Effect of spaceflight on the human body

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healthy adult. The rapid change in bone density is dramatic, making bones frail and resulting in symptoms that resemble those of osteoporosis. On Earth, the bones are constantly being shed and regenerated through a well-balanced system which involves signaling of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. These systems are coupled, so that whenever bone is broken down, newly formed layers take its place—neither should happen without the other, in a healthy adult. In space, however, there is an increase in osteoclast activity due to microgravity. This is a problem because osteoclasts break down the bones into minerals that are reabsorbed by the body. Osteoblasts are not consecutively active with the osteoclasts, causing the bone to be constantly diminished with no recovery. This increase in osteoclasts activity has been seen particularly in the pelvic region because this is the region that carries the biggest load with gravity present. A study demonstrated that in healthy mice, osteoclasts appearance increased by 197%, accompanied by a down-regulation of osteoblasts and growth factors that are known to help with the formation of new bone, after only sixteen days of exposure to microgravity. Elevated blood

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on Salyut 6, Salyut 7, and the ISS remain about 5–6 months, while MIR expeditions often lasted longer. The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak different languages. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language, while 2nd and 3rd generation stations have crews from many cultures who speak many languages. The ISS is unique because visitors are not classed automatically into 'host' or 'guest' categories as with previous stations and spacecraft, and may not suffer from feelings of isolation in the same way.

1125: 955: 1027: 879:. As the human body consists mostly of fluids, gravity tends to force them into the lower half of the body, and our bodies have many systems to balance this situation. When released from the pull of gravity, these systems continue to work, causing a general redistribution of fluids into the upper half of the body. This is the cause of the round-faced 'puffiness' seen in astronauts, and may contribute to observations of altered speech motor control in astronauts. Redistributing fluids around the body itself causes balance disorders, 1408: 6644: 1091:), and the aRED (advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enable various weight-lifting exercises which add muscle but do nothing for bone density, and a stationary bicycle; each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment. Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill. Astronauts subject to long periods of weightlessness wear pants with elastic bands attached between waistband and cuffs to compress the leg bones and reduce osteopenia. 1133: 6164: 6175: 1301: 7002: 110:. A 2024 assessment noted that "well-known problems include bone loss, heightened cancer risk, vision impairment, weakened immune systems, and mental health issues... et what’s going on at a molecular level hasn’t always been clear", arousing concerns especially vis a vis private and commercial spaceflight now occurring without any scientific or medical research being conducted among those populations regarding effects. 720: 821: 1160:, when a person is standing, blood and other body fluids are pulled towards the lower body, increasing pressure at the feet. When gravity is removed, hydrostatic pressures throughout the body are removed and the resulting change in blood distribution is analogous to an individual changing from standing up to lying down. The persistent change in the redistribution of blood volume may result in facial 6976: 27: 474:

Animal experiments show that rapid and complete recovery is normal for exposures shorter than 90 seconds, while longer full-body exposures are fatal and resuscitation has never been successful. There is only a limited amount of data available from human accidents, but it is consistent with animal data. Limbs may be exposed for much longer if breathing is not impaired.

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information about the effects of space flight on older people. Factors such as nutritional requirements and physical environments which have so far not been examined will become important. Overall, there is little data on the manifold effects of living in space, and this makes attempts toward mitigating the risks during a lengthy space habitation difficult.

1246:. If indeed elevated intracranial pressure is the cause, artificial gravity might present one solution, as it would for many human health risks in space. However, such artificial gravitational systems have yet to be proven. More, even with sophisticated artificial gravity, a state of relative microgravity may remain, the risks of which remain unknown. 425:. Investigators have considered pressurizing a separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to the current whole-EMU pressure of 29.6 kPa (4.3 psi). In such a design, pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization. 1235:

reduced relative to supine levels and slightly higher than seated levels, meaning pressures were within normal physiological variation. Without elevated intracranial pressures, a force that flattens the posterior of the eye is still created by the removal of hydrostatic gradients in the intracranial and intraocular spaces.

