232:
22:
311:(while Ptolemy XII was exiled and living in Rome), whereas Ptolemy XII's wife Cleopatra V perhaps died as early as the winter of 69–68 BC, when she disappears from historical records. Roller assumes that Ptolemy XII's wife, whom he numbers as Cleopatra VI, was merely absent from the court for a decade after being expelled for an unknown reason, eventually ruling jointly with her daughter Berenice IV. Fletcher explains that the Alexandrians deposed Ptolemy XII Auletes and installed "his eldest daughter, Berenike IV, and as co-ruler recalled Cleopatra V Tryphaena from 10 years' exile from the court. Although later historians assumed she must have been another of Auletes' daughters and numbered her "Cleopatra VI", it seems she was simply the fifth one returning to replace her brother and former husband Auletes." His three younger children (Cleopatra's sister
567:
1081:
358:), and possibly wrote Greek medical works which may have been inspired by the physicians at her father's royal court. Later Arab historians claimed that Cleopatra wrote medical texts, but the long-held belief that Cleopatra was an author is, as Roller puts it, "obscure and full of problems... Connecting these fragments to Cleopatra VII is, admittedly, difficult". Several works from antiquity, which now only exist as fragments, were labeled as Cleopatra's although Roller argues that "by late antiquity Cleopatra VII was by far the most famous person of that name and there would be a tendency to assume that the fragments were hers. Available to Cleopatra in historical records preserved by the 3rd-century BC Ptolemaic-era native
1270:...killed Arsinoë's small children in front of her. Now queen without a kingdom, Arsinoë fled to Egypt, where she was welcomed by her full brother Ptolemy II. Not content, however, to spend the rest of her life as a guest at the Ptolemaic court, she had Ptolemy II's wife exiled to Upper Egypt and married him herself around 275 B.C. Though such an incestuous marriage was considered scandalous by the Greeks, it was allowed by Egyptian custom. For that reason the marriage split public opinion into two factions. The loyal side celebrated the couple as a return of the divine marriage of
839:
1072:
327:
1278:, whereas the other side did not refrain from profuse and obscene criticism. One of the most sarcastic commentators, a poet with a very sharp pen, had to flee Alexandria. The unfortunate poet was caught off the shore of Crete by the Ptolemaic navy, put in an iron basket, and drowned. This and similar actions seemingly slowed down vicious criticism."
1140:. The Roman Senate was not informed about Ptolemy's death until 30 June or 1 August 51 BC. The news may have been suppressed by Cleopatra until she could secure the throne. Cleopatra probably married her twelve-year-old brother, Ptolemy XIII, but whether the marriage actually occurred is uncertain. The native Egyptian
981:
and rescuing the body of
Archelaos after the latter was killed in another battle, ensuring him a royal burial. The 14-year-old Cleopatra would have accompanied the Roman expedition into Egypt. Years later, Mark Antony said that he had fallen in love with her at this time. Their affair only began 41
1176:
was considered scandalous by contemporary Greeks. Although vocal critics of this incestuous practice were sometimes violently punished and suppressed during the joint reign of
Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II, sibling marriages were nevertheless considered a normal arrangement for Ptolemaic rulers by the
1001:
Gabinius was tried in Rome for abusing his authority and acquitted. A second trial found him guilty of accepting bribes and led to a seven-year exile, from which he was recalled in 48 BC by Julius Caesar. Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria, extending his provincial command to Egypt until he
920:
Events in Egypt are unclear around this time. It is thought that
Ptolemy XII's daughter Berenice IV initially ruled jointly with Cleopatra VI Tryphaena. Cleopatra VI is then believed to have died, possibly subsequent to being ousted by Berenice. Berenice IV sent an emissary to Rome to advocate for
916:
stating that
Ptolemy XII traveled with one of his daughters; since Berenice IV was his ruling rival and Arsinoe IV was a toddler, it must have been Cleopatra (who was later made his regent and named his successor in his will). Grant likewise argues in favor of this notion, stating that Ptolemy XII
1018:
and Gallic Roman garrison, were allowed to harass people in the streets of
Alexandria. Ptolemy XII installed his longtime Roman financier, Rabirius Postumus, as his chief financial officer. Postumus was unable to collect all of Ptolemy XII's debt by the latter's death and it was passed on to his
921:
her rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father
Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy used his assassins to kill the emissary (an incident covered up by his powerful Roman supporters). When Caesar failed to secure a popular election as Governor-General of Egypt, he settled for a five-year command of
307:, due to the confusion in primary sources conflating these two figures, who may have been one in the same. As explained by the scholar John Whitehorne, Cleopatra VI may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII, who appeared in 58 BC to jointly-rule with her alleged sister
477:. Aside from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, the three languages she had a known ability to read and write in, these languages reflected Cleopatra's expansionist territorial ambitions and her desire to regain African and Asian territories which had belonged to the
203:, after he was killed in battle. Although Antony said years later that it was then that he fell in love with Cleopatra, they did not begin an affair until 41 BC. Ptolemy XII made Cleopatra his regent and joint ruler in 52 BC, naming her and his son
870:. Ptolemy XII remained publicly silent on the death of his brother, a decision which (along with ceding traditional Ptolemaic territory to the Romans) damaged his credibility among subjects already enraged by his economic policies.
826:. In order to repay the loans, Ptolemy was required to collect the equivalent amount of money, as well as added interest, from his subjects. His increase of the tax rate to pay for these expenditures angered the poor and led to
742:
Ptolemy XI had his cousin-wife killed shortly after their marriage in 80 BC, but he was killed soon thereafter in the resulting riot over the assassination. Ptolemy XI (and perhaps his uncle
Ptolemy IX or his father) willed the
925:
and allowed his rival Pompey to settle the matter of the
Egyptian throne. The Roman Senate denied Ptolemy XII the offer of an armed escort and provisions for a return to Egypt, so he decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC for the
1038:. He also designated Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII as his joint heirs. A copy of his will was sent to Pompey to be kept in Rome, with the original being held in Alexandria. According to an inscription in the Temple of
345:
Little is known of
Cleopatra's early life. She likely received a good education, as was common among Ptolemaic royalty. Her childhood tutor was Philostratos, from whom she learned the Greek arts of oration and
942:(reportedly a descendant of Mithridates VI of Pontus); however, the Romans— especially desperate financiers of Ptolemy XII such as Rabirius Postumus—were determined to restore Ptolemy XII. Pompey persuaded
1144:
received a number of privileges and became extremely wealthy under their
Ptolemaic patrons, often becoming targets of native Egyptian revolts. Cleopatra is speculated to have had an Egyptian half-cousin,
144:
chose to commit suicide rather than go into exile, Ptolemy XII became unpopular with the masses in Egypt for offering no public reaction to the events. He and a daughter, ostensibly Cleopatra and not
231:
1019:
successors, Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII. Within a year, Postumus was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome when his life was threatened for draining Egypt of its resources.
