Economy of the Soviet Union

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increasing, but still well below average for a developed country. Problems such as a scarcity of educated workers, saturation of unskilled workers and jobs made obsolete by technology, and poorly trained and educated farmers brought costs up and drove production down. These issues prevented the Soviet Union from producing enough food, as a lack of administration and management led to the mismanagement of farms and reduced worker productivity. From 1972 to 1986, the Soviet Union failed to produce more wheat than the Western European average. This failure to produce resulted in forced Soviet imports of food. Between 1961 and 1985, Soviet food imports from foreign producers cost a total of nearly 152 billion dollars. The root of this expense can be identified in the inefficiencies of the Soviet agricultural sector, such as the shortage of workers, lag in technology, or natural factors such as drought or frosts. Although the Soviet Union aimed to establish a mechanized agricultural giant, the shortcomings of Soviet agriculture put the sector behind other countries from the beginning. Soviet agriculture had the inability to meet basic consumer demands and expectations, requiring policy change culminating in the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.

1186:). These farms were collectivized distributed amongst the peasantry and yearly production quotas were set by administrators. Before Stalin, Soviet agriculture held its own. Data from the 1920s infers a positive supply response to increases in the terms of trade. Farmers increased grain sales to urban areas when the price of grain increased. However, at the time, agricultural production was limited by technology, as the whole of Soviet Agriculture relied heavily on animal powered tilling. In the 1930s due to massive famines and animal die offs, the number of remaining animals doing farm work was reduced by half. This indicated the dire need of additional production outputs, which administrators predicted could be supplied by mechanical harvesters. The planning of Soviet leadership emphasized a mechanical agricultural industry, whereby technology and ideology met to create a booming agricultural industry. This way, the technological evolution of Soviet agricultural production could be linked to urban industry. Yet in reality, Soviet planners were more invested in industry than farmers, and the Soviet agricultural industry suffered as a result. An example of this can be seen in the analysis published in 1929 by soviet economist 1600:

the same period (1929–1936), Armenia's industrialization process was also launched by the government. The socialist economic system and socialist ownership of the means of production, which come in two forms: state property and cooperative and collective-farm property, form the basis of the republic's economy. The legislation authorizes small private ventures of individual peasants and craftsmen based on their own labor and forbids the exploitation of the labor of others, in addition to the socialist system of economy, which is the major type of economy in the Republic. The official economic plan sets and directs the Republic's economic course. By 1935, the gross product of agriculture was 132% higher than that of 1928, and the gross product of industry was 650% more than that of 1928. However, the 1930s economic revolution came at a high price: it destroyed the conventional peasant family and village institution and caused many people who lived in the remote countryside to relocate to cities. As private enterprise was essentially brought under government control, it came to an end.

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plagued Soviet agriculture, such as obsolete technology, waste of fuel resources, and depreciating capital stock. These inefficiencies clogged the Soviet agricultural machine and reduced output. Additionally, climate greatly affected Soviet agricultural output. Many regions throughout the USSR had little rainfall, short growing seasons, low temperatures, and general extremes unsuitable for optimal agricultural production. This was detrimental to agricultural output and prevented cost minimization. When harvests fell short of production quotas due to a sudden frost or long drought, Soviet output could not make up the difference. Consequently, when agriculture was not producing as promised, some peasants refused to work over fear of starvation. However, since Soviet farms were collectivized, no individual grievances could be tolerated for the societal system to succeed. As a result, peasants unwilling to join

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Khrushchev era in the 1950s, Soviet planning was done on a sectoral basis rather than on a regional basis. The departments of the state planning agency aided the agency's development of a full set of plan targets along with input requirements, a process involving bargaining between the ministries and their superiors. Economic ministries performed key roles in the Soviet organizational structure. When the planning goals had been established by Gosplan, economic ministries drafted plans within their jurisdictions and disseminated planning data to the subordinate enterprises. The planning data were sent downward through the planning hierarchy for progressively more detailed elaboration. The ministry received its control targets, which were then disaggregated by branches within the ministry, then by lower units, eventually until each enterprise received its own control figures (production targets).

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services. Similarly, Soviet farms could specialize in the crop which was best suited for growing in their region, and surplus could be transported throughout the USSR to satisfy quotas and distribute to people who needed the food. Khrushchev himself tended to suggest his favorite crops such as corn for planters. Paired with a need to proselytize mechanized agriculture to nearby countries, the Khrushchev administration began a campaign for an optimistic future of mechanized Soviet agriculture. However, Khrushchev was not able to fulfill his promises, and this contributed to his rising unpopularity which culminated in his removal from power.

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Soviet Union became one of the leading industrial nations of the world. Industrial production was disproportionately high in the Soviet Union compared to Western economies. By the 60s calorie consumption per person in the Soviet Union was at levels similar to the United States. However, the production of consumer goods was disproportionately low. Economic planners made little effort to determine the wishes of household consumers, resulting in severe shortages of many consumer goods. Whenever these consumer goods would become available on the market, consumers routinely had to stand in long lines (queues) to buy them. A

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negative input or criticism of the plan and thus Soviet planners had very little reliable feedback that they could use to determine the success of their plans. This meant that economic planning was often done based on faulty or outdated information, particularly in sectors with large numbers of consumers. As a result, some goods tended to be underproduced and led to shortages while other goods were overproduced and accumulated in storage. Low-level managers often did not report such problems to their superiors, relying instead on each other for support. Some factories developed a system of

1220: 1074:, which constituted the government of the Soviet Union. The Council of Ministers was composed of industrial ministers, chairmen of various state committees and chairmen of agencies with ministerial status. This committee stood at the apex of the vast economic administration, including the state planning apparatus, the industrial ministries, the trusts (the intermediate level between the ministries and the enterprises) and finally the state enterprises. The Council of Ministers elaborated on Politburo plan targets and sent them to Gosplan, which gathered data on plan fulfillment. 24: 1874: 1816:. Starting in 1965, enterprises and organizations were made to rely on economic methods of profitable production, rather than follow orders from the state administration. By 1970, the Soviet economy had reached its zenith and was estimated at 60 percent of the size of the United States in terms of the estimated commodities (like steel and coal). In 1989, the official GDP of the Soviet Union was $ 2,500 billion while the GDP of the United States was $ 4,862 billion with per capita income figures as $ 8,700 and $ 19,800 respectively. 86: 6357: 964: 1495: 6369: 1916:, director of the KGB, created a secret department during the 1970s within the KGB devoted to economic analysis and when he succeeded Brezhnev in 1982 sounded the alarm forcefully to the Soviet leadership. However, Andropov's remedy of increased discipline proved ineffective. It was only when Andropov's protege Gorbachev assumed power that a determined, but ultimately unsuccessful, assault on the economic crisis was undertaken. 1733: 129: 800:. GDP levels in 1950 (in billion 1990 dollars) were 510 (100%) in the Soviet Union, 161 (100%) in Japan and 1,456 (100%) in the United States. By 1965, the corresponding values were 1,011 (198%), 587 (365%) and 2,607 (179%). The Soviet Union maintained itself as the world's second largest economy in both nominal and purchasing power parity values throughout the 883:—balancing economic inputs with planned output targets for the planning period. From 1930 until the late 1950s, the range of mathematics used to assist economic decision-making was, for ideological reasons, extremely restricted. On the whole, the plans were overoptimistic and plagued by falsified reporting. 1112:

The review, revision and approval of the five-year plan were followed by another downward flow of information, this time with the amended and final plans containing the specific targets for each sector of the economy. Implementation began at this point and was largely the responsibility of enterprise

1907:

The hard currency from oil exports stopped the growing food supply crisis, increased the import of equipment and consumer goods, ensured a financial base for the arms race and the achievement of nuclear parity with the United States, and permitted the realization of such risky foreign-policy actions

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To some estimations, in 1933 workers' real earnings sank on more than 11.4% from 1926 level, though it needs an adjustment due to elimination of unemployment and perks at work (such as inexpensive meals). Common and political prisoners in labor camps were forced to do unpaid labor and communists and

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The Soviet-era republic's centralized economy forbade private ownership of property with an income. Privately owned farms in Armenia were collectivized and put under the control of the state starting in the late 1920s, however this was frequently met with vigorous opposition by the peasantry. During

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The economic problems in agriculture were further exacerbated by natural conditions, such as long cold winters across the country, droughts in the south and acidic soils in the north. However, according to Dyker, the Soviet economy did have "extremely good" potential in the area of raw materials and

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years, was suspended) until the late 1980s. It was impossible (both for citizens and state-owned businesses) to freely buy or sell foreign currency even though the "exchange rate" was set and published regularly. Buying or selling foreign currency on a black market was a serious crime until the late

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Enterprises were called upon to develop in the final period of state planning in the late 1980s and early 1990s (even though such participation was mostly limited to a rubber-stamping of prepared statements during huge pre-staged meetings). The enterprises' draft plans were then sent back up through

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worked out through trial and error a set of preliminary plan targets. Among more than twenty state committees, Gosplan headed the government's planning apparatus and was by far the most important agency in the economic administration. The task of planners was to balance resources and requirements to

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Most information in the Soviet economy flowed from the top down. There were several mechanisms in place for producers and consumers to provide input and information that would help in the drafting of economic plans (as detailed below), but the political climate was such that few people ever provided

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Heavy industry was always the focus of the Soviet economy even in its later years. The fact that it received special attention from the planners, combined with the fact that industrial production was relatively easy to plan even without minute feedback, led to significant growth in that sector. The

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The volume of decisions facing planners in Moscow became overwhelming. The cumbersome procedures for bureaucratic administration foreclosed the free communication and flexible response required at the enterprise level for dealing with worker alienation, innovation, customers, and suppliers. During

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Following Khrushchev's leadership, Soviet agriculture's legacy was defined by patchwork that attempted to fix the mistakes of the previous administrations. Crop harvests, tractors, fertilizer, and capital investment were all increasing since 1955. By 1965, the output of the Soviet worker was

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Following previous agricultural failures, Khrushchev abandoned Stalin's agricultural model. He instead looked comparatively at American agriculture through Soviet observers. He noticed that American agriculture flourished due to its specialization and interdependence on other farmers for goods and

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The state planning agency was subdivided into its own industrial departments, such as coal, iron and machine building. It also had summary departments such as finance, dealing with issues that crossed functional boundaries. With the exception of a brief experiment with regional planning during the

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set basic guidelines for planning. The Politburo determined the general direction of the economy via control figures (preliminary plan targets), major investment projects (capacity creation) and general economic policies. These guidelines were submitted as a report of the Central Committee to the

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consolidated his power by sacking Malenkov, one of the accusations against him was that he permitted "theoretically incorrect and politically harmful opposition to the rate of development of heavy industry in favor of the rate of development of light and food industry". Since 1955, the priorities

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One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in the 1973–1974 and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. At one point, Soviet Premier

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Stalin's first Five year Plan (1929–1933) was a colossal failure. Soviet population declined after 1933, and would see modest growth until 1936. The figures suggest a gap of about 15 million people between anticipated population and those that survived the five-year plan. Systemic inefficiencies

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While all modernized economies were rapidly moving to computerization after 1965, the Soviet Union fell further and further behind. Even though Moscow decided to copy the IBM 360 of 1965, it had enormous difficulties in manufacturing the necessary chips reliably and in quantity, in programming

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sees the Soviet Union of circa 1930 as in some ways a typical developing country, characterized by low capital-investment and with most of its population residing in the countryside. Part of the reason for low investment-rates lay in the inability to acquire capital from abroad. This in turn,

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After this bargaining process, Gosplan received the revised estimates and re-aggregated them as it saw fit. The redrafted plan was then sent to the Council of Ministers and the party's Politburo and Central Committee Secretariat for approval. The Council of Ministers submitted the plan to the

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members were frequently "mobilized" for various construction projects. The German invasion of World War II inflicted punishing blows to the economy of the Soviet Union, with Soviet GDP falling 34% between 1940 and 1942. Industrial output did not recover to its 1940 level for almost a decade.