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could be used in conjunction with more fundamental computational simulations of bone remodeling and muscle adaptation in order to more completely model the end effects of such countermeasures, and determine whether a proposed exercise regime would be sufficient to sustain astronaut musculoskeletal health.

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with current technology is estimated to involve at least 18 months in transit alone. Knowing how the human body reacts to such time periods in space is a vital part of the preparation for such journeys. On-board medical facilities need to be adequate for coping with any type of trauma or emergency as

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A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks represent a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. While Skylab's three crews remained in space 1, 2, and 3 months respectively, long-term crews

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when in space. Some astronauts find that their food is bland, others find that their favorite foods no longer taste as good (one who enjoyed coffee disliked the taste so much on a mission that he stopped drinking it after returning to Earth); some astronauts enjoy eating certain foods that they would

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In 2013 NASA published a study that found changes to the eyes and eyesight of monkeys with spaceflights longer than 6 months. Noted changes included a flattening of the eyeball and changes to the retina. Space traveler's eyesight can become blurry after too much time in space. Another effect is known

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in the lungs continues but results in the removal of all gases, including oxygen, from the bloodstream. After 9 to 12 seconds, the deoxygenated blood reaches the brain, and it results in the loss of consciousness. Exposure to vacuum for up to 30 seconds is unlikely to cause permanent physical damage.

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living in space over an extended period of time, but regarded as anecdotal by astronauts. Fatigue, listlessness, and psychosomatic worries are also part of the syndrome. The data is inconclusive; however, the syndrome does appear to exist as a manifestation of the internal and external stress crews

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and fall off from lack of use, leaving soft new skin. Tops of feet become, by contrast, raw and painfully sensitive, as they rub against the handrails feet are hooked into for stability. Tears cannot be shed while crying, as they stick together into a ball. In microgravity odors quickly permeate the

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from which all air could be pumped. At some point during the test, LeBlanc's pressurization hose became detached from the space suit. Even though this caused his suit pressure to drop from 3.8 psi (26.2 kPa) to 0.1 psi (0.7 kPa) in less than 10 seconds, LeBlanc remained conscious

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systems have been examined for more than a century, and millions of hours of research have been spent on them. In recent years, there has been an increase in research on the issue of how humans can survive and work in space for extended and possibly indefinite periods of time. This question requires

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NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir. Common sources of stress in early American missions included maintaining high performance while under

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due to hypoxia; the much lower pressure outside the body causes rapid de-oxygenation of the blood. "As I stumbled backwards, I could feel the saliva on my tongue starting to bubble just before I went unconscious and that's the last thing I remember", recalls LeBlanc. A colleague entered the chamber

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scans of astronauts who had returned to Earth following at least one month in space. However, direct evidence of pathlogically elevated intracranial pressures in microgravity has yet to be obtained. Invasive measures of intracranial pressure on parabolic flights showed that pressures were actually

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musculoskeletal models of humans exercising with the device. The goal of this work is to use inverse dynamics to estimate joint torques and muscle forces resulting from using the ARED, and thus more accurately prescribe exercise regimens for the astronauts. These joint torques and muscle forces

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is using advanced computational tools to understand how to best counteract the bone and muscle atrophy experienced by astronauts in microgravity environments for prolonged periods of time. The Human Research Program's Human Health Countermeasures Element chartered the Digital Astronaut Project to

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formation. It is still unknown whether bone recovers completely. Unlike people with osteoporosis, astronauts eventually regain their bone density. After a 3–4 month trip into space, it takes about 2–3 years to regain lost bone density. New techniques are being developed to help astronauts recover

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someday begins, many types of people will be exposed to these dangers, and the effects on the very young are completely unknown. On October 29, 1998, John Glenn, one of the original Mercury 7, returned to space at the age of 77. His space flight, which lasted 9 days, provided NASA with important

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prominent in muscles also change. Slow-twitch endurance fibres used to maintain posture are replaced by fast-twitch rapidly contracting fibres that are insufficient for any heavy labour. Advances in research on exercise, hormone supplements, and medication may help maintain muscle and body mass.