172:. After Ptolemy XII orchestrated the assassinations of Berenice IV's diplomats in Rome, seeking to gain Roman favor, he and Cleopatra left the city's hostile environment and settled at
1153:
at Memphis. At the beginning of her reign Cleopatra sought the support and loyalty of the Egyptian priesthood, despite attempts by Ptolemy XIII to undermine this relationship.
1237:
raises the possibility that Cleopatra and some of her siblings were illegitimate children of Ptolemy XII, based on a statement made by the contemporary Greek geographer
811:
in 60 BC, they gave Ptolemy XII the title of "friend and ally of the Roman people" for his efforts in financing Pompey's eastern campaigns and Rome's conquests of
1177:
time of Cleopatra's reign. Official documents began listing Cleopatra as sole ruler by 29 August 51 BC, evidence that she had rejected her brother as a co-ruler.
784:
in 63 BC. Ptolemy XII responded to the threatened Roman annexation of Egypt by offering lavish gifts to powerful Roman statesmen and military commanders, such as
3048:
536:). Greeks, Jews, and Egyptians in these cities were legally segregated and lived in different parts of the city. In Alexandria and other Greek city-states (
819:, nearly the entire annual tax revenue of Ptolemaic Egypt. Ptolemy XII's profligate behavior bankrupted him, and he was forced to acquire loans from
703:
Roman interventionism in Egypt predated the reign of Cleopatra VII; the Romans had long desired to annex the wealthy kingdom. In 168 BC, after the
512:, and others inhabited Egypt during her reign and well before it. Greeks and Jews were primarily concentrated in the multicultural cities of
939:
200:
727:. With opposition building at the royal court against the idea of a sole female monarch, Berenice III accepted joint rule and marriage to
3677:
Meadows, Andrew (2001), "Sins of the fathers: the inheritance of Cleopatra, last queen of Egypt", in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.),
3369:
Pina Polo, Francisco (2013), "The Great Seducer: Cleopatra, Queen and Sex Symbol", in Knippschild, Silke; García Morcillo, Marta (eds.),
773:
that Ptolemaic Egypt should be annexed (perhaps based on the previous will in exchange for loans), but his proposed bill was scuttled by
207:
joint successors in his will. Ptolemy XII died by 22 March 51 BC, the date of Cleopatra's first known act as queen: restoring the sacred
1241:, who specifically noted that Berenice IV was legitimate. However, Strabo's reliability is questionable as he was biased against the
1210:
664:
3613:
Gurval, Robert A. (2011), "Dying Like a Queen: the Story of Cleopatra and the Asp(s) in Antiquity", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.),
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909:. Ptolemy XII spent nearly a year on the outskirts of Rome, ostensibly accompanied by his 11-year-old daughter Cleopatra.
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950:, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII, offering him 10,000 talents for the mission. Although it put him at odds with
690:
191:, to invade Egypt and restore Ptolemy XII to power. In the spring of 55 BC, Gabinius' army invaded. One of his officers,
739:, the first powerful Roman figure to intervene directly in the dynastic affairs of kingdoms east of the Roman Republic.
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During the last four years of his reign, Ptolemy XII oversaw major construction projects such as the completion of the
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751:). They chose instead to carve up the Ptolemaic realm to be ruled by Ptolemy IX's two illegitimate sons, bestowing
219:, Ptolemy XIII, but it is uncertain if they married before engaging in open hostilities against one another in the
1124:
Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC, the date of Cleopatra's first known act as queen: her voyage to
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77:, who may have been the same person. During her early childhood, Cleopatra was brought up in the palace of
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Ptolemy XII was given the epithet "Auletes" ("the flute-player") due to his adoption of the title "New
26:
3172:
Bennett, Christopher J. (1997). "Cleopatra V Tryphæna and the Genealogy of the Later Ptolemies".
893:, where he erected a monument in honor of his father and half-sister Berenice III, and finally to the
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to claim the throne in 58 BC, ruling jointly with Cleopatra VI. Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra traveled to
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were examples of strong, inspirational royal female predecessors (some of whom lived long before the
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would have found it imprudent to leave all of his daughters in Egypt, given the political turmoil.
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The German archaeologist Michael Pfrommer wrote the following about the sibling marriage of
542:) of Egypt, intermarriage was forbidden, although it was permitted in other parts of Egypt.
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to Rome as collateral for loans, so the Romans had legal grounds to take over Egypt (their
3759:(2011), "The Amazing Afterlife of Cleopatra's Love Potions", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.),
8:
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treatment, castigated Ptolemy for losing his kingdom. Ptolemy XII then traveled to
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251:. The features of the bust suggest it was reworked from an earlier Ptolemaic piece.
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3885:(2011), "Glamour Girls: Cleomania in Mass Culture", in Miles, Margaret M. (ed.),
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148:, were exiled from Egypt during a revolt. This allowed Cleopatra's older sister
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3561:" series, translated by Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra, New York: Harry N. Abrams,
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1023:
943:
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129:
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425:. Cleopatra could understand and speak many languages by adulthood, including
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territories which had belonged to the Seleucid Empire. The title cost 6,000
777:'s rhetoric. This was followed by another failed proposal for annexation by
648:
277:. He had a reputation as an aloof monarch who enjoyed a life of luxury. The
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were the dominant ethnic group in Cleopatra's kingdom, large minorities of
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137:
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125:
74:
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as a means to flatter the Romans; no other classical sources mention this.