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property and cooperative property. The most common forms of cooperative property were housing cooperatives (жилищные кооперативы) in urban areas, consumer cooperatives (потребительская кооперация, потребкооперация) and rural consumer societies (сельские потребительские общества, сельпо).

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The fact is that the most important official general indices of economic development – those of national income, industrial output, real incomes of wage-earners and peasants, labour productivity and production costs in industry – have, over long periods of time....nothing in common with

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five-year plans) frequently used their economic analysis of this period to praise the effectiveness of the October Revolution. The impressive growth rates during the first three five-year plans (1928–1940) are particularly notable given that this period is nearly congruent with the

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Repudiation of the international debts of the tsarist regime, coupled with the difficult economic conditions of the post-Wall Street crash period, ensured that any increase in the rate of accumulation would have to be internally financed. In some ways, then, the Soviet Union

1337:, till and cultivate their lots carefully, adapting them to small-scale farming and in 5–7 years those lots would be swapped for kolkhoz ones, typically with exhausted soil due to intensive, large-scale agriculture . There was an extremely small number of remaining individual 1093:

ensure that the necessary inputs were provided for the planned output. The planning apparatus alone was a vast organizational arrangement consisting of councils, commissions, governmental officials, specialists and so on charged with executing and monitoring economic policy.

1614:

Starting in 1928, the five-year plans began building a heavy industrial base at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. The New Economic Policy was

1591:. The Soviet government changed its previous course and allowed international relief to come in from abroad, and established a special committee chaired by prominent communists and non-communists alike. Despite this, an estimated five million people died in the famine. 1517:

By early 1921, it became apparent to the Bolsheviks that forced requisitioning of grain had resulted in low agricultural production and widespread opposition. As a result, the decision was made by Lenin and the Politburo to try an alternative approach. The so-called

1445:(1917–1922), industrial production had only managed to barely recover its 1913 level by 1926. By this time, about 18% of the population lived in non-rural areas, although only about 7.5% were employed in the non-agricultural sector. The remainder remained stuck in 728:

Even so, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy in the world from the end of World War II until the mid-1980s. A major strength of the Soviet economy was its enormous supply of oil and gas, which became much more valuable as exports after the world

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described the continuing growth as a "proven ability to carry backward countries speedily through the crisis of modernization and industrialization", and the impoverished base upon which the five-year plans sought to build meant that at the commencement of

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in 1979 and led to a period of economic standstill between 1979 and 1985. Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development kept the Soviet Union's GDP at the same level during the first half of the 1980s. According to American journalist

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1975–1985, data fiddling became common practice among bureaucracy to report satisfied targets and quotas thus entrenching the crisis. At the same time, the effects of the central planning were progressively distorted due to the rapid growth of the

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Largely self-sufficient, the Soviet Union traded little in comparison to its economic strength. However, trade with non-communist countries increased in the 1970s as the government sought to compensate gaps in domestic production with imports.

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were due to a number of avoidable problems. He argued that the industrial drive had been enacted under more severe circumstances, several years later and in a less rational manner than proposal originally conceived by the Left Opposition.

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that were particularly sought after, but it constantly underproduced. People were developing unique social "networks of favors" between people having access to sought after goods (for example, working in particular shops or factories).

1919:

The value of all consumer goods manufactured in 1990 in retail prices was about 459 billion roubles ($ 2.1 trillion). According to CIA estimates, by 1989 the size of the Soviet economy was roughly half that in the United States.

4133:. 1930 was a typical developing country, with a relatively low level of accumulation and substantial surplus agricultural population. But she could not count on large-scale capital transfer from abroad – for better or worse. 1819:

The USSR was the first major non-Western country to close the developmental gap that had existed with the West since the 16th century. In the period 1930 to 1960s, the USSR successfully implemented catch-up development.

1053:. At each CPSU Congress, the party leadership presented the targets for the next five-year plan, therefore each plan had the approval of the most authoritative body of the country's leading political institution. 740:

notes, the Soviet economy in its final decades was "heavily dependent on vast natural resources–oil and gas in particular". World oil prices collapsed in 1986, putting heavy pressure on the economy. After

1309:

There were two basic forms of property in the Soviet Union: individual property and collective property. These differed greatly in their content and legal status. According to communist theory, capital

1042:

integrated short-range planning into a longer time frame. It delineated the chief thrust of the country's economic development and specified the way the economy could meet the desired goals of the

807:

The Soviet Union's relatively medium consumer sector accounted for just 60% of the country's GDP in 1990 while the industrial and agricultural sectors contributed 22% and 20% respectively in 1991.

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majority which was controlled by the troika and derided by Stalin at the time. Stalin's version of the five-year plan was implemented in 1928 and took effect until 1932. According to historian

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1980s. Individuals who were paid from abroad (for example writers whose books were published abroad) normally had to spend their currency in a foreign-currency-only chain of state-owned

1912:

Awareness of the growing crisis arose initially within the KGB which with its extensive network of informants in every region and institution had its finger on the pulse of the nation.

3828: 1583:, had disappeared. However, due to prolonged war, low harvests, and several natural disasters the Soviet economy was still in trouble, particularly its agricultural sector. In 1921, 1371:

To distinguish "capitalist" and "socialist" types of property ownership further, two different forms of individual property were recognized: private property (частная собственность,

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that basically intended to confiscate "excessive" amount of money in order to weaken rampant illegal trade (which was banned at the time) and fill up budget at cost of people.

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the planning ministries for review. This process entailed intensive bargaining, with all parties seeking the target levels and input figures that best suited their interests.

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and the Central Committee submitted the plan to the party congress, both for rubber stamp approval. By this time, the process had been completed and the plan became law.

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Land in rural areas was allotted for housing and some sustenance farming, and persons had certain rights to it, but it was not their property in full. In particular, in

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to artisan and agricultural production/trade. The NEP encountered strong resistance within the Bolshevik party. Lenin had to persuade communist skeptics that "

1877:

Soviet national income 1928–1987 growth in % based on estimates of the official statistical agency of the Soviet Union, the CIA and revised estimates by

1088:

Combining the broad goals laid out by the Council of Ministers with data supplied by lower administrative levels regarding the current state of the economy,

987:'s close supervision, a complex system of planning arrangements had developed since the introduction of the first five-year plan in 1928. Preceding this, 5699: 5668: 1727: 1662: 2915: 2820: 8038: 5658: 5610: 2437: 1808:

1 = Rbl 1. The rouble maintained exchange parity with sterling until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. After a new leadership, headed by

2432: 1290:("Birch-tree") stores. Once a free conversion of currency was allowed, the exchange rate plummeted from its official values by almost a factor of 10. 7309: 5907: 3255: 7065: 1649:

Trotsky maintained that the disproportions and imbalances which became characteristic of Stalinist planning in the 1930s such as the underdeveloped

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Congress of the CPSU to be approved there. After the approval at the Congress, the list of priorities for the five-year plan was processed by the

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and either exchanged or shared raw materials and parts without the knowledge of the authorities and outside the parameters of the economic plan.

8473: 8006: 904:. This emphasis was based on the perceived necessity for very fast industrialization and modernization of the Soviet Union. After the death of 823:. The labor force totaled 152.3 million people. Though its GDP crossed $ 1 trillion in the 1970s and $ 2 trillion in the 1980s, the effects of 8154: 5605: 5218: 4514: 3874: 3835: 1468:

in 1918 as well as from the worldwide financial troubles. Consequently, any kind of economic growth had to be financed by domestic savings.

8225: 5271: 4577:

James W. Cortada, "Public Policies and the Development of National Computer Industries in Britain, France, and the Soviet Union, 1940—80."

1422: 8572: 8021: 7232: 6405: 5790: 5760: 4590:

Frank Cain, "Computers and the Cold War: United States restrictions on the export of computers to the Soviet Union and Communist China."

3578:"Николай Петрович Шмелёв (Nikolay Shmelyov) "Авансы и долги (Avansy i dolgi)" ("Credits and debts"), Новый мир (Novyi Mir) – 1987. - № 6" 1837: 1833: 1609: 8053: 7966: 7539: 6933: 6047: 6007: 5917: 5728: 5244: 2857: 4973: 777:

with a growing pile of $ 66 billion in external debt and with barely a few billion dollars in net gold and foreign exchange reserves.

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Grain and other agricultural products, machinery and equipment, steel products (including large-diameter pipe), consumer manufactures

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The complex demands of the modern economy somewhat constrained the central planners. Data fiddling became common practice among the

8371: 7121: 5940: 5857: 5750: 3957: 8381: 8230: 7700: 5880: 5687: 5554: 1066: 713: 7237: 8427: 8285: 8275: 8078: 7981: 6616: 6553: 5578: 5423: 3149:, pp. 1189–90: "The mathematical sophistication of the tools actually employed was limited to those that had been used in 1271: 1314:) should not be individually owned, with certain negligible exceptions. In particular, after the end of a short period of the 867:, with a brief attempt at seven-year planning. For every enterprise, planning ministries (also known as the "fund holders" or 8376: 8235: 7780: 7329: 7161: 7141: 7116: 7018: 6963: 6065: 5566: 5532: 5520: 5515: 5406: 5040: 4823: 4794: 4743: 4713: 4683: 4559: 4479: 4413: 4313: 4288: 4228: 3967: 3940: 3884: 3577: 3486: 3372: 3287: 1748:-era mobilization, and for the first two decades of the postwar era. The Soviet Union became the world's leading producer of 1379:). The former encompassed capital (means of production) while the latter described everything else in a person's possession. 5992: 1333:

there was a practice to rotate individual farming lots with collective lots. This resulted in situations where people would

1046:. Although the five-year plan was enacted into law, it contained a series of guidelines rather than a set of direct orders. 8970: 8965: 8412: 8316: 7181: 7171: 6102: 5870: 4931:

Autio-Sarasmo, Sari. "Technological Modernisation in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Russia: Practices and Continuities."

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workable and efficient programs, in coordinating entirely separate operations, and in providing support to computer users.

1842:

After 1976, the USSR stopped narrowing the developmental gap with the West, and the gap further widened beginning in 1990.

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in Soviet Union were abolished in December 1947, six months after rationing ended in the US, and two years before France.

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French creditors were owed forty-three percent of the total Russian debt repudiated by the Bolsheviks on 28 January 1918.

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The value of all consumer goods manufactured in 1972 in retail prices was about 118 billion roubles ($ 530 billion). The

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had delivered a joint report to the April Plenum of the Central Committee in 1926 which proposed a program for national

8700: 8366: 7802: 7186: 7013: 6030: 6025: 5745: 5693: 4738:. Paris, France: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). p. 185. 4658: 4618: 3913: 3536: 3511: 3201: 2487: 2407: 1867: 1121: 1106: 887: 834: 811:

was the predominant occupation in the Soviet Union before the massive industrialization under Soviet general secretary

709:. During this period, the Soviet Union saw rapid industrial growth while other regions were suffering from crisis. The 484: 1740:, introduced in 1967, was used to certify that goods met quality standards and to improve the efficiency of production 8630: 6460: 6445: 6282: 6233: 6166: 5977: 5705: 5307: 5211: 5175: 5160: 4876: 4156: 4114: 3030: 1241: 67: 45: 38: 8290: 8250: 8159: 7883: 7659: 7506: 7207: 7191: 6465: 6312: 6300: 6124: 6114: 6070: 5885: 5561: 5510: 5393: 3135:"THE SECOND ECONOMY AND THE DESTABILIZING EFFECT OF ITS GROWTH ON THE STATE ECONOMY IN THE SOVIET UNION: 1965–1989" 2518: 2498: 2472: 1498:

One of the several photographs intended to show the two major economic policy makers of the Soviet Union together,

4379: 863:(State Commission for Materials and Equipment Supply). Beginning in 1928, the economy was directed by a series of 8565: 8309: 8240: 8144: 8111: 8073: 7898: 7858: 7614: 7414: 7344: 7095: 6978: 6973: 6579: 6398: 6317: 6305: 6161: 6146: 6060: 5962: 5544: 5364: 3388: 2462: 1893:

told the head of oil and gas production that "things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons over the plan".