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In a vacuum, there is no medium for removing heat from the body by conduction or convection. Loss of heat is by radiation from the 310 K temperature of a person to the 3 K of outer space. This is a slow process, especially in a clothed person, so there is no danger of immediately freezing. Rapid

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There is scientific concern that extended spaceflight might slow down the body's ability to protect itself against diseases. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and cause both short and long-term damage to the bone marrow stem cells which create the blood and immune systems. In particular, it

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well as contain a huge variety of diagnostic and medical instruments in order to keep a crew healthy over a long period of time, as these will be the only facilities available on board a spacecraft for coping not only with trauma but also with the adaptive responses of the human body in space.

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astronauts took sleeping pills and still got 2 hours less sleep each night in space than they did on the ground. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for

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approximately 1.5% per month especially from the lower vertebrae, hip, and femur. Due to microgravity and the decreased load on the bones, there is a rapid increase in bone loss, from 3% cortical bone loss per decade to about 1% every month the body is exposed to microgravity, for an otherwise

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of astronauts living in outer space. The main purpose of this academic pursuit is to discover how well and for how long people can survive the extreme conditions in space, and how fast they can re-adapt to the Earth's environment after returning from space. Space medicine also seeks to develop

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experienced in space is poor due to highly variable light and dark cycles on flight decks and poor illumination during daytime hours in the spacecraft. Even the habit of looking out of the window before retiring can send the wrong messages to the brain, resulting in poor sleep patterns. These

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not normally eat, and some experience no change whatsoever. Multiple tests have not identified the cause, and several theories have been suggested, including food degradation, and psychological changes such as boredom. Astronauts often choose strong-tasting food to combat the loss of taste.

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and exploration of inner and outer planets will require humans to endure longer and longer periods in space. The majority of current data comes from missions of short duration and so some of the long-term physiological effects of living in space are still unknown. A round trip to

758:(a form of lymphocyte) are less able to reproduce properly, and the T-cells that do reproduce are less able to fight off infection. Over time immunodeficiency results in the rapid spread of infection among crew members, especially in the confined areas of space flight systems. 367:

in the vertical direction is more difficult to tolerate than a force perpendicular to the spine because blood flows away from the brain and eyes. First the person experiences a temporary loss of vision and then at higher g-forces loses consciousness. G-force training and a

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NASA survey of 300 male and female astronauts, about 23 percent of short-flight and 49 percent of long-flight astronauts said they had experienced problems with both near and distance vision during their missions. Again, for some people vision problems persisted for years

417:(EVAs) of astronauts. Current Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over time. A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure 722: 1054:

or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. Consequently, some muscles atrophy rapidly, and without regular exercise astronauts can lose up to 20% of their muscle mass in just 5 to 11 days. The types of

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The environment of space is lethal without appropriate protection: the greatest threat in the vacuum of space derives from the lack of oxygen and pressure, although temperature and radiation also pose risks. The effects of space exposure can result in

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triggered the gag reflex. Various other physical discomforts such as back and abdominal pain are common because of the readjustment to gravity, where in space there was no gravity and these muscles could freely stretch. These may be part of the

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Overall, NASA refers to the various deleterious effects of spaceflight on the human body by the acronym RIDGE (i.e., "space radiation, isolation and confinement, distance from Earth, gravity fields, and hostile and closed environments").

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Gueguinou, N.; Huin-Schohn, C.; Bascove, M.; Bueb, J.-L.; Tschirhart, E.; Legrand-Frossi, C.; Frippiat, J.-P. (2009). "Could spaceflight-associated immune system weakening preclude the expansion of human presence beyond Earth's orbit".

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In space, astronauts lose fluid volume—including up to 22% of their blood volume. When the astronauts return to Earth, low blood volume can cause orthostatic intolerance or dizziness when standing. Under the influence of the earth's

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Delp, Scott L.; Anderson, Frank C.; Arnold, Allison S.; Loan, Peter; Habib, Ayman; John, Chand T.; Guendelman, Eran; Thelen, Darryl G. (2007). "OpenSim: Open-Source Software to Create and Analyze Dynamic Simulations of Movement".