873:
Whether by force or voluntary action, Ptolemy XII left Egypt in exile for
862:, and Ptolemy of Cyprus chose to commit suicide rather than face exile to
3821:
3354:, Getty Museum Studies on Art, Getty Publications (J. Paul Getty Trust),
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to withdraw and return to Seleucid territory instead of warring with the
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and an uncertain mother, presumably Ptolemy XII's cousin or sister-wife
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label the wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes as Cleopatra V Tryphaena, while
69:; the identity of her mother is disputed and is presumed to have been
57:
during or before March 51 BC. Cleopatra was born to the reigning
3599:, vol. 1–3 (reprint ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1011:
978:
951:
906:
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50:
30:
3393:
Cleopatra and Antony: Power, Love, and Politics in the Ancient World
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Fletcher expresses little doubt about this, noting an ancient Greek
473:
contemporaries would have preferred to speak with her in her native
894:
886:
274:
270:
177:
1844:
938:
To shore up her legitimacy with her subjects, Berenice IV married
323:) were born during the more than decade-long absence of his wife.
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Seduction and Power: Antiquity in the Visual and Performing Arts
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for their defiance, and rescued the body of Berenice's husband,
41:, a common characteristic of sculptural depictions of Cleopatra.
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38:
34:
3891:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 172–194,
3765:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 132–149,
2825:
2762:
2173:
2033:
1046:, Cleopatra was made a regent of Ptolemy XII on 31 May 52 BC.
3293:, Weidenfeld and Nicolson; Richard Clay (the Chaucer Press),
3129:, Princeton University Press (British Museum Press), p.
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After Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar formed the alliance of the
736:
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114:
3643:, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
3619:, Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 54–77,
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but resided in the multicultural and largely-Greek city of
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195:, prevented Ptolemy XII from massacring the inhabitants of
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1984:
1982:
1478:
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1030:, and stabilized an economy largely reliant on trade with
954:, Gabinius invaded Egypt in the spring of 55 BC by way of
854:
accused Ptolemy of Cyprus of aiding pirates who disrupted
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inscribed on her upper right arm and the distinct triple
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Women in Hellenistic Egypt: from Alexander to Cleopatra
3681:, Princeton, NJ: British Museum Press, pp. 14–31,
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350:. During her youth Cleopatra presumably studied at the
3536:, translated by W. J. Smyth, Cambridge: Polity Press,
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Under Gabinius' command was the young cavalry officer
711:
invaded Ptolemaic Egypt, he obeyed the demands of the
3089:
Raia, Ann R.; Sebesta, Judith Lynn (September 2017),
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died in late 81 BC, he was succeeded by his daughter
85:
Greek education. By adulthood she was well-versed in
25:
A contemporary marble statue of Cleopatra now at the
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429:(being the first of her dynasty known to speak it),
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1994:
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3066:Cat. 22 Tetradrachm Portraying Queen Cleopatra VII
2735:
1931:
417:in 331 BC. They spoke Greek and governed Egypt as
1347:
1203:who fought a war against the Romans in Egypt and
986:Antony summoned Cleopatra to his headquarters at
3908:
3848:, T.J. Cadoux, trans, New York: Sagamore Press,
3266:Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend
3062:
2729:
877:. There he held an audience with his Roman host
338:), 1st century BC, from Lower Egypt, now in the
3863:The Life and Times of Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt
3037:
1626:
1132:bull, worshiped as an intermediary for the god
3877:
3025:, Encyclopaedia Romana (University of Chicago)
546:Reign of Ptolemy XII and Roman interventionism
3846:Cleopatra: a Study in Politics and Propaganda
970:, furnish the Roman-led army with supplies.
933:
684:
3242:The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt
3235:
3063:Sabino, Rachel; Gross-Diaz, Theresa (2016),
1533:
273:" and his reported flute-playing during the
3088:
3040:Portrait féminin (mère de Cléopâtre ?)
2717:
1111:, showing her with a "melon" hairstyle and
3554:Cleopatra: The Life and Death of a Pharaoh
3459:
3312:, translated by Tina Saavedra, Routledge,
1545:
1049:
691:
677:
3550:
3526:
3434:
3375:, Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 183–197,
3368:
3125:, in Walker, Susan; Higgs, Peter (eds.),
3095:, College of New Rochelle, archived from
2756:
1411:
735:. The match was arranged by the dictator
3843:
3801:
3679:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth
3507:
3347:
3259:
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3127:Cleopatra of Egypt: from History to Myth
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1211:List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra
837:
325:
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20:
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1128:, near Thebes, to install a new sacred
1107:Bust of Cleopatra VII, dated 40–30 BC,
846:, partially built by Cleopatra's father
3909:
3779:
3612:
3594:
3508:Bradford, Ernle Dusgate Selby (2000),
3486:
3410:
3120:
3051:from the original on 20 September 2015
2972:
2918:
2867:
2804:
2792:
2768:
2681:
2645:
2616:
2547:
2502:
2475:
2427:
2397:
2356:
2320:
2296:
2167:
2117:
2051:
2027:
1958:
1886:
1826:
1814:
1790:
1739:
1715:
1691:
1679:
1667:
1638:
1614:
1578:
1482:
1438:
1341:
1329:
1314:
1302:
16:Partial history of Queen Cleopatra VII
3734:
3694:
3326:
3307:
3283:
3018:
2948:
2855:
2819:
2780:
2744:
2669:
2517:
2380:
2284:
2206:
2102:
2087:
2000:
1973:
1937:
1925:
1913:
1778:
1506:
1377:
1353:
1103:, Roman artwork, mid-1st century BC;
990:to answer for her alleged support of
226:
29:, New York; she is identified by the
3860:Weigall, Arthur E. P. Brome (1914),
3820:
3575:
3123:"164 Marble statue of Cleopatra VII"
1754:, pp. 1, 5, 13–14, 88, 105–106.
3888:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited
3762:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited
3616:Cleopatra : a sphinx revisited
1841:, pp. 13–14, 16–17, 43–52, 54.
13:
3479:
834:Exile of Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra
731:, the son of Ptolemy IX's brother
81:in Egypt and received a primarily
14:
3933:
3351:Greek Gold from Hellenistic Egypt
3310:A History of the Ptolemaic Empire
1174:long-held royal Egyptian practice
3740:Cleopatra: Her History, Her Myth
3333:, University of Oklahoma Press,
3006:
1248:
1079:
1070:
565:
421:monarchs, refusing to learn the
3533:A History of the Roman Republic
1266:, who wanted to become king of
1227:
842:The Gate of Ptolemy XII at the
258:was born in early 69 BC to the
53:'s birth in early 69 BC to her
3442:Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt
1805:, pp. 5, 82, 88, 105–106.