1723: 1287: 1163: 1150: 808: 770: 8149: 7913: 7823: 7808: 7634: 7624: 7532: 7252: 6543: 6258: 6238: 5935: 5549: 5374: 5302: 3039: 2991:, "who visited the Soviet Union in the late 1920s and was deeply impressed by Soviet industrial progress." See 2925: 2830: 1781: 1737: 1711: 781: 8944: 8837: 8650: 8190: 8106: 8033: 7893: 7868: 7833: 7760: 7705: 7548: 7424: 7023: 7008: 6329: 6156: 6020: 5972: 5733: 5527: 5401: 5384: 4950: 2503: 1639: 1511: 1139: 1132: 1062: 630: 626: 523: 134: 2998: 8903: 8675: 8498: 8265: 8083: 8058: 8048: 7971: 7918: 7873: 7863: 7853: 7813: 7770: 7730: 7710: 7684: 7594: 7579: 7334: 7299: 7289: 7247: 7060: 5925: 5600: 5495: 5296: 5204: 4886: 4449: 4253: 4191: 2887: 1670: 1319: 797: 8483: 8442: 8407: 8213: 8208: 8016: 8011: 8001: 7991: 7986: 7976: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7928: 7785: 7750: 7740: 7669: 7654: 7649: 7639: 7629: 7599: 7569: 7314: 7227: 7080: 6953: 6206: 6188: 5812: 5773: 5740: 5430: 5418: 5334: 5236: 4786: 4437: 3478: 3415: 3055: 2861: 2563: 2442: 2422: 2417: 2412: 1813: 1476:, and this, along with a small but growing manufacturing base, helped the Soviet Union avoid any kind of 1410: 1026:), the allocation of resources was directed by a planning apparatus rather than through the interplay of 5011:

Gregory, Paul, and Mark Harrison. 2005. "Allocation under Dictatorship: Research in Stalin's Archives."

8918: 8870: 8762: 8757: 8558: 8255: 8203: 8129: 8068: 8043: 7996: 7945: 7923: 7908: 7843: 7765: 7755: 7720: 7715: 7679: 7674: 7644: 7609: 7574: 7563: 7379: 7033: 7028: 6391: 6201: 6178: 6151: 5120: 4854: 4841: 4815: 4771: 1689:; the number of physicians increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and death and 1135:

combined with political dogmatism which led to gradual degradation of Soviet economy and its collapse.

819:

sector was of low importance in the Soviet Union, with the majority of the labor force employed in the

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China and Eurasian powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace

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Planning Problems in the USSR: The Contribution of Mathematical Economics to their Solution 1960-1971

2482: 2447: 1575:, among others, noted, the improvements were immediate. Rationing cards and queues, which had become 1446: 1438: 1197: 880: 6211: 3859: 2323:

Comparison between the economies of the Soviet Union and the United States (1989) according to 1990

2048:) comparison involving the area of Russia/USSR, United States, and Western Europe from 1820 to 1990 1204:

basis. Several scholars have argued that the economic programme of Trotsky differed from the forced

871:) defined the mix of economic inputs (e.g. labor and raw materials), a schedule for completion, all 8875: 8722: 7838: 7775: 7735: 7409: 7359: 6998: 6988: 6757: 6518: 6324: 5134:

Zhuravskaya, Ekaterina, Sergei Guriev, and Andrei Markevich. 2024. "New Russian Economic History."

2792: 2764: 1897: 1674: 32: 6855: 4701: 4525: 3552: 2650: 634: 8880: 8842: 8260: 7460: 7399: 7339: 7242: 7166: 7126: 6993: 6983: 6762: 6679: 6611: 6523: 5573: 1400: 1208:

implemented by Stalin after 1928 due to the levels of brutality associated with its enforcement.

750: 4690:

When he spoke to the leadership circle he said the country was faced with a question of survival

3137:, BERKELEY-DUKE OCCASIONAL PAPERS ON THE SECOND ECONOMY IN THE USSR, Paper No. 36, December 1993 1862:, the massive quantities of goods produced often did not meet the needs or tastes of consumers. 1561:, while he himself harbored suspicions that the policy could be abused by private businessmen (" 1293:

Overall, the banking system was highly centralized and fully controlled by a single state-owned

1128:

local organizations. If the state budget was accepted by the Soviet Union, it was then adopted.

8822: 8519: 8488: 8332: 7364: 7176: 6747: 6594: 6253: 5845: 5783: 2736: 2622: 2594: 2457: 1744:

As weighed growth rates, economic planning performed very well during the early and mid-1930s,

1584: 1433:. For both, this development occurred slowly and from a low initial starting-point. Because of 622: 195: 49: 4804:

Bradley, Mark Philip (2010). "Decolonization, the global South, and the Cold War, 1919–1962".

4703: 4648: 4403:"A Comparison of the US and Soviet Economies: Evaluating the Performance of the Soviet System" 4389: 4358: 4263: 4204: 3049: 3008: 928:

Economist Naum Jasny says that while many of the official statistics were correctly reported:

8980: 8792: 8752: 8732: 8712: 8615: 8534: 7465: 7419: 7404: 7369: 7156: 7100: 6689: 6455: 6372: 5344: 5000: 4833: 4780: 4608: 3846: 2982: 1854: 1673:

in 1929, industrialization came with the extension of medical services, which improved labor

1387:

There were several forms of collective ownership, the most significant being state property,

1049:

Periods covered by the five-year plans coincided with those covered by the gatherings of the

995:

and the replacement of annual plans with five-year plans. His proposals were rejected by the

3175: 3068: 2966: 2962: 2865: 1219: 8908: 8727: 7374: 6875: 6870: 6830: 6699: 6684: 6134: 5997: 5817: 5615: 5329: 5018:

Harrison, Mark. "The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression,"

4873:

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1196:

and the Opposition bloc had advocated a programme of industrialization which also proposed

1050: 722: 697: 594: 575: 288: 6644: 6221: 5190: 3153:: the four arithmetical operations, percentages, and arithmetic (but not geometric) mean." 8: 8928: 8913: 8860: 8807: 8802: 8777: 8635: 8493: 8468: 7319: 7294: 7090: 7075: 6674: 6414: 6361: 6090: 5895: 5824: 5632: 5481: 5359: 5281: 5254: 5170:(in Russian). Сергей Кара-Мурза. Советская цивилизация. От Великой Победы до наших дней. 4980:

From Tsarism to the New Economic Policy: Continuity and Change in the Economy of the USSR

4185: 4181: 3693: 3661: 3134: 1873: 1643: 1519: 1503: 1489: 1477: 1315: 1311: 1282: 900:, machine manufacture, and chemical industry. In Soviet terminology, goods were known as 816: 766: 733: 614: 8898: 6805: 99:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

8832: 8782: 8742: 8695: 8690: 8680: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8640: 8625: 8620: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 7262: 7151: 7146: 7136: 7131: 6228: 6139: 5456: 5369: 5259: 5249: 5065: 4911: 4903: 4071: 4025: 4017: 3809: 3757: 3749: 3697: 3689: 3642: 3634: 3332: 3256:"The Importance of Blats in Soviet Everyday Life | Socialist and Post-Socialist Cities" 2324: 1616: 1131:

According to a number of scholars both inside and outside of USSR, it was specifically

1000: 939: 774: 689: 658: 618: 519: 472: 388: 6621: 8923: 8865: 8827: 8817: 8797: 8787: 8772: 8767: 8747: 8717: 8685: 8670: 8645: 8581: 8361: 8195: 7440: 7070: 6958: 6915: 6910: 6860: 6654: 6649: 6430: 6336: 6276: 6055: 5841: 5537: 5339: 5324: 5266: 5171: 5156: 5148: 5108: 5091: 4915: 4819: 4790: 4739: 4709: 4679: 4654: 4614: 4555: 4485: 4475: 4309: 4224: 4152: 4151:. Collected papers of Bertrand Russell. Vol. 15. Psychology Press. p. 529. 4110: 4063: 4029: 4009: 3963: 3936: 3909: 3880: 3801: 3761: 3741: 3701: 3681: 3646: 3626: 3532: 3507: 3482: 3427: 3368: 3324: 3283: 3197: 3026: 2402: 1846: 1829: 1635: 1634:

After the reconstruction of the economy in the wake of the destruction caused by the

1623:. The country now became industrialized at a hitherto unprecedented pace, surpassing 1588: 1529:

Everything except "the commanding heights", as Lenin put it, of the economy would be

1457: 1442: 1430: 1019: 1008: 996: 992: 968: 917: 820: 742: 646: 392: 303: 8524: 5155:(in Russian) Сергей Кара-Мурза. Советская цивилизация. От начала до Великой Победы. 4851:

Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defense Burden, 1940–1945

1018:

Until the late 1980s and early 1990s, when economic reforms backed by Soviet leader

8812: 8737: 8707: 8417: 7389: 7257: 6890: 6795: 6742: 6664: 6599: 6480: 5057: 5025: 4895: 4001: 3733: 3673: 3618: 3607:"Agricultural Surplus Models and Peasant Behavior: Soviet Agriculture in the 1920s" 3316: 2988: 2508: 1690: 1554: 1334: 1012: 972: 831: 824: 793: 706: 681: 416: 396: 318: 350:

80% in industry and other non-agricultural sectors; 20% in agriculture (1989 est.)

8437: 7455: 7445: 7304: 7212: 6533: 6508: 6485: 6248: 5461: 5413: 5319: 5112: 4763: 4218: 4146: 4104: 3930: 3472: 2513: 2452: 1878: 1809: 1572: 1277:

The Soviet rouble was non-convertible after 1932 (when trade in gold-convertible

1004: 913: 872: 784:

by reporting fulfilled targets and quotas, thus entrenching the crisis. From the

758: 610: 404: 7517: 6800: 5048:

Laird, Robbin F. (1984). "Soviet Arms Trade with the Noncommunist Third World".

3662:"Putting Agricultural History to Work: Global Action Today from a Communal Past" 1274:(COMECON) member states accounted for about half the country's volume of trade. 8432: 8270: 7480: 7384: 6900: 6880: 6659: 6440: 6268: 6196: 5476: 5466: 2492: 1890: 1805: 1654: 1550: 1538: 1499: 1461: 1263: 1216:

were forced off of their land, which was then redistributed to other peasants.

1027: 921:

were again given to capital goods, which was expressed in the decisions of the

909: 650: 376: 5078:

Oil and the Economy of Russia: From the Late-Tsarist to the Post-Soviet Period

4489: 4466:

Gnerre, Orazio Maria (2023). "Strengthening of the Sino-Russian Partnership".

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United States. Congress. Joint Economic Committee; John Pearce Hardt (1993).

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4328: 4067: 4013: 3805: 3745: 3685: 3630: 3431: 3328: 3180: 1913: 1801: 1650: 1580: 1542: 1534: 1507: 1473: 984: 905: 893: 851:

Based on a system of state ownership, the Soviet economy was managed through

812: 762: 737: 717: 654: 535: 480: 165: 149: 4250:

Carr, E.H. and Davies, R.W, (1988), Foundations of a Planned Economy, Vol. 1

456:, machinery, agricultural products and a wide variety of manufactured goods 7349: 6968: 6895: 6850: 6584: 6475: 6450: 6012: 5833: 5227: 5035: 2920: 2892: 2825: 2797: 2769: 2741: 2683: 2655: 2627: 2599: 2568: 1900: 1745: 1707: 1426: 1348: 1322:

completed, all industrial property and virtually all land were collective.