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Cucinotta, Francis A.; Schimmerling, Walter; Wilson, John W.; Peterson, Leif E.; Badhwar, Gautam D.; Saganti, Premkumar B.; Dicello, John F. (2001). "Space Radiation Cancer Risks and Uncertainties for Mars Missions".

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Kanas, MD, Nick; Salnitskiy, Vyacheslav; Gushin, MD, Vadim; Weiss, Daniel S.; Grund, MS, Ellen M.; Flynn, MD, Christopher; Kozerenko, MD, Olga; Sled, MS, Alexander; Marmar, MD, Charles R. (November 1, 2001).

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in his autobiographical book about the Salyut 6 mission: "If you want to instigate the art of manslaughter just shut two men up in an eighteen by twenty-foot cabin for a month. Human nature won't stand it."

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Fu, Qi; Shibata, Shigeki; Hastings, Jeffrey L.; Platts, Steven H.; Hamilton, Douglas M.; Bungo, Michael W.; Stenger, Michael B.; Ribeiro, Christine; Adams-Huet, Beverley; Levine, Benjamin D. (2019-08-27).

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within 25 seconds and gave LeBlanc oxygen. The chamber was repressurized in 1 minute instead of the normal 30 minutes. LeBlanc recovered almost immediately with just an earache and no permanent damage.

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has been demonstrated to have some deleterious effects on human health. Humans are well-adapted to the physical conditions at the surface of the Earth, and so in response to weightlessness, various

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are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Technically, ebullism is considered to begin at an elevation of around 19 kilometres (12 mi; 62,000 ft) or pressures less than 6.3

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metabolism also changes. Normally, bone is laid down in the direction of mechanical stress. However, in a microgravity environment, there is very little mechanical stress. This results in a

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John-Baptiste A, Cook T, Straus S, Naglie G, Gray G, Tomlinson G, Krahn M (April 2006). "Decision analysis in aerospace medicine: costs and benefits of a hyperbaric facility in space".

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Styf, Jorma R.; Hutchinson, Karen; Carlsson, Sven G. & Hargens, Alan R. (November–December 2001). "Depression, Mood State, and Back Pain During Microgravity Simulated by Bed Rest".

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Horneck G.; Eschweiler, U.; Reitz, G.; Wehner, J.; Willimek, R.; Strauch, K. (1995). "Biological responses to space: results of the experiment "Exobiological Unit" of ERA on EURECA I".

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Lawley, Justin S.; Petersen, Lonnie G.; Howden, Erin J.; Sarma, Satyam; Cornwell, William K.; Zhang, Rong; Whitworth, Louis A.; Williams, Michael A.; Levine, Benjamin D. (2017-03-15).

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regularly due to mission demands, such as the scheduling of incoming or departing space vehicles. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high because the atmosphere is unable to

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investigate targeted questions about exercise countermeasure regimes. NASA is focusing on integrating a model of the advanced Resistive Exercise Device (ARED) currently on board the

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events (though rare) can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes. It is thought that protective shielding and protective drugs may ultimately lower the risks to an acceptable level.

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which results from the formation of bubbles in body fluids due to reduced ambient pressure. The steam may bloat the body up to twice its normal size and slow down circulation, but

546:. A rough estimate is that a human will have about 90 seconds to be recompressed, after which death may be unavoidable. Swelling from ebullism can be reduced by containment in a 2290:

Jordan, Nicole C.; Saleh, Joseph H.; Newman, Dava J. (2006). "The extravehicular mobility unit: A review of environment, requirements, and design changes in the US spacesuit".

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Dietrich Manzey; Bernd Lorenz; Valeri Poljakov (1998). "Mental performance in extreme environments: results from a performance monitoring study during a 438-day spaceflight".

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around the Earth and the ISS. Nevertheless, solar flares are powerful enough to warp and penetrate the magnetic defences, and so are still a hazard to the crew. The crew of

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During takeoff and re-entry, space travelers can experience several times normal gravity. An untrained person can usually withstand about 3g, but can black out at 4 to 6g.