850:In 58 BC, after Roman senator
1:
3019:Grout, James (1 April 2017),
1284:
788:(during his campaign against
3721:, New York: Schocken Books,
3069:, Art Institute of Chicago,
2730:Sabino & Gross-Diaz 2016
2275:, pp. 76–77, 80, 84–85.
1289:
928:Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
183:Pompey eventually convinced
7:
3832:, Oxford University Press,
3665:, New York: Coward-McCann,
3420:, Oxford University Press,
3327:Jones, Prudence J. (2006),
3075:10.13140/RG.2.2.23475.22560
1180:
47:early life of Cleopatra VII
10:
3938:
3487:Ashton, Sally-Ann (2008),
3348:Pfrommer, Michael (2001),
3121:Ashton, Sally-Ann (2001),
1216:Cleopatra race controversy
1059:
1053:
934:Return to Egypt from exile
759:and Egypt to Ptolemy XII.
140:and Ptolemy XII's brother
27:Metropolitan Museum of Art
3922:Early lives by individual
3742:, Yale University Press,
3551:Flamarion, Edith (1997),
3460:Whitehorne, John (1994),
1853:, p. 53-54, 80, 121.
1730:, pp. 1, 3, 11, 129.
1138:ancient Egyptian religion
1062:Coronation of the pharaoh
1026:and establishment of the
124:Cleopatra's father was a
3866:, Edinburgh: Blackwood,
3578:The Search for Cleopatra
3308:Hölbl, Günther (2001) ,
3022:Was Cleopatra Beautiful?
1536:, pp. 268–269, 273.
1534:Dodson & Hilton 2004
1221:
881:, who while seated on a
800:after the latter became
790:Mithridates VI of Pontus
423:native Egyptian language
187:, the Roman governor of
3844:Volkmann, Hans (1958),
3390:Preston, Diana (2009),
3330:Cleopatra: a sourcebook
3245:, Thames & Hudson,
3239:; Hilton, Dyan (2004),
3207:(registration required)
2771:, pp. 54, 174–175.
2718:Raia & Sebesta 2017
1199:(contemporary queen of
1050:Accession to the throne
948:Roman governor of Syria
852:Publius Clodius Pulcher
824:Gaius Rabirius Postumus
767:Marcus Licinius Crassus
729:Ptolemy XI Alexander II
630:Donations of Alexandria
618:Assassination of Pompey
397:by Egyptian priests of
245:Hellenistic Greek style
55:accession to the throne
49:covers the period from
3802:Southern, Pat (2000),
3576:Foss, Michael (1999),
3417:Cleopatra: a biography
3396:, Walker and Company,
3218:The Reign of Cleopatra
3186:10.2143/AS.28.0.630068
2906:, pp. 88–93, 155.
2182:, pp. xx, 13, 75.
2042:, pp. xix, 12–13.
1829:, pp. 46–48, 100.
1160:Ptolemaic practice of
1101:Antikensammlung Berlin
1056:Reign of Cleopatra VII
992:Gaius Cassius Longinus
964:Antipater the Idumaean
847:
342:
330:A likely sculpture of
305:Cleopatra VI Tryphaena
252:
215:, Egypt. She may have
42:
3595:Fraser, P.M. (1985),
3580:, Arcade Publishing,
3493:, Oxford: Blackwell,
2834:, pp. xx, 15–16.
2577:, pp. 11–12, 80.
2562:, pp. 13–14, 76.
2066:, pp. xx, 12–13.
1904:, pp. xviii, 10.
1060:Further information:
996:Liberators' civil war
858:, the Roman Republic
841:
794:Third Mithridatic War
733:Ptolemy X Alexander I
625:Liberators' civil war
356:Library of Alexandria
332:Cleopatra V Tryphaena
329:
267:Cleopatra V Tryphaena
234:
24:
3828:The Roman Revolution
3787:, UK: Random House,
3635:Kleiner, Diana E. E.
3597:Ptolemaic Alexandria
3213:Burstein, Stanley M.
1380:, pp. xiii, 28.
1014:, Gabinius' largely-
291:, and the historian
3883:Montserrat, Dominic
3695:Nardo, Don (1994),
3490:Cleopatra and Egypt
3221:, Greenwood Press,
3154:Tiepolo's Cleopatra
3045:Musée Saint-Raymond
2795:, pp. 174–175.
2759:, pp. 184–186.
2347:, pp. 78, 108.
2149:, pp. 149–150.
1627:Musée Saint-Raymond
1509:, pp. 3–4, 17.
1235:Stanley M. Burstein
1151:High Priest of Ptah
721:Ptolemy IX Lathyros
665:Cultural depictions
601:Siege of Alexandria
553:Part of a series on
411:Alexander the Great
340:Musée Saint-Raymond
299:, Dyan Hilton, and
293:Stanley M. Burstein
275:Dionysian festivals
263:Ptolemy XII Auletes
237:Ptolemy XII Auletes
217:married her brother
67:Ptolemy XII Auletes
3757:Rowland, Ingrid D.
3640:Cleopatra and Rome
3559:Abrams Discoveries
3092:The World of State
2894:, p. 82, 129.
2807:, pp. 53, 56.
2696:, pp. xx, 14.
2466:, pp. 23, 73.
2251:, pp. xx, 13.
2197:, pp. 13, 75.
1192:Death of Cleopatra
1187:Reign of Cleopatra
1164:was introduced by
1002:was killed by the
848:
844:Temple of Kom Ombo
769:argued before the
606:Battle of the Nile
360:Egyptian historian
343:
253:
227:Birth and tutelage
156:, staying outside
43:
3898:978-0-520-24367-5
3813:978-0-7524-1494-2
3785:Cleopatra: A Life
3772:978-0-520-24367-5
3715:Pomeroy, Sarah B.
3706:978-1-56006-023-9
3626:978-0-520-24367-5
3587:978-1-55970-503-5
3568:978-0-8109-2805-3
3519:978-0-14-139014-7
3512:, Penguin Group,
3500:978-1-4051-1390-8
3453:978-0-465-01892-5
3427:978-0-19-536553-5
3382:978-1-44119-065-9
3319:978-0-415-20145-2
3276:978-0-06-058558-7
2999:, pp. 91–92.
2951:, pp. 26–27.