1297:, responsive to the fulfillment of the government's economic plans. Soviet 1201: 1193: 1187: 1117: 1003:, the scholarly consensus was that Stalin appropriated the position of the 988: 947: 876: 828: 730: 693: 673: 666: 662: 468: 236:

4.7% (in 1977) 4.2% ( in 1980) 3.8% (in 1982) 3.5% (in 1985) 0.9% (in 1990)

1812:, had come to power, attempts were made to revitalize the economy through 804:, until 1990 when Japan's economy exceeded $ 3 trillion in nominal value. 8503: 8301: 6948: 6835: 6810: 6752: 6714: 6704: 6574: 5875: 5837: 5829: 5451: 5435: 5349: 5291: 3905: 1995:(including trade, finance, health, education, science and administration) 1859: 1850: 1785: 1773: 1434: 1171: 1023: 963: 754: 710: 445: 400: 158: 4595: 3813: 3789: 3336: 3304: 1494: 8478: 7450: 7324: 6938: 6724: 6669: 6639: 6569: 5865: 5107:

Pravda, Alex (2010). "The collapse of the Soviet Union, 1990–1991". In

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912:(group B goods) received somewhat more emphasis due to the efforts of 7490: 7284: 7003: 6943: 6825: 6435: 6085: 6080: 5902: 5795: 5625: 5286: 5083: 4961: 4471: 1765: 1749: 1697: 1642:

were fulfilled, the explosive growth slowed down until the period of

1620: 1558: 1546: 1338: 1205: 1125: 1071: 976: 951: 685: 384: 380: 368: 284: 8550: 5061: 4005: 3737: 140:, one of the symbols of Soviet economic power, was completed in 1932 6840: 6815: 6772: 6606: 6589: 6513: 6075: 5620: 5354: 5314: 4899: 3622: 3365:

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The industry was long concentrated after 1928 on the production of

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Leon Trotsky was among the earliest Soviet figures that supported

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furnished short-term credit to state-owned enterprises.

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regarding government intervention on the grain market.

4289:"Armenian Attitudes Toward Work and the Soviet Legacy" 4269: 827:

were progressively distorted due to the growth of the

4244: 4148:

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3060: 3058: 2558: 2556: 2554: 1972:(including construction, transport and communication) 1638:

was completed and after the initial plans of further

1627:'s pace of industrialization in the 19th century and 1594: 1472:

mineral extraction, for example in the oil fields in

4970:

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Soviet combat vehicle production during World War II

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Beginning in 1930, the course of the economy of the

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Evolution of GNP in comparison with European powers