522:. Experiments with other animals have revealed an array of symptoms that could also apply to humans. The least severe of these is the freezing of bodily secretions due to 6392: 3559:

Dose, K.; Bieger-Dose, A.; Dillmann, R.; Gill, M.; Kerz, O.; Klein, A.; Meinert, H.; Nawroth, T.; Risi, S.; Stridde, C. (1995). "ERA-experiment "space biochemistry"".

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The sum of human experience has resulted in the accumulation of 58 solar years in space and a much better understanding of how the human body adapts. In the future,

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The Beckman Physiological and Cardiovascular Monitoring System in the Gemini and Apollo suits would inflate and deflate cuffs to stimulate blood flow to lower limbs

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took shelter as a precaution in 2005 in a more heavily shielded part of the station designed for this purpose. However, beyond the limited protection of Earth's

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have profound effects on the neurobehavioural responses of the crew and aggravate the psychological stresses they already experience. Sleep is disturbed on the

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Because weightlessness increases the amount of fluid in the upper part of the body, it has been hypothesized that astronauts experience pathologically elevated

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would lead to local heating, though that would likely be well distributed by the body's conductivity and blood circulation. Other solar radiation, particularly

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Within one month the human skeleton fully extends in weightlessness, causing height to increase by an inch. After two months, calluses on the bottoms of feet

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astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called a Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevented ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15 mm Hg).

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There has been considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut

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which constricts the body to keep more blood in the head can mitigate the effects. Most spacecraft are designed to keep g-forces within comfortable limits.

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White Ronald J., McPhee Jancy C. (2007). "The Digital Astronaut: An integrated modeling and database system for space biomedical research and operations".

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Since dust can not settle in zero gravity, small pieces of dead skin or metal can get in the eye, causing irritation and increasing the risk of infection.

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DeGroot DW, Devine JA, Fulco CS (September 2003). "Incidence of adverse reactions from 23,000 exposures to simulated terrestrial altitudes up to 8900 m".

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Cucinotta, F. A.; Manuel, F. K.; Jones, J.; Iszard, G.; Murrey, J.; Djojonegro, B.; Wear, M. (2001). "Space Radiation and Cataracts in Astronauts".

1385:; fans are required at all times to allow processing of the atmosphere, which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-g) environment. Fifty percent of 579:

unexpectedly opened at an altitude of 168 kilometres (551,000 ft), causing rapid depressurisation and the subsequent death of the entire crew.

6422: 3817:"Microgravity induces pelvic bone loss through osteocloastic activity, osteocytic osteolysis, and osteoblastic cell cycle inhibition by CDKN1a/p21" 2211: 1706: 1346:

public scrutiny, as well as isolation from peers and family. On the ISS, the latter is still often a cause of stress, such as when NASA Astronaut

1325:. The enormous stress on the crew, coupled with the body adapting to other environmental changes, can result in anxiety, insomnia and depression. 6367: 5044: 4620: 2541: 6447: 5164: 1528: 1217: 79: 1628:"We don't know why, but being in space causes us to destroy our blood - Space anemia is tied to being in the void and can stick around awhile" 1627: 1440:

The environment of space is still largely unknown, and there will likely be as-yet-unknown hazards. Meanwhile, future technologies such as

6800: 6617: 6412: 6341: 1168:. Orthostatic tolerance after spaceflight has been greatly improved by fluid loading countermeasures taken by astronauts before touchdown. 2833:

Zeitlin, C.; et al. (31 May 2013). "Measurements of Energetic Particle Radiation in Transit to Mars on the Mars Science Laboratory".

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Cooke, J.P; Bancroft, R.W. (1966). "Some Cardiovascular Responses in Anesthetized Dogs During Repeated Decompressions to a Near-Vacuum".

716:. Radiation doses astronauts would receive from a flare of this magnitude could cause acute radiation sickness and possibly even death. 6407: 4305: 1473: 1463: 4857: 4804: 4018: 2976:"Galactic Cosmic Radiation Leads to Cognitive Impairment and Increased Aβ Plaque Accumulation in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease" 2757: 867:. Long-term exposure causes multiple health problems, one of the most significant being loss of bone and muscle mass. Over time these 4205: 1994: 1458: 1088: 230:

is able to shield people from the harshest conditions. The immediate needs for breathable air and drinkable water are addressed by a

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Cherry, Jonathan D.; Frost, Jeffrey L.; Lemere, Cynthia A.; Williams, Jacqueline P.; Olschowka, John A.; O'Banion, M. Kerry (2012).