2921:, pp. 36–37.
2882:, pp. 48–49.
2846:, pp. 85–86.
2708:, pp. 84–85.
2672:, pp. 27–29.
2648:, pp. 26–27.
2589:, pp. 13–14.
2550:, pp. 25–26.
2490:, pp. 23–25.
2478:, pp. 77–84.
2442:, pp. 79–80.
2430:, pp. 24–25.
2359:, pp. 23–24.
2335:, pp. 77–78.
2311:, pp. 77–79.
2299:, pp. 22–23.
2221:, pp. 76–77.
2090:, pp. 12–13.
2054:, pp. 20–21.
1976:, pp. 10–11.
1889:, pp. 38–42.
1877:, pp. 47–50.
1817:, pp. 48–49.
1793:, pp. 46–48.
1781:, pp. 33–34.
1769:, pp. 11–12.
1742:, pp. 29–33.
1718:, pp. 32–33.
1706:, pp. 82–84.
1641:, pp. 45–46.
1497:, pp. 68–69.
1485:, pp. 18–19.
1441:, pp. 17–18.
1243:Ptolemaic dynasty
1147:Pasherienptah III
1008:Battle of Carrhae
809:First Triumvirate
757:Ptolemy of Cyprus
745:Ptolemaic Kingdom
701:
700:
526:Ptolemais Hermiou
419:Hellenistic Greek
368:Ptolemaic dynasty
260:Ptolemaic pharaoh
142:Ptolemy of Cyprus
117:, and her native
3929:
3902:
3874:
3856:
3840:
3831:
3817:
3798:
3776:
3752:
3731:
3710:
3699:, Lucent Books,
3691:
3673:
3654:
3630:
3609:
3591:
3572:
3547:
3543:978-07456-3371-8
3528:Bringmann, Klaus
3523:
3504:
3474:
3456:
3445:
3436:Tyldesley, Joyce
3431:
3412:Roller, Duane W.
3407:
3386:
3365:
3344:
3323:
3304:
3280:
3256:
3232:
3208:
3205:
3168:
3149:Anderson, Jaynie
3144:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3034:
3032:
3030:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2937:
2931:
2922:
2916:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2841:
2835:
2829:
2823:
2817:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2620:
2614:
2605:
2599:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2563:
2557:
2551:
2545:
2536:
2530:
2521:
2515:
2506:
2500:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2416:
2410:
2401:
2395:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2354:
2348:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2324:
2318:
2312:
2306:
2300:
2294:
2288:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2237:
2231:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2209:, p. 14–15.
2204:
2198:
2192:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2121:
2115:
2106:
2100:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1977:
1971:
1962:
1956:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1916:, pp. 9–12.
1911:
1905:
1899:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1872:
1866:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1770:
1764:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1618:
1612:
1606:
1600:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1415:
1409:
1400:
1394:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1318:
1312:
1306:
1300:
1279:
1264:Ptolemy Keraunos
1252:
1246:
1231:
1168:and his sister,
1162:sibling marriage
1083:
1074:
966:, the father of
879:Cato the Younger
786:Pompey the Great
782:Servilius Rullus
693:
686:
679:
649:Death and legacy
637:Battle of Actium
569:
550:
549:
502:Germanic peoples
479:Ptolemaic Empire
239:, the father of
170:Pompey the Great
3937:
3936:
3932:
3931:
3930:
3928:
3927:
3926:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3899:
3814:
3795:
3773:
3750:
3736:Prose, Francine
3729:
3707:
3689:
3688:978-071411943-4
3651:
3627:
3607:
3588:
3569:
3544:
3520:
3501:
3482:
3480:Further reading
3477:
3472:
3454:
3446:, Basic Books,
3428:
3404:
3383:
3362:
3341:
3320:
3301:
3277:
3261:Fletcher, Joann
3253:
3229:
3206:
3174:Ancient Society
3165:
3141:
3114:Printed sources
3111:
3102:
3100:
3099:on 6 March 2018
3079:
3077:
3054:
3052:
3028:
3026:
3009:
3004:
3003:
2995:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2971:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2940:
2932:
2925:
2917:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2890:
2886:
2878:
2874:
2866:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2842:
2838:
2830:
2826:
2818:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2779:
2775:
2767:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2743:
2736:
2728:
2724:
2716:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2692:
2688:
2680:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2656:
2652:
2644:
2640:
2632:
2623:
2615:
2608:
2600:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2546:
2539:
2531:
2524:
2516:
2509:
2501:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2462:
2458:
2450:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2419:
2411:
2404:
2396:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2355:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2331:
2327:
2319:
2315:
2307:
2303:
2295:
2291:
2283:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2247:
2240:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2193:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2166:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2133:
2124:
2116:
2109:
2101:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1987:
1980:
1972:
1965:
1957:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1920:
1912:
1908:
1900:
1893:
1885:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1861:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1837:
1833:
1825:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1738:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1702:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1666:
1662:
1654:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1621:
1613:
1609:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1577:
1573:
1565:
1552:
1546:Whitehorne 1994
1544:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1513:
1505:
1501:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1474:
1466:
1462:
1454:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1418:
1410:
1403:
1395:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1352:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1321:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1253:
1249:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1183:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1109:Vatican Museums
1086:
1085:
1084:
1076:
1075:
1064:
1058:
1052:
968:Herod the Great
956:Hasmonean Judea
936:
885:and undergoing
866:as a priest of
836:
697:
651:
646:
597:
592:
574:
548:
469:, although her
354:(including the
334:(also known as
301:Duane W. Roller
235:Marble bust of
229:
221:Alexandrine war
164:of their Roman
63:Ptolemaic Egypt
17:
12:
11:
5:
3935:
3925:
3924:
3919:
3904:
3903:
3897:
3875:
3857:
3841:
3818:
3812:
3799:
3793:
3777:
3771:
3753:
3749:978-0300259384
3748:
3732:
3727:
3711:
3705:
3692:
3687:
3674:
3655:
3649:
3631:
3625:
3610:
3606:978-0198142782
3605:
3592:
3586:
3573:
3567:
3548:
3542:
3524:
3518:
3505:
3499:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3475:
3470:
3457:
3452:
3432:
3426:
3408:
3402:
3387:
3381:
3366:
3360:
3345:
3339:
3324:
3318:
3305:
3299:
3285:Grant, Michael
3281:
3275:
3257:
3251:
3233:
3227:
3209:
3169:
3163:
3145:
3139:
3117:
3110:
3109:
3086:
3060:
3035:
3015:
3012:Online sources
3008:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2953:
2938:
2923:
2908:
2896:
2884:
2872:
2860:
2848:
2836:
2824:
2822:, p. 231.