2038: 1160:"Strengthen working discipline in collective farms" 3829:"О соотношениях цен в 1927/28 и начале 1928/29 гг" 1483: 7547: 4515:"The Economic Impact of Soviet Military Spending" 4091: 3087: 2531: 1347:; хутор), located in isolated rural areas in the 1174:was organized into a system of collective farms ( 749:and came to power in 1985, he began a process of 8957: 6076:Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences 5096:Ofer, Gur. "Soviet Economic Growth: 1928-1985," 5047: 4807:In Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad, eds., 4650:Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia 4610:Trade, Technology, and Soviet-American Relations 4581:(2009) 44#3 pp: 493–512, especially page 509-10. 4145:Rempel, Richard A.; Haslam, Beryl, eds. (2000). 2589: 2587: 1038:From the Stalin era through the late 1980s, the 6529:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union 5050:Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 1784:was suppressed by the Soviet authorities until 1404:GDP per capita in the former USSR, 1922 to 1991 1375:) and personal property (личная собственность, 958: 692:in Asia. In fact, Soviet economic authors like 7310:Removal of Hungary's border fence with Austria 4947:The Russian Economy: A Very Short Introduction 3025:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 62–63. 2708:"Income Distribution in the USSR in the 1980s" 688:consistently appealed to the intellectuals of 8566: 8317: 7533: 6399: 5212: 4999: 4667: 4543: 3279:Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy 3228: 2584: 2495: – Archetype of the ideal Soviet citizen 1235: 4653:. Brookings Institution Press. p. 102. 4144: 3787: 3604: 3553:"Optimizing things in the USSR · Chris Said" 1423:Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic 1270:were imported. In the 1980s, trade with the 696:(who participated in the elaboration of the 593:All values, unless otherwise stated, are in 4554:. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. pp. 75 to 98. 3413: 3231:"A look at the old ration system in Russia" 3107:The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective 3020: 1549:among others. In practice this limited the 1200:and the formation of collective farms on a 97:. The reason given is: More recent sources. 8573: 8559: 8474:Wage reform in the Soviet Union, 1956–1962 8367:Economy of the People's Republic of Poland 8331: 8324: 8310: 7540: 7526: 6406: 6392: 5219: 5205: 5191:"What Went Wrong in the 'Socialist' East?" 5088:An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991 4049: 3959:Leon Trotsky : a revolutionary's life 3955: 3876:Industrialisation in the Non-Western World 3659: 3305:"Socialism in One Country: A Reassessment" 3229:Revinskaya, Elena; RIR (16 October 2013). 3176:"Георгий Маленков. 50 лет со дня отставки" 3133:Vladimir G. Treml and Michael V. Alexeev, 3129: 3127: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2067:Russia/USSR as a % of Western Europe 1223:Nikita Khrushchev and Joseph Stalin, 1936. 1056: 127: 8499:Economic System of Socialism (GDR, 1970s) 8469:New Economic Policy (Soviet Union, 1920s) 4883: 4864:A History Of Russia, Volume 2: Since 1855 4301: 4223:. Harvard University Press. p. 119. 4109:. Routledge (published 2002). p. 3. 3834:(Сборник статей ed.). Archived from 3501: 3146: 1926:Sector (distribution of Soviet workforce) 847:Analysis of Soviet-type economic planning 657:, public ownership of industrial assets, 68:Learn how and when to remove this message 4848: 4778: 4728: 4385: 3932:The Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia 3611:Economic Development and Cultural Change 3093: 3045: 2064:Russia/USSR as a % of United States 1872: 1731: 1493: 1399: 1218: 1154: 962: 879:. The planning process was based around 31:This article includes a list of general 8489:New Economic Mechanism (Hungary, 1960s) 6934:Beijing Students' Autonomous Federation 6413: 5226: 5007:(7th ed.). Boston: Addison Wesley. 4955: 4803: 4606: 4524:. April 1975. p. 2. Archived from 4275: 4216: 3928: 3719: 3470: 3362: 3302: 3194:Хрущевская "Оттепель" : 1953—1964, 3124: 2992: 2947:The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy 2845: 1838:History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991) 1834:History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982) 1610:History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) 1162:, a Soviet propaganda poster issued in 1122:Ministry of Finance of the Soviet Union 8958: 6617:Socialism with Chinese characteristics 6554:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 5245:Index of Soviet Union–related articles 5106: 4832: 4646: 4465: 3987: 3935:. Yale University Press. p. 195. 3899: 3526: 3064: 2987:One notable person in this regard was 2958: 2888:"Budget Revenues Million Million 1991" 1849:in the mid-1970s was triggered by the 1738:State Quality Mark of the Soviet Union 1382: 1366: 1272:Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 792:, the Soviet economy grew slower than 8580: 8554: 8305: 7521: 6964:Initiative for Peace and Human Rights 6387: 5200: 5041:The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers 4866:(2nd ed.). London: Anthem Press. 4762: 4705:The Former Soviet Union in Transition 4673: 4549: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4305:The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky 4102: 4052:"Rise and Fall of Soviet Agriculture" 4045: 4043: 4041: 4039: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3929:Daniels, Robert V. (1 October 2008). 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3720:Clayton, Elizabeth (September 1980). 3715: 3713: 3711: 3600: 3598: 3414:Fitzpatrick, Sheila (22 April 2010). 3389:"The First Five Year Plan, 1928–1932" 3275: 3269: 3004: 1677:. Campaigns were carried out against 295:14% (43rd) (in 1991) 3.9% (in 1984) 8484:Kosygin reform (Soviet Union, 1960s) 8413:Collectivization in the Soviet Union 4870: 4861: 4373: 4356: 4259: 4200: 3872: 3722:"Productivity in Soviet Agriculture" 2978: 1804:was issued with an exchange rate of 1557:" was a necessary step in achieving 1416: 1304: 725:in 1941 the country was still poor. 79: 17: 8352:Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia 4958:The End of the Communist Revolution 4360:An Economic History of the U.S.S.R. 4302:Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). 3820: 3605:Antel, John; Gregory, Paul (1994). 3363:Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021). 2821:"Budget External Debt Million 1991" 2705: 1712:Soviet post-war famine of 1946–1947 1044:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 13: 4924: 4454: 4334:. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985) 4332:Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930 4036: 3976: 3768: 3708: 3595: 3393:Special Collections & Archives 2916:"Budget Expenditures Million 1991" 2715:Review of Income and Wealth (1993) 2408:Second economy of the Soviet Union 1868:second economy in the Soviet Union 1595:Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic 1533:. The commanding heights included 1107:Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union 888:Consumer goods in the Soviet Union 835:second economy in the Soviet Union 444:Petroleum and petroleum products, 37:it lacks sufficient corresponding 14: 8992: 8504:Perestroika (Soviet Union, 1980s) 6461:Eastern Bloc media and propaganda 6446:Criticism of communist party rule 5183: 4949:(Oxford University Press, 2020). 4877:University of Massachusetts Press 4050:Clairmonte, Frederick F. (1989). 2208:(in millions of dollars of 1960) 1653:along with the priority focus on 1429:were countries in the process of 1242:Foreign trade of the Soviet Union 855:(the State Planning Commission), 8494:New Economic System (GDR, 1960s) 7585:Democratic Republic of the Congo 7507:Human rights in the Soviet Union 6466:Emigration from the Eastern Bloc 6368: 6367: 6355: 5030:What Went Wrong With Perestroika 4106:Restructuring the Soviet Economy 3827:Гатовский, Лев Маркович (1929). 3309:Studies in East European Thought 2519:Trade unions in the Soviet Union 2499:Primitive socialist accumulation 2473:Forced labor in the Soviet Union 2039:Comparisons with other countries 1714:was still ravaging the country. 1631:'s earlier in the 20th century. 84: 22: 7415:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 7345:Fall of the inner German border 5044:(New York: Random House, 1987). 4722: 4695: 4640: 4627: 4600: 4592:Journal of Contemporary History 4584: 4579:Journal of Contemporary History 4571: 4507: 4496: 4443: 4431: 4395: 4367: 4350: 4337: 4322: 4295: 4281: 4210: 4175: 4138: 4082: 3949: 3922: 3893: 3866: 3653: 3570: 3545: 3520: 3495: 3464: 3451: 3438: 3407: 3381: 3356: 3343: 3296: 3276:Twiss, Thomas M. (8 May 2014). 3248: 3222: 3206: 3186: 3169: 3156: 3112: 3099: 3074: 3014: 2972: 2939: 2908: 2880: 2813: 2463:Enterprises in the Soviet Union 1724:Soviet industry in World War II 1484:New Economic Policy (1921–1929) 1151:Agriculture in the Soviet Union 7405:Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact 6544:Terrorism and the Soviet Union 5136:Journal of Economic Literature 5098:Journal of Economic Literature 5013:Journal of Economic Literature 4956:Daniels, Robert Vince (1993). 4755: 4613:. Indiana UP. pp. 10–12. 4450:"United States Economy - 1989" 4412:. October 1985. Archived from 3367:. Mehring Books. p. 358. 2785: 2757: 2729: 2699: 2671: 2643: 2615: 2453:Administrative command economy 1896:In 2007, economist and former 1144: 771:dissolution at the end of 1991 310:1-3% of population (1980 est.) 1: 8362:Goulash (Hungarian) Communism 8226:Confederate States of America 7549:Economic histories by country 7425:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 7024:Inter-regional Deputies Group 7009:National League for Democracy 5908:Political abuse of psychiatry 5700:Congress of People's Deputies 5142: 4438:"Soviet Union Economy - 1989" 4308:. Verso Books. p. 1141. 4217:Hosking, Geoffrey A. (1993). 4056:Economic and Political Weekly 3879:. Routledge. pp. 1–150. 3873:Kemp, Tom (14 January 2014). 3660:Dekel-Chen, Jonathan (2020). 3474:A Study of the Soviet economy 2525: 2504:Soviet-type economic planning 2343:GDP (GNP) (1989; millions $ ) 1800:In 1961, a new redenominated 1281:, introduced by Lenin in the 1140:Soviet-type economic planning 1133:Soviet-type economic planning 1063:Central Committee of the CPSU 1033: 627:administrative-command system 312:12% of population (1991 est.) 7335:Alexanderplatz demonstration 7300:Polish Round Table Agreement 6974:People's Movement of Ukraine 4887:Journal of Political Economy 4862:Moss, Walter Gerald (2005). 4708:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 495. 3788:HALE-DORRELL, AARON (2015). 3084:(2011); quotes on pp 23, 24. 2679:"Inflation Rate % 1991" 1823: 1717: 1603: 959:Drafting the five-year plans 950:developed for goods such as 7: 8971:Economies by former country 8966:Economy of the Soviet Union 8443:Collectivization in Romania 8423:Collectivization in Ukraine 8408:Collectivization in Hungary 8357:Economy of the Soviet Union 8286:Scotland in the Middle Ages 8155:Mongolian People's Republic 7380:January Events in Lithuania 7315:Hungarian Round Table Talks 6954:Democratic Party of Albania 6071:Academy of Medical Sciences 5166:Kara-Murza, Sergey (2004). 4787:International Monetary Fund 4779:Boughton, James M. (2012). 4470:. Mher Sahakyan. New York: 3956:Rubenstein, Joshua (2011). 3479:International Monetary Fund 2862:Central Intelligence Agency 2564:"Soviet Union Economy 1991" 2443:Banking in the Soviet Union 2423:1979 Soviet economic reform 2418:1973 Soviet economic reform 2413:1965 Soviet economic reform 2395: 1411:History of the Soviet Union 840: 773:, the Soviet Union began a 607:economy of the Soviet Union 586:$ 147.6 billion (1954–1988) 10: 8997: 8976:Former communist economies 8428:Land Reforms (Afghanistan) 8236:England in the Middle Ages 7034:Hungarian Democratic Forum 7029:Alliance of Free Democrats 7019:Union of Democratic Forces 5121:Cambridge University Press 4992:Goldman, Marshall (1994). 4855:Cambridge University Press 4842:Cambridge University Press 4816:Cambridge University Press 4772:Princeton University Press 3282:. BRILL. pp. 88–113. 2488:Soviet Ministry of Finance 1949:(agriculture and forestry) 1908:as the war in Afghanistan. 1827: 1782:Soviet famine of 1932–1933 1721: 1693:rates steadily decreased. 1607: 1522:(NEP) was approved at the 1487: 1395: 1239: 1236:Foreign trade and currency 1206:policy of collectivisation 1148: 1137: 1081: 1077: 1065:and more specifically its 885: 844: 676:was guided by a series of 346:Labour force by occupation 138:hydro-electric power plant 8937: 8889: 8851: 8588: 8512: 8461: 8453:Systematization (Romania) 8418:Battle for trade (Poland) 8395: 8387:Economy of SFR Yugoslavia 8339: 8178: 8120: 8099: 7937: 7794: 7693: 7555: 7499: 7433: 7395:1991 protests in Belgrade 7275: 7200: 7109: 7051: 7042: 6924: 6786: 6733: 6630: 6562: 6499: 6421: 6349: 6293: 6267: 6187: 6110: 6101: 6046: 5953: 5916: 5856: 5759: 5721: 5641: 5503: 5494: 5444: 5392: 5383: 5235: 5032:. New York: W. W. Norton. 5003:; Stuart, Robert (2001). 4996:. New York: W. W. Norton. 4594:(2005) 40#1 pp: 131–147. 4182:Lenin and Stalin in Gorki 3694:10.3098/ah.2020.094.4.512 3678:10.3098/ah.2020.094.4.512 3502:Dembinski, Pawel (1991). 3109:(2001) pp. 274, 275, 298. 2858:"1990 CIA World Factbook" 2483:Material balance planning 2448:Bureaucratic collectivism 2369:GDP per capita (GNP) ($ ) 1198:agricultural cooperatives 859:(the State Bank) and the 714:National Security Council 590: 582: 572:$ 510 billion (1989 est.) 568: 558: 553: 532: 512: 502: 492: 462: 438: 428: 423: 362: 354: 344: 332: 316: 299: 282: 268: 240: 230: 222: 194: 189: 172: 156: 145: 126: 93:This article needs to be 8438:Three Year Plan (Poland) 7385:January Events in Latvia 7375:Reunification of Germany 7360:1990s post-Soviet aliyah 7290:1987–1989 Tibetan unrest 7014:National Salvation Front 6999:Belarusian Popular Front 6989:Popular Front of Estonia 6758:Polish underground press 6519:List of socialist states 5127:Rutland, Robert (1985). 5100:(1987) 25#4: 1767–1833. 4729:Maddison, Angus (2006). 4103:Dyker, David A. (1992). 3988:Hunter, Holland (1988). 3794:Journal of World History 3527:Ellman, Michael (1973). 2478:State Planning Committee 1646:in the 1970s and 1980s. 1510:(right) who created the 1441:of 1917 and the ensuing 1124:by negotiating with its 734:skyrocketed in the 1970s 623:industrial manufacturing 8479:New Course (GDR, 1950s) 8462:Pre-dissolution reforms 8347:Economy of East Germany 7461:Economic liberalization 7400:1991 Belarusian strikes 7340:Fall of the Berlin Wall 6994:Public Against Violence 6984:Popular Front of Latvia 6763:Political demonstration 6612:Chinese economic reform 6524:People Power Revolution 6362:Soviet Union portal 4849:Harrison, Mark (1996). 