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evaporative cooling of skin moisture in a vacuum may create frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard.

6211: 4457:"Optic Disc Edema, Globe Flattening, Choroidal Folds, and Hyperopic Shifts Observed in Astronauts after Long-duration Space Flight" 712:, interplanetary human missions are much more vulnerable. Lawrence Townsend of the University of Tennessee and others have studied 130:. A fundamental step in overcoming this challenge is trying to understand the effects of long-term space travel on the human body. 3329: 6300: 5448: 445: 4583:

Kramer, Larry A.; et al. (13 March 2012). "Orbital and Intracranial Effects of Microgravity: Findings at 3-T MR Imaging".

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Schneider SM, Amonette WE, Blazine K, Bentley J, Lee SM, Loehr JA, Moore AD Jr, Rapley M, Mulder ER, Smith SM (November 2003).

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Space Flight Systems @ GRC: Human Research Program, ISS and Human Health Office, Digital Astronaut. NASA Glenn Research Center

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input from the physical and biological sciences and has now become the greatest challenge (other than funding) facing human

6437: 6305: 4888: 1518: 1488: 7032: 3448: 439: 3532: 2489: 6480: 5458: 4508: 4271: 2361: 2332: 1772: 4168:"Impact of Prolonged Spaceflight on Orthostatic Tolerance During Ambulation and Blood Pressure Profiles in Astronauts" 1916: 1740: 5478: 4456: 2260: 1317:

The psychological effects of living in space have not been clearly analyzed but analogies on Earth do exist, such as

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Human physiology is adapted to living within the atmosphere of Earth, and a certain amount of oxygen is required in

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Blaber, E; Dvorochkin, N; Lee, C; Alwood, JS; Yousuf, R; Pianetta, P; Globus, RK; Burns, BP; Almeida, EAC (2013).

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faster. Research on diet, exercise, and medication may hold the potential to aid the process of growing new bone.

750:, any damage weakens the immune system, which means that in addition to increased vulnerability to new exposures, 575:. During preparations for re-entry from orbit on June 30, 1971, a pressure-equalisation valve in the spacecraft's 303:

of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of

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Buckey, Jay C.; Lan, Mimi; Phillips, Scott D.; Archambault-Leger, Veronique; Fellows, Abigail M. (2022-05-01).

2953: 1503: 666: 612: 465:. If the body does not get enough oxygen, then the astronaut is at risk of becoming unconscious and dying from 398: 3996: 2212:"Evidence-Based Approach to the Analysis of Serious Decompression Sickness With Application to EVA Astronauts" 6336: 5155: 3969: 3191: 1226:. This would increase pressure on the backs of the eyeballs, affecting their shape and slightly crushing the 774: 622: 4230:

Fortney, Suzanne M.; Seinmann, Laura; Young, Joan A.; Hoskin, Cherylynn N.; Barrows, Linda H. (1994-01-01).

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Billings, Charles E. (1973). "Chapter 1) Barometric Pressure". In Parker, James F.; West, Vita R. (eds.).

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in 1961. Since then, roughly 45% of all people who have flown in space have suffered from this condition.

421:, analogous to the difficulty of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and minimising 250:. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites is also necessary. 6595: 5986: 5822: 5569: 5416: 5073: 2390: 2072:"Astronauts who take long trips to space return with brains that have floated to the top of their skulls" 1183: 1100: 909: 825: 693: 234:, a group of devices that allow human beings to survive in outer space. The life support system supplies 195: 164: 4558: 4356:"Microsaccades in applied environments: Real-world applications of fixational eye movement measurements" 349:

measures to ease the suffering caused by living in an environment to which humans are not well adapted.