2809:
2797:
2785:
2783:, p. 234.
2773:
2761:
2757:Pina Polo 2013
2749:
2734:
2722:
2710:
2698:
2686:
2674:
2662:
2650:
2638:
2621:
2606:
2591:
2579:
2564:
2552:
2537:
2522:
2507:
2492:
2480:
2468:
2456:
2444:
2432:
2417:
2402:
2385:
2373:
2361:
2349:
2337:
2325:
2313:
2301:
2289:
2277:
2265:
2253:
2238:
2223:
2211:
2199:
2184:
2172:
2151:
2139:
2122:
2107:
2092:
2080:
2068:
2056:
2044:
2032:
2020:
2005:
1993:
1991:, p. xix.
1978:
1963:
1942:
1930:
1918:
1906:
1891:
1879:
1867:
1855:
1843:
1831:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1771:
1756:
1744:
1732:
1720:
1708:
1696:
1684:
1672:
1660:
1643:
1631:
1619:
1607:
1595:
1583:
1571:
1550:
1548:, p. 182.
1538:
1526:
1511:
1499:
1487:
1472:
1460:
1443:
1431:
1416:
1412:Tyldesley 2008
1401:
1382:
1370:
1358:
1346:
1334:
1319:
1317:, p. 157.
1307:
1305:, p. 165.
1294:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1247:
1233:The historian
1225:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1194:
1189:
1182:
1179:
1088:
1087:
1078:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1054:Main article:
1051:
1048:
1028:Dendera Temple
1024:Temple of Edfu
944:Aulus Gabinius
935:
932:
914:primary source
860:annexed Cyprus
856:Roman shipping
835:
832:
717:Roman Republic
699:
698:
696:
695:
688:
681:
673:
670:
669:
668:
667:
662:
657:
647:
645:
644:
639:
633:
632:
627:
621:
620:
615:
609:
608:
603:
593:
591:
590:
585:
580:
571:
570:
562:
561:
555:
554:
547:
544:
289:Joann Fletcher
228:
225:
185:Aulus Gabinius
130:Roman Republic
87:many languages
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3934:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3914:
3912:
3900:
3894:
3890:
3889:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3864:
3858:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3829:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3796:
3794:9780753539569
3790:
3786:
3782:
3781:Schiff, Stacy
3778:
3774:
3768:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3730:
3728:9780805239119
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3702:
3698:
3693:
3690:
3684:
3680:
3675:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3659:Lindsay, Jack
3656:
3652:
3650:9780674019058
3646:
3642:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3618:
3617:
3611:
3608:
3602:
3598:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3579:
3574:
3570:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3555:
3549:
3545:
3539:
3535:
3534:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3515:
3511:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3492:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3473:
3471:9780415058063
3467:
3464:, Routledge,
3463:
3458:
3455:
3449:
3444:
3443:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3403:9780802717382
3399:
3395:
3394:
3388:
3384:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3367:
3363:
3361:9780892366330
3357:
3353:
3352:
3346:
3342:
3340:9780806137414
3336:
3332:
3331:
3325:
3321:
3315:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3300:9780297995029
3296:
3292:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3268:
3267:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3252:9780500051283
3248:
3244:
3243:
3238:
3237:Dodson, Aidan
3234:
3230:
3228:9780313325274
3224:
3220:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3170:
3166:
3164:9781876832445
3160:
3157:, Macmillan,
3156:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3140:9780691088358
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3098:
3094:
3093:
3087:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3067:
3061:
3050:
3046:
3043:(in French),
3042:
3041:
3036:
3024:
3023:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3007:Cited in text
2998:
2997:Fletcher 2008
2993:
2987:, p. 16.
2986:
2985:Burstein 2004
2981:
2975:, p. 53.
2974:
2969:
2963:, p. 34.
2962:
2961:Pfrommer 2001
2957:
2950:
2945:
2943:
2935:
2934:Burstein 2004
2930:
2928:
2920:
2915:
2913:
2905:
2904:Fletcher 2008
2900:
2893:
2892:Fletcher 2008
2888:
2881:
2880:Burstein 2004
2876:
2870:, p. 37.
2869:
2864:
2858:, p. 30.
2857:
2852:
2845:
2844:Fletcher 2008
2840:
2833:
2832:Burstein 2004
2828:
2821:
2816:
2814:
2806:
2801:
2794:
2789:
2782:
2777:
2770:
2765:
2758:
2753:
2746:
2741:
2739:
2731:
2726:
2719:
2714:
2707:
2706:Fletcher 2008
2702:
2695:
2694:Burstein 2004
2690:
2684:, p. 27.
2683:
2678:
2671:
2666:
2660:, p. 85.
2659:
2658:Fletcher 2008
2654:
2647:
2642:
2636:, p. 14.
2635:
2634:Burstein 2004
2630:
2628:
2626:
2619:, p. 26.
2618:
2613:
2611:
2604:, p. 80.
2603:
2602:Fletcher 2008
2598:
2596:
2588:
2587:Burstein 2004
2583:
2576:
2575:Fletcher 2008
2571:
2569:
2561:
2560:Burstein 2004
2556:
2549:
2544:
2542:
2535:, p. xx.
2534:
2533:Burstein 2004
2529:
2527:
2520:, p. 18.
2519:
2514:
2512:
2505:, p. 25.
2504:
2499:
2497:
2489:
2488:Burstein 2004
2484:
2477:
2472:
2465:
2464:Burstein 2004
2460:
2454:, p. 76.
2453:
2452:Burstein 2004
2448:
2441:
2440:Fletcher 2008
2436:
2429:
2424:
2422:
2415:, p. 79.
2414:
2413:Fletcher 2008
2409:
2407:
2400:, p. 24.
2399:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2383:, p. 16.
2382:
2377:
2371:, p. 78.
2370:
2369:Fletcher 2008
2365:
2358:
2353:
2346:
2345:Fletcher 2008
2341:
2334:
2333:Fletcher 2008
2329:
2323:, p. 23.