4607:Parrott, Bruce (1985). 3900:Mandel, Ernest (1995). 3321:10.1023/A:1008651325136 2945:Hanson, Philip (2003). 1661:Led by the creation of 1502:(left) who created the 1057:Guidelines for the plan 751:economic liberalization 659:macroeconomic stability 216:$ 2.66 trillion in 1990 212:$ 2.20 trillion in 1985 208:$ 1.57 trillion in 1982 204:$ 1.21 trillion in 1980 164:1 January–31 December ( 52:more precise citations. 8631:Bosnia and Herzegovina 8520:Eastern Bloc economies 8333:Eastern Bloc economies 7967:Bosnia and Herzegovina 6595:New political thinking 6254:Stalinist architecture 6008:Science and technology 5918:Ideological repression 5846:Soviet Airborne Forces 5784:Destruction battalions 4647:Gaidar, Yegor (2007). 3902:Trotsky as alternative 3854:Cite journal requires 3420:London Review of Books 3303:Van Ree, Erik (1998). 2924:, 1992, archived from 2829:. 1992. Archived from 2793:"Imports Million 1991" 2765:"Exports Million 1991" 2458:Eastern Bloc economies 2356:Population (July 1990) 1910: 1881: 1853:and aggravated by the 1741: 1702:monetary reform (1947) 1514: 1405: 1373:chastnaya sobstvennost 1224: 1167: 980: 765:modeled after Lenin's 496:$ 114.7 billion (10th) 8160:Serbia and Montenegro 8121:Former industrialized 7466:Post-Soviet conflicts 7420:Tajikistani Civil War 7370:Revolution on Granite 7330:Monday Demonstrations 6856:Sanjaasürengiin Zorig 6690:Mengistu Haile Mariam 6456:Eastern Bloc politics 6036:List of metro systems 5589:Collective leadership 5131:. London: Hutchinson. 5092:online free to borrow 3461:(Cambridge UP, 2014). 3214:International Affairs 3166:32.2 (1973): 237-257. 2949:(Routledge). pp. 1–8. 2651:"GDP Per Capita 1990" 2044:GDP per capita (1990 1905: 1876: 1828:Further information: 1735: 1722:Further information: 1608:Further information: 1497: 1403: 1377:lichnaya sobstvennost 1262:were exported, while 1222: 1158: 966: 886:Further information: 761:and moving towards a 432:$ 124.7 billion (9th) 200:$ 820 billion in 1977 8372:Economy of Lithuania 8179:Historical economies 6876:Vytautas Landsbergis 6871:Viacheslav Chornovil 6700:Denis Sassou Nguesso 5998:Net material product 5941:Censorship of images 5858:Political repression 5818:Soviet Border Troops 5751:First Deputy Premier 5335:1965 economic reform 5330:Soviet space program 5189:Andre Gunder Frank. 4871:Peck, James (2006). 4785:. Washington, D.C.: 4531:on 20 September 2016 3666:Agricultural History 3481:(IMF). p. 287. 3021:Baten, Jörg (2016). 2717:. Indiana University 2706:Alexeev, Michael V. 2623:"GDP – Million 1991" 2595:"GDP – Million 1990" 1460:of the debts of the 1120:was prepared by the 1072:Council of Ministers 796:and faster than the 723:Operation Barbarossa 690:developing countries 576:capital expenditures 514:Main import partners 464:Main export partners 8852:States with limited 8382:Economy of Moldavia 8022:Republic of Ireland 7701:Antigua and Barbuda 7320:Pan-European Picnic 7295:1988 Polish strikes 6675:Wojciech Jaruzelski 6415:Revolutions of 1989 6066:Academy of Sciences 5881:Population transfer 5825:Soviet Armed Forces 5688:Congress of Soviets 5669:Presidium/Politburo 5633:Soviet anti-Zionism 5482:West Siberian Plain 5360:Revolutions of 1989 5297:Great Patriotic War 5282:New Economic Policy 5123:. pp. 356–377. 4945:Connolly, Richard. 4935:68.1 (2016): 79–96. 4933:Europe-Asia Studies 4363:, IICA, p. 206 4357:Nove, Alec (1969), 3841:on 16 January 2022. 3506:. Clarendon Press. 2995:, pp. 475–476. 2328: 2234:Russia/Soviet Union 2209: 2049: 1644:Brezhnev stagnation 1520:New Economic Policy 1490:New Economic Policy 1478:balance of payments 1383:Collective property 1367:Individual property 1316:New Economic Policy 1312:means of production 1283:New Economic Policy 1180:) and state farms ( 1051:CPSU Party Congress 1007:on such matters as 767:New Economic Policy 615:means of production 574:$ 53 million (2nd; 562:$ 422 billion (5th) 543:$ 55 billion (11th) 338:152.3 million (3rd) 174:Trade organisations 123: 8582:Economy of Europe 6680:Slobodan Milošević 6549:Vatican Opposition 5711:Military Collegium 5579:Capital punishment 5457:Caucasus Mountains 5370:Post-Soviet states 5250:Russian Revolution 5149:Kara-Murza, Sergey 5109:Leffler, Melvyn P. 5080:(Routledge, 2017). 5020:Past & Present 5015:, 43 (3): 721–761. 4989:(Cambridge, 1994). 4985:Davies, R. W. ed. 4978:Davies, R. W. ed. 3459:Socialist planning 2928:on 1 November 2012 2833:on 1 November 2012 2737:"Labor Force 1991" 2382:Labor force (1989) 2325:CIA World Factbook 2322: 2205: 2043: 1882: 1855:war in Afghanistan 1742: 1515: 1456:resulted from the 1439:Russian Revolution 1406: 1225: 1168: 1001:Sheila Fitzpatrick 981: 775:Russian Federation 645:, a dependence on 619:collective farming 520:European Community 518:Eastern Bloc 54%, 473:European Community 389:telecommunications 274:Agriculture: (20%) 118: 8953: 8952: 8548: 8547: 8377:Economy of Latvia 8299: 8298: 8251:Habsburg monarchy 8219:Republic of China 7515: 7514: 7441:Colour revolution 7271: 7270: 7238:Congo-Brazzaville 6959:Democratic Russia 6916:Pope John Paul II 6911:George H. W. Bush 6861:Vladimir Bukovsky 6650:Mikhail Gorbachev 6645:Nicolae Ceaușescu 6431:Era of Stagnation 6381: 6380: 6345: 6344: 6337:Hammer and sickle 6279:and their groups 6277:Soviet dissidents 6056:Communist Academy 5973:Economic planning 5949: 5948: 5842:Soviet Air Forces 5761:Security services 5681:General Secretary 5664:Central Committee 5606:Political parties 5538:Brezhnev Doctrine 5533:Foreign relations 5490: 5489: 5431:Autonomous okrugs 5345:Soviet–Afghan War 5325:Sino-Soviet split 5267:Russian Civil War 5138:, 62 (1): 47–114. 5090:. (3rd ed. 1993) 5026:Goldman, Marshall 4825:978-0-521-83719-4 4796:978-1-616-35084-0 4770:. Princeton, NJ: 4745:978-92-64-02261-4 4732:The World Economy 4715:978-1-56324-318-9 4685:978-1-56663-048-1 4561:978-1-56663-048-1 4481:978-1-003-35258-7 4315:978-1-78168-721-5 4230:978-0-674-30443-7 4088:Dyker 1992, p. 2. 3969:978-0-300-13724-8 3942:978-0-300-13493-3 3886:978-1-317-90133-4 3488:978-92-64-13468-3 3457:Michael Ellman, 3374:978-1-893638-97-6 3289:978-90-04-26953-8 3196:Olma-Press, 2002 2403:Economy of Russia 2393: 2392: 2320: 2319: 2203: 2202: 2036: 2035: 1847:Era of Stagnation 1830:Era of Stagnation 1640:industrialization 1636:Russian Civil War 1617:rapidly abandoned 1589:Volga-Ural region 1587:broke out in the 1585:widespread famine 1443:Russian Civil War 1437:(1914–1918), the 1431:industrialization 1417:Early development 1305:Forms of property 1020:Mikhail Gorbachev 1009:industrialisation 997:Central Committee 993:industrialisation 969:economic planning 918:Nikita Khrushchev 881:material balances 821:industrial sector 743:Mikhail Gorbachev 647:natural resources 603: 602: 583:Economic aid 328:0.275 (1989 est.) 326:0.290 (1980 est.) 301:Population below 114: 113: 78: 77: 70: 8988: 8890:Dependencies and 8589:Sovereign states 8575: 8568: 8561: 8552: 8551: 8525:Shortage economy 8513:Related concepts 8396:Collectivization 8326: 8319: 8312: 8303: 8302: 8241:Ethiopian Empire 8196:Byzantine Empire 8145:Empire of Brazil 7542: 7535: 7528: 7519: 7518: 7390:Transnistria War 7049: 7048: 6891:Aung San Suu Kyi 6806:Alexander Dubček 6743:Civil resistance 6600:Sinatra Doctrine 6580:Demokratizatsiya 6481:Shortage economy 6408: 6401: 6394: 6385: 6384: 6371: 6370: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6108: 6107: 6016: 5871:Collectivization 5616:Marxism–Leninism 5501: 5500: 5390: 5389: 5221: 5214: 5207: 5198: 5197: 5124: 5113:Westad, Odd Arne 5073: 5008: 4965: 4938:Bergson, Abram. 4919: 4894:(5): 1189–1204. 4880: 4867: 4858: 4845: 4829: 4800: 4775: 4764:Allen, Robert C. 4750: 4749: 4737: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4671: 4665: 4664: 4644: 4638: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4604: 4598: 4588: 4582: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4530: 4519: 4511: 4505: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4463: 4452: 4447: 4441: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4426: 4424: 4418: 4407: 4399: 4393: 4383: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4354: 4348: 4341: 4335: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4291:. 18 April 2022. 4285: 4279: 4273: 4267: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4242: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4214: 4208: 4198: 4189: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4165: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4125: 4123: 4100: 4089: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4047: 4034: 4033: 3985: 3974: 3973: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3926: 3920: 3919: 3897: 3891: 3890: 3870: 3864: 3863: 3857: 3852: 3850: 3842: 3840: 3833: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3785: 3766: 3765: 3717: 3706: 3705: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3602: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3499: 3493: 3492: 3471:the IMF (1991). 3468: 3462: 3455: 3449: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3411: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3395:. 7 October 2015 3385: 3379: 3378: 3360: 3354: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3252: 3246: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3226: 3220: 3210: 3204: 3190: 3184: 3173: 3167: 3160: 3154: 3144: 3138: 3131: 3122: 3116: 3110: 3105:Angus Maddison, 3103: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3078: 3072: 3062: 3053: 3043: 3037: 3036: 3018: 3012: 3002: 2996: 2976: 2970: 2956: 2950: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2884: 2878: 2877: 2875: 2873: 2868:on 27 April 2011 2864:. 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However, when 873:wholesale prices 825:central planning 707:Great Depression 682:agrarian society 635:central planning 631:distinctive form 538: 397:heavy industries 358:1–2% (1990 est.) 321: 320:Gini coefficient 306: 131: 124: 122: 121:the Soviet Union 117: 109: 106: 100: 88: 87: 80: 73: 66: 62: 59: 53: 48:this article by 39:inline citations 26: 25: 18: 8996: 8995: 8991: 8990: 8989: 8987: 8986: 8985: 8956: 8955: 8954: 8949: 8933: 8891: 8885: 8871:Northern Cyprus 8853: 8847: 8763:North Macedonia 8584: 8579: 8549: 8544: 8508: 8457: 8391: 8335: 8330: 8300: 8295: 8174: 8150:Empire of Japan 8130:Austria-Hungary 8122: 8116: 8095: 7933: 7889:Solomon Islands 7790: 7689: 7551: 7546: 7516: 7511: 7495: 7456:Democratization 7446:Decommunization 7429: 7365:Helsinki Summit 7305:April 9 tragedy 7277: 7267: 7196: 7105: 7053: 7044: 7038: 6926: 6920: 6788: 6782: 6735: 6729: 6685:Mathieu Kérékou 6632: 6626: 6558: 6534:Reagan Doctrine 6509:Active measures 6501: 6495: 6486:Totalitarianism 6423: 6417: 6412: 6382: 6377: 6356: 6354: 6341: 6289: 6263: 6183: 6097: 6042: 6014: 5988:Internet domain 5983:Five-year plans 5945: 5912: 5852: 5755: 5717: 5649:Communist Party 5637: 5596:Passport system 5486: 5462:European Russia 5440: 5379: 5320:Khrushchev Thaw 5299:(World War II) 5277:Creation treaty 5231: 5225: 5186: 5181: 5145: 5062:10.2307/1174128 4982:(London, 1990). 4927: 4925:Further reading 4922: 4875:. Amherst, MA: 4826: 4797: 4758: 4753: 4746: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4716: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4645: 4641: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4605: 4601: 4589: 4585: 4576: 4572: 4562: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4528: 4517: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4497: 4482: 4464: 4455: 4448: 4444: 4436: 4432: 4422: 4420: 4419:on 4 March 2016 4416: 4405: 4401: 4400: 4396: 4384: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4338: 4327: 4323: 4316: 4300: 4296: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4245: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4215: 4211: 4199: 4192: 4180: 4176: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4143: 4139: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4101: 4092: 4087: 4083: 4062:(11): 555–560. 4048: 4037: 4006:10.2307/2498462 3986: 3977: 3970: 3954: 3950: 3943: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3898: 3894: 3887: 3871: 3867: 3855: 3853: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3831: 3825: 3821: 3786: 3769: 3738:10.2307/2497164 3718: 3709: 3658: 3654: 3603: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3576: 3575: 3571: 3561: 3559: 3551: 3550: 3546: 3539: 3531:. CUP Archive. 3525: 3521: 3514: 3500: 3496: 3489: 3477:. Vol. 1. 