: 4710: 4705: 4703: 4695: 4691: 4686: 4677: 4668: 4659: 4650: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4620: 4611: 4602: 4593: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4565: 4556: 4547: 4538: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4483: 4477: 4475: 4467: 4461: 4452: 4443: 4437:, Leiden 1971 4436: 4430: 4421: 4419: 4409: 4407: 4398: 4397: 4390: 4383: 4377: 4362: 4356: 4352: 4351: 4346: 4340: 4331: 4322: 4316:Diodorus 2.39 4313: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4271: 4262: 4255: 4249: 4240: 4231: 4222: 4220: 4210: 4208: 4198: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4160: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4084: 4077: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4021: 4010: 3994: 3991: 3985: 3978: 3972: 3968: 3951: 3947: 3940: 3931: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3901:of Plato and 3900: 3894: 3890: 3883: 3881: 3877: 3874:. The use of 3873: 3869: 3863: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3813: 3809: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3782: 3781:democratizing 3778: 3766: 3761: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3661: 3656: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3639: 3633: 3631: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3603: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3588: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3568: 3558: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3474:Taishō period 3470: 3468: 3464: 3463:authoritarian 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3406:as well as a 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3365: 3362: 3357: 3349: 3344: 3343:Secret ballot 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3316: 3312: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3298: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3265: 3264:Cape Province 3261: 3258: 3257:secret ballot 3254: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3242:German states 3239: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3196: 3195:Cortes Gerais 3192: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3162: 3161:slave traders 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3145: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3110: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3072: 3071: 3067: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3025: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2995:Norman Davies 2992: 2988: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2862:Habeas Corpus 2859: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2825:of 1647. The 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2775: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2752: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2740: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2653: 2643: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2630: 2629:J.N.B. Hewitt 2624: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2582: 2579: 2571: 2568:November 2023 2561: 2560: 2555: 2549: 2547: 2540: 2531: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2509: 2505: 2504:habeas corpus 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2460: 2454: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2428: 2427: 2420: 2419: 2413: 2408: 2407: 2400: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2290: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2249: 2245: 2244: 2243:Landsgemeinde 2238: 2235: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2213: 2208: 2205: 2201: 2198: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2178: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2139: 2133: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2111: 2105: 2104: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2067: 2062: 2061: 2055: 2051: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2031: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1996: 1986: 1984: 1979: 1978: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1958: 1951: 1947: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1929:Julius Caesar 1921: 1920:Roman Emperor 1917: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1893: 1890: 1889:Mediterranean 1885: 1882: 1876: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1855: 1850: 1844: 1839: 1835: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1822:Twelve Tables 1818: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1795: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1754: 1744: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1673: 1668: 1666: 1665: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1624: 1621: 1617: 1612: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1530: 1524: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1481: 1480:Ancient Greek 1476: 1475: 1468: 1467: 1461: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1433: 1428: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1405: 1402: 1401:moral decline 1397: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1362: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1311: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1291: 1287:of Plato and 1286: 1285: 1279: 1273: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1206: 1203: 1197: 1192: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1170: 1169: 1163: 1158: 1147: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1131: 1130: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1111: 1105: 1099: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1072: 1066: 1062: 1061:Spartan kings 1058: 1054: 1050: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1023: 1020: 1014: 1009: 1005: 1001: 1000: 995: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 965: 959: 955: 951: 947: 946: 943: 937: 932: 927: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 901:Ancient India 898: 897:Mahajanapadas 893: 889: 887: 883: 879: 876: 870: 867: 855: 852: 841: 839: 835: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 804:Mesopotamia, 803: 800:Studying pre- 796: 791: 782: 780: 776: 765: 762: 757: 752: 750: 749: 744: 740: 736: 732: 727: 723: 719: 714: 700: 698: 697:right to vote 693: 688: 686: 680: 678: 674: 662: 657: 655: 650: 648: 643: 642: 640: 639: 636: 631: 626: 625: 618: 615: 613: 610: 608: 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 593: 590: 589: 583: 582: 575: 572: 570: 567: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 539:Right to vote 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 525: 522: 520: 517: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 467: 465: 464:Majority rule 462: 460: 457: 455: 452: 450: 447: 445: 442: 440: 437: 435: 432: 430: 427: 425: 422: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 356: 350: 349: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 331:Supermajority 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 261: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 229:Participatory 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 186: 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 160:Hybrid regime 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 82: 79: 74: 73: 67: 64: 62: 59: 57: 54: 53: 51: 50: 47: 44: 43: 40: 36: 35: 29: 25: 22:Reverse of a 20: 16: 7766: 7726: 7722: 7705: 7701: 7692: 7688: 7670:(1): 23–45. 7667: 7663: 7630: 7626: 7604:(1): 45–46. 7601: 7597: 7572: 7568: 7544:(1): 14–30. 7541: 7537: 7524: 7520: 7495: 7491: 7462: 7450: 7428: 7407: 7386: 7365: 7344: 7322: 7300: 7279: 7258: 7237: 7216: 7195: 7174: 7152: 7130: 7109: 7098: 7077: 7056: 7035: 7014: 7004: 6984: 6963: 6943: 6924: 6900: 6888:– via 6879:The Republic 6878: 6860: 6842: 6817: 6808: 6799: 6790: 6781: 6772: 6763: 6751:. 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