2322:
2317:
2310:
2309:Fletcher 2008
2305:
2298:
2293:
2287:, p. 15.
2286:
2281:
2274:
2273:Fletcher 2008
2269:
2263:, p. 77.
2262:
2261:Fletcher 2008
2257:
2250:
2249:Burstein 2004
2245:
2243:
2236:, p. 75.
2235:
2234:Burstein 2004
2230:
2228:
2220:
2219:Fletcher 2008
2215:
2208:
2203:
2196:
2195:Burstein 2004
2191:
2189:
2181:
2180:Burstein 2004
2176:
2170:, p. 22.
2169:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2148:
2147:Fletcher 2008
2143:
2137:, p. 13.
2136:
2135:Burstein 2004
2131:
2129:
2127:
2120:, p. 21.
2119:
2114:
2112:
2105:, p. 13.
2104:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2078:, p. 75.
2077:
2076:Fletcher 2008
2072:
2065:
2064:Burstein 2004
2060:
2053:
2048:
2041:
2040:Burstein 2004
2036:
2030:, p. 20.
2029:
2024:
2018:, p. 74.
2017:
2016:Fletcher 2008
2012:
2010:
2003:, p. 11.
2002:
1997:
1990:
1989:Burstein 2004
1985:
1983:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1961:, p. 17.
1960:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1939:
1934:
1928:, p. 12.
1927:
1922:
1915:
1910:
1903:
1902:Burstein 2004
1898:
1896:
1888:
1883:
1876:
1875:Burstein 2004
1871:
1865:, p. 47.
1864:
1863:Burstein 2004
1859:
1852:
1851:Fletcher 2008
1847:
1840:
1839:Burstein 2004
1835:
1828:
1823:
1816:
1811:
1804:
1803:Fletcher 2008
1799:
1792:
1787:
1780:
1775:
1768:
1767:Burstein 2004
1763:
1761:
1753:
1752:Fletcher 2008
1748:
1741:
1736:
1729:
1728:Fletcher 2008
1724:
1717:
1712:
1705:
1704:Fletcher 2008
1700:
1694:, p. 50.
1693:
1688:
1682:, p. 49.
1681:
1676:
1670:, p. 45.
1669:
1664:
1658:, p. 81.
1657:
1656:Fletcher 2008
1652:
1650:
1648:
1640:
1635:
1628:
1623:
1617:, p. 19.
1616:
1611:
1605:, p. 73.
1604:
1603:Fletcher 2008
1599:
1593:, p. 38.
1592:
1591:Anderson 2003
1587:
1581:, p. 16.
1580:
1575:
1569:, p. 76.
1568:
1567:Fletcher 2008
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1555:
1547:
1542:
1535:
1530:
1524:, p. 69.
1523:
1522:Fletcher 2008
1518:
1516:
1508:
1503:
1496:
1495:Fletcher 2008
1491:
1484:
1479:
1477:
1470:, p. 68.
1469:
1468:Fletcher 2008
1464:
1458:, p. 12.
1457:
1456:Burstein 2004
1452:
1450:
1448:
1440:
1435:
1429:, p. 60.
1428:
1423:
1421:
1414:, p. 27.
1413:
1408:
1406:
1399:, p. 11.
1398:
1397:Burstein 2004
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1379:
1374:
1368:, p. 22.
1367:
1362:
1355:
1350:
1344:, p. 15.
1343:
1338:
1332:, p. 18.
1331:
1326:
1324:
1316:
1311:
1304:
1299:
1295:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1251:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1178:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1093:Cleopatra VII
1091:
1082:
1073:
1063:
1057:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1006:in the 53 BC
1005:
999:
998:of 43–42 BC.
997:
993:
989:
985:
982:BC, when the
980:
976:
971:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
931:
929:
924:
918:
915:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
845:
840:
831:
829:
825:
822:
818:
814:
810:
805:
803:
799:
798:Julius Caesar
795:
791:
787:
783:
780:
776:
772:
768:
765:
762:In 65 BC the
760:
758:
754:
750:
746:
740:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
694:
689:
687:
682:
680:
675:
674:
672:
671:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
652:
650:
643:
640:
638:
635:
634:
631:
628:
626:
623:
622:
619:
616:
614:
611:
610:
607:
604:
602:
599:
598:
596:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
575:
573:
572:
568:
564:
563:
560:
559:Cleopatra VII
557:
556:
552:
551:
543:
541:
540:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
409:, founded by
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
341:
337:
333:
328:
324:
322:
318:
315:and brothers
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
287:
283:
282:Michael Grant
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
261:
257:
256:Cleopatra VII
250:
247:, now in the
246:
242:
241:Cleopatra VII
238:
233:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
3887:
3862:
3845:
3827:
3822:Syme, Ronald
3803:
3784:
3761:
3739:
3718:
3696:
3678:
3662:
3639:
3615:
3596:
3577:
3553:
3532:
3509:
3489:
3461:
3441:
3416:
3392:
3371:
3350:
3329:
3309:
3289:
3265:
3241:
3217:
3177:
3173:
3153:
3126:
3113:
3112:
3101:, retrieved
3097:the original
3091:
3078:, retrieved
3065:
3053:, retrieved
3039:
3027:, retrieved
3021:
3011:
3010:
2992:
2980:
2968:
2956:
2936:, p. 5.
2899:
2887:
2875:
2863:
2851:
2839:
2827:
2800:
2788:
2776:
2764:
2752:
2725:
2713:
2701:
2689:
2677:
2665:
2653:
2641:
2582:
2555:
2483:
2471:
2459:
2447:
2435:
2376:
2364:
2352:
2340:
2328:
2316:
2304:
2292:
2280:
2268:
2256:
2214:
2202:
2175:
2142:
2083:
2071:
2059:
2047:
2035:
2023:
1996:
1940:, p. 9.
1933:
1921:
1909:
1882:
1870:
1858:
1846:
1834:
1822:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1774:
1747:
1735:
1723:
1711:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1663:
1634:
1622:
1610:
1598:
1586:
1574:
1541:
1529:
1502:
1490:
1463:
1434:
1427:Bennett 1997
1373:
1366:Preston 2009
1361:
1356:, p. 4.
1349:
1337:
1310:
1298:
1250:
1229:
1155:
1123:
1104:
1097:Altes Museum
1095:bust in the
1089:
1021:
1000:
972:
937:
919:
911:
872:
849:
830:by farmers.