3469: 3465: 3456: 3452: 3443: 3439: 3412: 3408: 3398: 3396: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3375: 3361: 3357: 3348: 3344: 3301: 3297: 3290: 3274: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3239: 3237: 3227: 3223: 3211: 3207: 3191: 3187: 3174: 3170: 3161: 3157: 3145: 3141: 3132: 3125: 3117: 3113: 3104: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3080:Daniel Yergin, 3079: 3075: 3063: 3056: 3044: 3040: 3033: 3019: 3015: 3003: 2999: 2986: 2977: 2973: 2957: 2953: 2944: 2940: 2931: 2929: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2899: 2897: 2886: 2885: 2881: 2871: 2869: 2856: 2855: 2846: 2836: 2834: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2804: 2802: 2791: 2790: 2786: 2776: 2774: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2748: 2746: 2735: 2734: 2730: 2720: 2718: 2710: 2704: 2700: 2690: 2688: 2677: 2676: 2672: 2662: 2660: 2649: 2648: 2644: 2634: 2632: 2621: 2620: 2616: 2606: 2604: 2593: 2592: 2585: 2575: 2573: 2562: 2561: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2514:State socialism 2468:Five-year plans 2398: 2207: 2041: 1879:Grigorii Khanin 1840: 1826: 1814:economic reform 1810:Leonid Brezhnev 1730: 1720: 1612: 1606: 1597: 1573:Andrei Platonov 1512:command economy 1492: 1486: 1419: 1398: 1385: 1369: 1307: 1244: 1238: 1153: 1147: 1142: 1086: 1080: 1059: 1036: 1005:Left Opposition 961: 914:Georgy Malenkov 890: 875:and almost all 869:fondoderzhateli 865:five-year plans 849: 843: 759:command economy 678:five-year plans 611:state ownership 599: 573: 563: 554:Public finances 548: 546: 544: 540: 536: 527: 526:, United States 515: 505: 497: 487: 465: 457: 441: 433: 405:food processing 365: 364:Main industries 347: 339: 335: 327: 323: 319: 311: 307: 302: 292: 277: 276:Industry: (80%) 275: 271: 263: 262:$ 9,931 in 1991 261: 259: 258:$ 8,896 in 1985 257: 255: 254:$ 7,943 in 1982 253: 251: 250:$ 7,568 in 1980 249: 247: 246:$ 6,577 in 1977 243: 233: 217: 215: 213: 211: 209: 207: 205: 203: 201: 175: 161: 141: 120: 110: 104: 101: 98: 89: 85: 74: 63: 57: 54: 44:Please help to 43: 27: 23: 12: 11: 5: 8994: 8984: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8951: 8950: 8948: 8947: 8945:European Union 8941: 8939: 8938:Other entities 8935: 8934: 8932: 8931: 8926: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8906: 8901: 8895: 8893: 8892:other entities 8887: 8886: 8884: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8857: 8855: 8849: 8848: 8846: 8845: 8840: 8838:United Kingdom 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8770: 8765: 8760: 8755: 8750: 8745: 8740: 8735: 8730: 8725: 8720: 8715: 8710: 8705: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8651:Czech Republic 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8592: 8590: 8586: 8585: 8578: 8577: 8570: 8563: 8555: 8546: 8545: 8543: 8542: 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8516: 8514: 8510: 8509: 8507: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8465: 8463: 8459: 8458: 8456: 8455: 8450: 8445: 8440: 8435: 8433:Dekulakization 8430: 8425: 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8399: 8397: 8393: 8392: 8390: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8343: 8341: 8337: 8336: 8329: 8328: 8321: 8314: 8306: 8297: 8296: 8294: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8276:Ottoman Empire 8273: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8231:Dutch Republic 8228: 8223: 8222: 8221: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8198: 8193: 8191:Ashanti Empire 8188: 8186:Ancient Greece 8182: 8180: 8176: 8175: 8173: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8135:Czechoslovakia 8132: 8126: 8124: 8118: 8117: 8115: 8114: 8109: 8103: 8101: 8097: 8096: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8091: 8086: 8079:United Kingdom 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8014: 8009: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7982:Czech Republic 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7941: 7939: 7935: 7934: 7932: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7798: 7796: 7792: 7791: 7789: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7697: 7695: 7691: 7690: 7688: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7559: 7557: 7553: 7552: 7545: 7544: 7537: 7530: 7522: 7513: 7512: 7510: 7509: 7503: 7501: 7497: 7496: 7494: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7481:Post-communism 7478: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7437: 7435: 7431: 7430: 7428: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7281: 7279: 7273: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7204: 7202: 7198: 7197: 7195: 7194: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7113: 7111: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7071:Czechoslovakia 7068: 7063: 7057: 7055: 7054:Eastern Europe 7046: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6930: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6901:Isaias Afwerki 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6881:Zianon Pazniak 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6792: 6790: 6784: 6783: 6781: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6739: 6737: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6660:Erich Honecker 6657: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6636: 6634: 6628: 6627: 6625: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6603: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6572: 6566: 6564: 6560: 6559: 6557: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6505: 6503: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6441:Anti-communism 6438: 6433: 6427: 6425: 6419: 6418: 6411: 6410: 6403: 6396: 6388: 6379: 6378: 6376: 6375: 6365: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6343: 6342: 6340: 6339: 6334: 6333: 6332: 6322: 6321: 6320: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6297: 6295: 6291: 6290: 6288: 6287: 6286: 6285: 6273: 6271: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6246: 6241: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6225: 6224: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6193: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6176: 6171: 6170: 6169: 6164: 6154: 6149: 6144: 6143: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6122: 6117: 6111: 6105: 6099: 6098: 6096: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6052: 6050: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6040: 6039: 6038: 6033: 6031:Rail transport 6028: 6026:Railway system 6018: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5959: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5922: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5911: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5899: 5898: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5862: 5860: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5849: 5848: 5822: 5821: 5820: 5815: 5805: 5800: 5799: 5798: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5776: 5771: 5765: 5763: 5757: 5756: 5754: 5753: 5748: 5746:Deputy Premier 5743: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5729:Heads of state 5725: 5723: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5715: 5714: 5713: 5703: 5697: 5694:Supreme Soviet 5691: 5685: 5684: 5683: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5661: 5656: 5645: 5643: 5639: 5638: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5629: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5611:State ideology 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5592: 5591: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5547: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5530: 5525: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5507: 5505: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5485: 5484: 5479: 5477:Ural Mountains 5474: 5469: 5467:North Caucasus 5464: 5459: 5454: 5448: 5446: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5438: 5433: 5428: 5427: 5426: 5416: 5411: 5410: 5409: 5398: 5396: 5387: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5264: 5263: 5262: 5257: 5247: 5241: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5224: 5223: 5216: 5209: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5185: 5184:External links 5182: 5180: 5179: 5164: 5144: 5141: 5140: 5139: 5132: 5125: 5104: 5094: 5081: 5074: 5056:(3): 196–213. 5045: 5033: 5023: 5016: 5009: 4997: 4990: 4983: 4976: 4968:Davies, R. W. 4966: 4953: 4943: 4936: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4920: 4900:10.1086/260113 4881: 4868: 4859: 4846: 4830: 4824: 4801: 4795: 4776: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4744: 4721: 4714: 4694: 4684: 4666: 4660:978-0815731153 4659: 4639: 4626: 4620:978-0253360250 4619: 4599: 4583: 4570: 4560: 4542: 4506: 4495: 4480: 4453: 4442: 4430: 4394: 4378: 4366: 4349: 4336: 4321: 4314: 4294: 4280: 4278:, p. 120. 4268: 4252: 4243: 4229: 4209: 4190: 4174: 4157: 4137: 4115: 4090: 4081: 4035: 4000:(2): 203–216. 3975: 3968: 3948: 3941: 3921: 3915:978-1859840856 3914: 3908:. p. 59. 3892: 3885: 3865: 3856:|journal= 3819: 3800:(2): 295–324. 3767: 3732:(3): 446–458. 3707: 3672:(4): 512–544. 3652: 3623:10.1086/452085 3617:(2): 375–386. 3594: 3569: 3544: 3538:978-0521202497 3537: 3519: 3513:978-0198286868 3512: 3494: 3487: 3463: 3450: 3448:(1997). 32-66. 3437: 3406: 3380: 3373: 3355: 3349:Nick Shepley, 3342: 3295: 3288: 3268: 3247: 3221: 3205: 3202:978-5224033560 3192:Пыжиков А. В. 3185: 3168: 3155: 3147:Smolinski 1973 3139: 3123: 3111: 3098: 3096:, p. 288. 3086: 3073: 3054: 3038: 3031: 3013: 2997: 2971: 2951: 2938: 2907: 2879: 2844: 2812: 2784: 2756: 2728: 2698: 2670: 2642: 2631:. KayLee. 1992 2614: 2583: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2493:New Soviet man 2490: 2485: 2480: 2475: 2470: 2465: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2440: 2435: 2430: 2425: 2420: 2415: 2410: 2405: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2387: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2374: 2371: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2352: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2339: 2338: 2337:United States 2335: 2332: 2318: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2308: 2305: 2302: 2296: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2286: 2283: 2280: 2278:United Kingdom 2274: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2248: 2245: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2230: 2229: 2226: 2223: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2179: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2091: 2090: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2078: 2075: 2069: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2061:Western Europe 2059: 2056: 2053: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2018: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2005: 2002: 1999: 1996: 1989: 1988: 1985: 1982: 1979: 1976: 1973: 1966: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1943: 1942: 1939: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1898:Prime Minister 1891:Alexei Kosygin 1825: 1822: 1719: 1716: 1655:heavy industry 1605: 1602: 1596: 1593: 1551:private sector 1539:heavy industry 1500:Vladimir Lenin 1488:Main article: 1485: 1482: 1462:Russian Empire 1453:David A. Dyker 1425:and later the 1418: 1415: 1397: 1394: 1384: 1381: 1368: 1365: 1306: 1303: 1266:and sometimes 1264:consumer goods 1240:Main article: 1237: 1234: 1149:Main article: 1146: 1143: 1082:Main article: 1079: 1076: 1058: 1055: 1040:five-year plan 1035: 1032: 960: 957: 935: 934: 910:consumer goods 842: 839: 651:consumer goods 601: 600: 591: 588: 587: 584: 580: 579: 570: 566: 565: 560: 556: 555: 551: 550: 547:$ 27.3 billion 541: 533: 530: 529: 516: 513: 510: 509: 506: 503: 500: 499: 494: 490: 489: 466: 463: 460: 459: 442: 439: 436: 435: 430: 426: 425: 421: 420: 377:motor vehicles 366: 363: 360: 359: 356: 352: 351: 348: 345: 342: 341: 336: 333: 330: 329: 324: 317: 314: 313: 308: 300: 297: 296: 293: 283: 280: 279: 272: 269: 266: 265: 244: 242:GDP per capita 241: 238: 237: 234: 231: 228: 227: 224: 220: 219: 214:(nominal; 2nd) 210:(nominal; 2nd) 206:(nominal; 2nd) 202:(nominal; 2nd) 198: 192: 191: 187: 186: 176: 173: 170: 169: 162: 157: 154: 153: 147: 143: 142: 132: 112: 111: 92: 90: 83: 76: 75: 30: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8993: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8963: 8961: 8946: 8943: 8942: 8940: 8936: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8915: 8912: 8910: 8907: 8905: 8904:Faroe Islands 8902: 8900: 8897: 8896: 8894: 8888: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8876:South Ossetia 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8858: 8856: 8850: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8761: 8759: 8756: 8754: 8751: 8749: 8746: 8744: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8734: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8724: 8723:Liechtenstein 8721: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8593: 8591: 8587: 8583: 8576: 8571: 8569: 8564: 8562: 8557: 8556: 8553: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8533: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8517: 8515: 8511: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8460: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8426: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8401: 8400: 8398: 8394: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8327: 8322: 8320: 8315: 8313: 8308: 8307: 8304: 8292: 8291:Tamil Country 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8266:Mongol Empire 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8201: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8183: 8181: 8177: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8127: 8125: 8119: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8104: 8102: 8098: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8081: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8023: 8020: 8019: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7947: 7943: 7942: 7940: 7936: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7804: 7800: 7799: 7797: 7793: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7781:United States 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7692: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7565: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7554: 7550: 7543: 7538: 7536: 7531: 7529: 7524: 7523: 7520: 7508: 7505: 7504: 7502: 7498: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7486:Yugoslav Wars 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7476:Neo-Stalinism 7474: 7472: 7471:Neo-Sovietism 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7436: 7432: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7355:Black January 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7282: 7280: 7274: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7205: 7203: 7199: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7108: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7050: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6923: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6906:Ronald Reagan 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6886:Zhelyu Zhelev 6884: 6882: 6879: 6877: 6874: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6866:Boris Yeltsin 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6846:Joachim Gauck 6844: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6791: 6785: 6779: 6778:Strike action 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6740: 6738: 6732: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6720:Todor Zhivkov 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6710:Deng Xiaoping 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6637: 6635: 6629: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6561: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6539:Soviet Empire 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6500:International 6498: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 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6029: 6027: 6024: 6023: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5978:Energy policy 5976: 5974: 5971: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5952: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5919: 5915: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5897: 5894: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5861: 5859: 5855: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5828: 5827: 