46:

are complex and largely harmful over both short and long term. Significant adverse effects of long-term

7022: 6992: 6938: 6643: 6058: 5827: 5500: 3330:"Exercise Physiology and Countermeasures Project (ExPC): Keeping Astronauts Healthy in Reduced Gravity" 2218: 1718: 542:

in this process, but will continue to release water vapour leading to cooling and ice formation in the

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On November 2, 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the

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are very different from those in which humans evolved; however, technology such as that offered by a

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The only humans known to have died of exposure to vacuum in space are the three crew-members of the

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This article is about the medical consequences of spaceflight on humans. For the general study, see

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Such eyesight problems could be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a

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Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the

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Lewandowski, B. E.; Pennline, J. A.; Stalker, A. R.; Mulugeta, L.; Myers, J. G. (April 11, 2011).

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From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners

2126: 7027: 6933: 6713: 6504: 6489: 6197: 6100: 6036: 5815: 5717: 5628: 5532: 5505: 5406: 4924: 4812: 4461: 3645: 3093:"Study Shows that Space Travel is Harmful to the Brain and Could Accelerate Onset of Alzheimer's" 2439: 2328: 2071: 1254:

One effect of weightlessness on humans is that some astronauts report a change in their sense of

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The most common problem experienced by humans in the initial hours of weightlessness is known as

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would perform in vacuum conditions. To simulate the effects of space, NASA constructed a massive

138: 6925: 6473: 6320: 6148: 6110: 5544: 5463: 5401: 4984:"Evidence Report: Risk of Adverse Cognitive or Behavioral Conditions and Psychiatric Disorders" 4936: 4310: 1796:"NASA's Efforts to Manage Health and Human Performance Risks for Space Exploration (IG-16-003)" 1067: 1021: 888: 682: 450: 394: 300: 262: 63: 4646: 6585: 6532: 6517: 6351: 6249: 6239: 5998: 5805: 5443: 4785: 4239: 3173: 3122: 1223: 876: 809: 762: 551: 478: 171:, which demonstrated several long-lasting changes, including those related to alterations in 153: 142: 67: 3303:"Large solar storm sparks global aurora and doubles radiation levels on the martian surface" 2675:

Webb, P. (1968). "The Space Activity Suit: An Elastic Leotard for Extravehicular Activity".

2386: 2247:. 13th IEEE International Conference on Requirements Engineering (RE'05). pp. 434–438. 1917:"Astronauts experienced reverse blood flow and blood clots on the space station, study says" 657:

experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also recently been linked to a higher incidence of

6590: 6167: 6068: 6051: 5688: 5623: 5616: 5473: 5359: 5237: 5184: 5009: 4865: 4339:(ed.). "A Year In Space: Inside Scott Kelly's historic mission – Is travel to Mars next?". 4209: 4049: 4026: 3828: 3769: 3611: 3568: 3485: 3391: 3380:"Postural adaptation to microgravity underlies fine motor impairment in astronauts' speech" 3274: 3048: 2989: 2844: 2796: 2761: 2299: 2076: 1871: 1587: 1483: 1148: 696:(ISS) are partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field, as the 198:, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term 5150:. Third edition. A. E. Nicogossian, C. L. Huntoon and S. L. Pool. Lea & Febiger, 1993. 3694: 2785:

Kerr, Richard (31 May 2013). "Radiation Will Make Astronauts' Trip to Mars Even Riskier".

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Kanas, Nick; Manzey, Dietrich (2008). "Basic Issues of Human Adaptation to Space Flight".

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At the moment only rigorously tested humans have experienced the conditions of space. If

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levels from the lost bone result in dangerous calcification of soft tissues and potential

8: 6907: 6748: 6522: 6063: 6041: 5976: 5695: 5539: 5057: 4585: 3915: 1795: 1684: 1478: 1445: 1416: 1411:

Space colonization efforts must take into account the effects of space on the human body.

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and other unwelcome side effects. Upon return to Earth, the reduced blood volume creates

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The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated).