821:Roman banker
806:
771:Roman Senate
764:Roman censor
761:
749:client state
741:
725:Berenice III
713:Roman Senate
709:Antiochus IV
702:
582:
537:
483:
388:
344:
336:Cleopatra VI
317:Ptolemy XIII
297:Aidan Dodson
286:Egyptologist
254:
205:Ptolemy XIII
182:
126:client ruler
123:
89:, including
75:Cleopatra VI
46:
44:
18:
3879:Wyke, Maria
2973:Roller 2010
2919:Roller 2010
2868:Roller 2010
2805:Roller 2010
2793:Roller 2010
2769:Roller 2010
2682:Roller 2010
2646:Roller 2010
2617:Roller 2010
2548:Roller 2010
2503:Roller 2010
2476:Roller 2010
2428:Roller 2010
2398:Roller 2010
2357:Roller 2010
2321:Roller 2010
2297:Roller 2010
2168:Roller 2010
2118:Roller 2010
2052:Roller 2010
2028:Roller 2010
1959:Roller 2010
1887:Roller 2010
1827:Roller 2010
1815:Roller 2010
1791:Roller 2010
1740:Roller 2010
1716:Roller 2010
1692:Roller 2010
1680:Roller 2010
1668:Roller 2010
1639:Roller 2010
1615:Roller 2010
1579:Roller 2010
1483:Roller 2010
1439:Roller 2010
1342:Roller 2010
1330:Roller 2010
1315:Ashton 2001
1303:Ashton 2001
1113:Hellenistic
1032:East Africa
975:Mark Antony
960:Hyrcanus II
903:Alban Hills
534:Upper Egypt
475:Koine Greek
372:Sobekneferu
370:), such as
321:Ptolemy XIV
309:Berenice IV
193:Mark Antony
154:Roman Italy
150:Berenice IV
119:Koine Greek
83:Hellenistic
71:Cleopatra V
3911:Categories
3806:, Tempus,
3462:Cleopatras
3269:, Harper,
2949:Grant 1972
2856:Grant 1972
2820:Hölbl 2001
2781:Hölbl 2001
2745:Grout 2017
2670:Grant 1972
2518:Grant 1972
2381:Grant 1972
2285:Grant 1972
2207:Grant 1972
2103:Grant 1972
2088:Grant 1972
2001:Grant 1972
1974:Grant 1972
1938:Grant 1972
1926:Grant 1972
1914:Grant 1972
1779:Jones 2006
1507:Grant 1972
1378:Jones 2006
1354:Grant 1972
1285:References
1260:Arsinoe II
1256:Ptolemy II
1197:Amanirenas
1172:, but the
1170:Arsinoe II
1166:Ptolemy II
1158:incestuous
1142:priesthood
1126:Hermonthis
813:West Asian
804:in 59 BC.
583:Early life
518:old colony
514:Alexandria
407:Alexandria
389:Ptolemaic
376:Hatshepsut
348:philosophy
313:Arsinoe IV
279:classicist
213:Hermonthis
146:Arsinoe IV
134:the Romans
79:Alexandria
3917:Cleopatra
3872:316294139
3854:899077769
3824:(1962) ,
3804:Cleopatra
3697:Cleopatra
3671:671705946
3663:Cleopatra
3530:(2007) ,
3510:Cleopatra
3290:Cleopatra
3194:0066-1619
3180:: 39–66.
1290:Citations
1012:Gabiniani
1004:Parthians
979:Pelousion
952:Roman law
940:Archelaos
907:Praeneste
897:Pompey's
613:Accession
522:Naukratis
486:Egyptians
484:Although
453:(perhaps
435:Trogodyte
431:Ethiopian
380:Nefertiti
303:call her
243:, in the
201:Archelaos
197:Pelousion
95:Ethiopian
51:Cleopatra
31:cartouche
3783:(2011),
3738:(2022),
3717:(1984),
3661:(1972),
3637:(2005),
3438:(2008),
3414:(2010),
3287:(1972),
3263:(2008),
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3202:44079777
3151:(2003),
3103:29 March
3049:archived
3029:29 March
1181:See also
1016:Germanic
984:triumvir
895:triumvir
887:laxative
705:Seleucid
642:Downfall
588:Children
578:Ancestry
463:Parthian
427:Egyptian
391:pharaohs
362:-priest
271:Dionysos
211:bull in
178:Anatolia
136:annexed
111:Parthian
91:Egyptian
3080:6 March
3055:29 July
1268:Macedon
1105:(right)
1044:Dendera
994:in the
901:in the
883:latrine
828:strikes
817:talents
792:in the
779:tribune
719:. When
510:Nubians
506:Syrians
443:Aramaic
415:Macedon
403:Memphis
395:crowned
384:Twosret
364:Manetho
352:Musaeum
174:Ephesus
160:at the
132:. When
128:of the
59:pharaoh
37:on her
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1090:(left)
1040:Hathor
988:Tarsos
946:, the
891:Athens
875:Rhodes
868:Apollo
864:Paphos
802:consul
796:) and
775:Cicero
753:Cyprus
707:ruler
539:poleis
530:Thebes
528:(near
524:, and
516:, the
498:Celtic
490:Greeks
465:, and
459:Median
455:Syriac
451:Syrian
447:Arabic
439:Hebrew
382:, and
284:, the
249:Louvre
209:Buchis
166:patron
138:Cyprus
107:Median
103:Arabic
99:Hebrew
39:diadem
35:uraeus
3198:JSTOR
1222:Notes
1205:Nubia
1134:Montu
1036:India
905:near
899:villa
737:Sulla
655:Death
595:Reign
471:Roman
467:Latin
393:were
189:Syria
162:villa
115:Latin
3893:ISBN
3868:OCLC
3850:OCLC
3834:OCLC
3808:ISBN
3789:ISBN
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3667:OCLC
3645:ISBN
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3190:ISSN
3159:ISBN
3135:ISBN
3105:2018
3082:2018
3057:2021
3031:2018
1276:Hera
1274:and
1272:Zeus
1258:and
1201:Kush
1156:The
1034:and
962:had
923:Gaul
660:Tomb
500:and
494:Jews
441:(or
399:Ptah
319:and
158:Rome
45:The
3557:, "
3182:doi
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3071:doi
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1136:in
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