5826: 5823: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5810: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5792: 5789: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5758: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5727: 5726: 5724: 5720: 5712: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5706:Supreme Court 5704: 5701: 5698: 5695: 5692: 5689: 5686: 5682: 5679: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5644: 5640: 5634: 5631: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5560: 5556: 5553: 5552: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5539: 5536: 5535: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5493: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5408: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5400: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5382: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5308:The Holocaust 5306: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5222: 5217: 5215: 5210: 5208: 5203: 5202: 5199: 5192: 5188: 5187: 5177: 5176:5-699-07591-7 5173: 5169: 5165: 5162: 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Cambridge: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5046: 5043: 5042: 5037: 5036:Kennedy, Paul 5034: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 5001:Gregory, Paul 4998: 4995: 4991: 4988: 4984: 4981: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4959: 4954: 4952: 4951:Online review 4948: 4944: 4941: 4937: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4888: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4860: 4856: 4853:. Cambridge: 4852: 4847: 4843: 4840:. Cambridge: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4821: 4817: 4814:. Cambridge: 4813: 4811:(pp. 464–485) 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4783: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4760: 4747: 4741: 4734: 4733: 4725: 4717: 4711: 4707: 4706: 4698: 4691: 4687: 4681: 4677: 4670: 4662: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4643: 4636: 4630: 4622: 4616: 4612: 4611: 4603: 4597: 4593: 4587: 4580: 4574: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4510: 4504: 4499: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4451: 4446: 4439: 4434: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4398: 4391: 4387: 4386:Harrison 1996 4382: 4376:, p. 207 4375: 4370: 4362: 4361: 4353: 4346: 4340: 4333: 4330: 4329:G.N. Georgano 4325: 4317: 4311: 4307: 4306: 4298: 4290: 4284: 4277: 4272: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4247: 4232: 4226: 4222: 4221: 4213: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4195: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4171: 4160: 4158:9780415094115 4154: 4150: 4149: 4141: 4134: 4132: 4118: 4116:9781134917464 4112: 4108: 4107: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4085: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3994:Slavic Review 3991: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3971: 3965: 3961: 3960: 3952: 3944: 3938: 3934: 3933: 3925: 3917: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3896: 3888: 3882: 3878: 3877: 3869: 3861: 3848: 3837: 3830: 3823: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3726:Slavic Review 3723: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3656: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3601: 3599: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3558: 3557:chris-said.io 3554: 3548: 3540: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3515: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3490: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3475: 3467: 3460: 3454: 3447: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3416:"The Old Man" 3410: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3376: 3370: 3366: 3359: 3352: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3315:(2): 77–117. 3314: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3291: 3285: 3281: 3280: 3272: 3257: 3251: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3219: 3215: 3209: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3182: 3181:Radio Liberty 3177: 3172: 3165: 3164:Slavic Review 3159: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3136: 3130: 3128: 3120: 3115: 3108: 3102: 3095: 3094:Boughton 2012 3090: 3083: 3077: 3070: 3066: 3061: 3059: 3051: 3047: 3046:Harrison 1996 3042: 3034: 3032:9781107507180 3028: 3024: 3017: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2948: 2942: 2927: 2923: 2922: 2917: 2911: 2895: 2894: 2889: 2883: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2832: 2828: 2827: 2822: 2816: 2800: 2799: 2794: 2788: 2772: 2771: 2766: 2760: 2744: 2743: 2738: 2732: 2716: 2709: 2702: 2686: 2685: 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2140: 2137: 2136: 2132: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2096: 2093: 2092: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2070: 2066: 2063: 2060: 2058:United States 2057: 2054: 2052: 2051: 2047: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1997: 1994: 1991: 1990: 1986: 1983: 1980: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1963: 1960: 1957: 1954: 1951: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1921: 1917: 1915: 1914:Yuri Andropov 1909: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1869: 1863: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1821: 1817: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1802:Soviet rouble 1798: 1795: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1708:Ration stamps 1705: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1651:consumer base 1647: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1611: 1601: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1581:war communism 1578: 1574: 1571: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1543:communication 1540: 1536: 1535:foreign trade 1532: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1513: 1509: 1508:Joseph Stalin 1505: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1474:Transcaucasia 1469: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1449:agriculture. 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1414: 1413: 1412: 1402: 1393: 1390: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349:Baltic states 1346: 1345: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1233: 1229: 1221: 1217: 1215: 1209: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1173: 1170:In the USSR, 1165: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1141: 1136: 1134: 1129: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1116:The national 1114: 1110: 1108: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1091: 1085: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1054: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 985:Joseph Stalin 978: 974: 970: 965: 956: 953: 949: 943: 941: 931: 930: 929: 926: 924: 919: 915: 911: 907: 906:Joseph Stalin 903: 899: 895: 894:capital goods 889: 884: 882: 878: 877:retail prices 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 848: 838: 836: 833: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 813:Joseph Stalin 810: 805: 803: 799: 798:United States 795: 791: 788:to the early 787: 783: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 763:mixed economy 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 739: 738:Daniel Yergin 735: 732: 726: 724: 719: 718:United States 715: 712: 708: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 670: 668: 664: 660: 656: 655:foreign trade 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 609:was based on 608: 598: 596: 589: 585: 581: 578:) (1991 est.) 577: 571: 567: 561: 557: 552: 542: 539: 537:external debt 531: 525: 521: 517: 511: 507: 501: 495: 491: 486: 482: 481:United States 478: 474: 470: 467: 461: 455: 451: 447: 443: 437: 431: 427: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 367: 361: 357: 353: 349: 343: 337: 331: 325: 322: 315: 309: 305: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 273: 270:GDP by sector 267: 245: 239: 235: 229: 225: 221: 199: 197: 193: 188: 184: 180: 177: 171: 167: 166:calendar year 163: 160: 155: 151: 148: 144: 139: 136: 130: 125: 116: 108: 105:December 2023 96: 91: 82: 81: 72: 69: 61: 58:February 2019 51: 47: 41: 40: 34: 29: 20: 19: 16: 8981:Collectivism 8881:Transnistria 8843:Vatican City 8535:Stakhanovite 8356: 8281:Roman Empire 8246:Feudal Japan 8214:Ming dynasty 8209:Song dynasty 8165:Soviet Union 8164: 8140:East Germany 7944: 7884:Saudi Arabia 7801: 7660:South Africa 7562: 7434:Later events 7350:Malta Summit 7182:Turkmenistan 7110:Soviet Union 7096:Soviet Union 7076:East Germany 6896:Meles Zenawi 6851:Sali Berisha 6801:Václav Havel 6748:Human chains 6655:Károly Grósz 6585:Khozraschyot 6476:Nomenklatura 6451:Eastern Bloc 6353: 6125:Demographics 6115:Antisemitism 5968:Central Bank 5954: 5886:Forced labor 5834:Spetsnaz GRU 5654:organisation 5562:Human rights 5511:Constitution 5394:Subdivisions 5272:Russian SFSR 5228:Soviet Union 5167: 5152: 5135: 5128: 5116: 5097: 5087: 5077: 5076:Moser, Nat. 5053: 5049: 5039: 5029: 5019: 5012: 5004: 4993: 4986: 4979: 4969: 4957: 4946: 4939: 4932: 4891: 4885: 4872: 4863: 4850: 4837: 4834:Davies, R.W. 4812: 4808: 4805: 4781: 4767: 4731: 4724: 4704: 4697: 4689: 4675: 4669: 4649: 4642: 4634: 4629: 4609: 4602: 4591: 4586: 4578: 4573: 4565: 4551: 4545: 4533:. Retrieved 4526:the original 4521: 4509: 4498: 4467: 4445: 4433: 4421:. Retrieved 4414:the original 4410:foia.cia.gov 4409: 4397: 4381: 4369: 4359: 4352: 4339: 4331: 4324: 4304: 4297: 4283: 4276:Hosking 1993 4271: 4255: 4246: 4234:. Retrieved 4219: 4212: 4177: 4169: 4162:. Retrieved 4147: 4140: 4130: 4127: 4120:. Retrieved 4105: 4084: 4059: 4055: 3997: 3993: 3958: 3951: 3931: 3924: 3901: 3895: 3875: 3868: 3847:cite journal 3836:the original 3822: 3797: 3793: 3729: 3725: 3669: 3665: 3655: 3614: 3610: 3585:. Retrieved 3581: 3572: 3560:. Retrieved 3556: 3547: 3528: 3522: 3503: 3497: 3473: 3466: 3458: 3453: 3445: 3440: 3423: 3419: 3409: 3397:. Retrieved 3392: 3383: 3364: 3358: 3350: 3345: 3312: 3308: 3298: 3278: 3271: 3259:. Retrieved 3250: 3238:. Retrieved 3235:www.rbth.com 3234: 3224: 3213: 3208: 3193: 3188: 3179: 3171: 3163: 3158: 3150: 3142: 3114: 3106: 3101: 3089: 3081: 3076: 3041: 3022: 3016: 3000: 2993:Bradley 2010 2974: 2954: 2946: 2941: 2930:, retrieved 2926:the original 2921:CIA Factbook 2919: 2910: 2898:. Retrieved 2893:CIA Factbook 2891: 2882: 2870:. Retrieved 2866:the original 2835:. Retrieved 2831:the original 2826:CIA Factbook 2824: 2815: 2803:. Retrieved 2798:CIA Factbook 2796: 2787: 2775:. Retrieved 2770:CIA Factbook 2768: 2759: 2747:. Retrieved 2742:CIA Factbook 2740: 2731: 2719:. Retrieved 2714: 2701: 2689:. Retrieved 2684:CIA Factbook 2682: 2673: 2661:. Retrieved 2656:CIA Factbook 2654: 2645: 2633:. Retrieved 2628:CIA Factbook 2626: 2617: 2605:. Retrieved 2600:CIA Factbook 2598: 2574:. Retrieved 2569:CIA Factbook 2567: 2389:125,557,000 2381: 2368: 2363:250,410,000 2355: 2342: 2334:Soviet Union 2299: 2277: 2255: 2233: 2182: 2160: 2138: 2116: 2094: 2072: 2015: 1992: 1969: 1946: 1918: 1911: 1906: 1901:Yegor Gaidar 1895: 1887: 1883: 1864: 1844: 1841: 1818: 1799: 1790: 1746:World War II 1743: 1706: 1700:announced a 1695: 1675:productivity 1671:Ford Model A 1669:copy of the 1660: 1648: 1633: 1613: 1598: 1567: 1528: 1516: 1470: 1451: 1427:Soviet Union 1420: 1408: 1407: 1388: 1386: 1376: 1372: 1370: 1342: 1324: 1308: 1292: 1276: 1250:In general, 1249: 1245: 1230: 1226: 1213: 1210: 1194:Leon Trotsky 1192: 1188:Lev Gatovsky 1182: 1176: 1169: 1159: 1130: 1118:state budget 1115: 1111: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1087: 1060: 1048: 1037: 1017: 989:Leon Trotsky 982: 948:black market 944: 936: 927: 901: 891: 868: 850: 829:black market 806: 790:Brezhnev-era 779: 731:price of oil 727: 694:Lev Gatovsky 674:Soviet Union 671: 667:job security 663:unemployment 606: 604: 592: 504:Import goods 469:Eastern Bloc 440:Export goods 355:Unemployment 334:Labour force 304:poverty line 115: 102: 94: 64: 55: 36: 15: 8919:Isle of Man 8854:recognition 8823:Switzerland 8758:Netherlands 8256:Inca Empire 8204:Han dynasty 8112:New Zealand 8074:Switzerland 8039:Netherlands 7899:South Korea 7879:Philippines 7859:North Korea 7615:Ivory Coast 7410:August Coup 7263:South Yemen 7208:Afghanistan 7052:Central and 7045:by location 6949:Civic Forum 6836:Feng Congde 6811:Ion Iliescu 6796:Lech Wałęsa 6753:Magnitizdat 6715:Zhao Ziyang 6705:Heng Samrin 6665:Miloš Jakeš 6575:Perestroika 6229:Phraseology 6174:Prohibition 6162:Linguistics 6147:Drug policy 6140:1989 census 6061:Cybernetics 5963:Agriculture 5876:Great Purge 5838:Soviet Navy 5830:Soviet Army 5702:(1989–1991) 5696:(1938–1991) 5690:(1922–1936) 5674:Secretariat 5545:Gun control 5452:Caspian Sea 5436:Closed city 5365:Dissolution 5350:Perestroika 5292:Great Purge 4756:Works cited 4637:(2011) p 23 4522:www.cia.gov 4343:Knowledge, 3906:Verso Books 3587:15 November 3562:15 November 3399:23 February 3151:Das Kapital 3065:Davies 1998 2959:Davies 1998 2386:152,300,000 2360:290,938,469 2055:Russia/USSR 1860:Scott Shane 1851:Nixon Shock 1786:perestroika 1774:natural gas 1665:and by the 1458:repudiation 1435:World War I 1172:agriculture 1145:Agriculture 1024:perestroika 809:Agriculture 782:bureaucracy 755:dismantling 745:became the 711:White House 564:(1990 est.) 549:(1988 est.) 545:(1989 est.) 528:(1988 est.) 522:11%, Cuba, 498:(1989 est.) 488:(1988 est.) 485:Afghanistan 458:(1989 est.) 446:natural gas 434:(1989 est.) 419:(1989 est.) 401:electronics 340:(1989 est.) 278:(1988 est.) 264:(GNP; 28th) 159:Fiscal year 119:Economy of 50:introducing 8960:Categories 8793:San Marino 8753:Montenegro 8733:Luxembourg 8713:Kazakhstan 8616:Azerbaijan 8170:Yugoslavia 7914:Tajikistan 7824:East Timor 7809:Azerbaijan 7803:Arab world 7635:Mozambique 7625:Madagascar 7451:Lustration 7325:Baltic Way 7276:Individual 7253:Mozambique 7192:Uzbekistan 7177:Tajikistan 7162:Kyrgyzstan 7157:Kazakhstan 7122:Azerbaijan 7101:Yugoslavia 6979:Solidarity 6939:Charter 77 6925:Opposition 6821:Wu'erkaixi 6787:Opposition 6734:Opposition 6725:Siad Barre 6670:Egon Krenz 6640:Ramiz Alia 6631:Government 6570:Uskoreniye 6502:background 6424:background 6269:Opposition 6259:Television 6239:Propaganda 6212:Literature 6086:Naukograds 6081:Sharashkas 6015:(currency) 5993:Inventions 5936:Censorship 5866:Red Terror 5550:Government 5424:Autonomous 5407:Autonomous 5340:Stagnation 5303:Evacuation 5143:In Russian 5084:Nove, Alec 4960:. London: 4535:9 December 4490:1353290533 4388:, p. 4262:, p. 4203:, p. 4164:18 October 4122:18 October 3904:. 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