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effects can impair astronauts' performance, increase their risk of injury, reduce their

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already present in the body—which would normally be suppressed—become active. In space,

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for reference, the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101.4 kPa, equal to 14.7 psi –

2266: 2192: 2052: 1971: 1962: 1944: 1892: 1857: 1834: 1557: 1513: 1441: 1429: 852:. Though these changes are usually temporary, some do have a long-term impact on human 654: 568: 410: 257:. Living in this type of environment impacts the body in three important ways: loss of 4183: 2179: 1337:, twice Hero of the Soviet Union, quotes this passage from "The Handbook of Hymen" by 1026: 920:

in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and

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NASA Report: Space Travel 'Inherently Hazardous' to Human Health. Leonard David. 2001

5116: 4954: 4950: 4741: 4723: 4684: 4666: 4602: 4478: 4434: 4426: 4387: 4187: 4116: 4108: 3897: 3856: 3797: 3792: 3757: 3738: 3627: 3623: 3584: 3580: 3513: 3419: 3242: 3152: 3074: 3017: 2929: 2860: 2835: 2812: 2787: 2719: 2684: 2468: 2420: 2256: 2184: 2056: 2044: 1976: 1949: 1897: 1862: 1603: 994: 982: 917: 864: 845: 543: 535: 527: 486: 466: 386: 315: 284:. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes. 277: 127: 103: 94:" appearance typical in pictures of astronauts experiencing weightlessness), loss of 5273: 5220: 4966: 4719: 4490: 4061: 3533:"Alarming Study Indicates Why Certain Bacteria Are More Resistant to Drugs in Space" 3254: 2311: 1858:"The NASA Twins Study: A multidimensional analysis of a year-long human spaceflight" 1407: 1204:

Long spaceflights can also alter a space traveler's eye movements (particularly the

413:

that are present in the surroundings. Decompression is a serious concern during the

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significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade or more of exposure. A

564: 507: 122: 99: 6733: 5128: 4232:"Fluid-loading solutions and plasma volume: Astro-ade and salt tablets with water" 4128: 3717:"Modeling Normal Aging Bone Loss, with Consideration of Bone Loss in Osteoporosis" 2872: 2808: 1945:"Assessment of Jugular Venous Blood Flow Stasis and Thrombosis During Spaceflight" 896:, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in 253:

Some hazards are difficult to mitigate, such as weightlessness, also defined as a

6952: 6912: 6902: 6874: 6817: 6753: 6622: 6244: 6091: 5991: 5944: 5842: 5783: 5768: 5722: 5705: 5611: 5606: 4761:"Space Could Leave You Blind, And Scientists Say They've Finally Figured Out Why" 4474: 3876:"Training with the International Space Station interim resistive exercise device" 3841: 3498: 3362: 3358: 3096: 3002: 2915: 2742: 2104: 1493: 978: 576: 572: 519: 495: 358: 346: 20: 1599: 1050:

mass. In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back

6827: 6790: 6554: 6527: 6397: 6274: 6254: 6220: 6138: 6125: 6018: 5949: 5939: 5924: 5902: 5892: 5788: 5778: 5727: 5648: 5063:. (In Russian). Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia Publishing, 1987. Retrieved 01.21.2013 5014: 4332: 3404: 2760:. Argonne National Laboratory, Division of Educational Programs. Archived from 1363: 1351: 1239: 1031: 893: 868: 841: 808:

25-times brighter than any observed earlier, due to a massive, and unexpected,

490: 327: 258: 71: 59: 51: 47: 4231: 4076: 3733: 3716: 3206: 1437:

such as the ISS are currently being utilized to research some of these risks.

246:. It must also maintain temperature and pressure within acceptable limits and 7016: 6864: 6822: 6812: 6685: 6680: 6660: 6290: 6269: 6264: 6086: 6003: 5934: 5897: 5737: 5658: 5522: 5517: 5257: 5204: 4727: 4670: 4430: 4191: 4112: 4104: 3782: 1386: 1334: 1278: 1084: 1009: 933: 837: 829: 747: 709: 705: 697: 650: 638: 511: 462: 83: 5112: 4704:"A theory for why the spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome develops" 4598: 4406: 2856: 2655: 2607: 2365: 1883: 6957: 6881: 6807: 6765: 6738: 6670: 6612: 6549: 6143: 6078: 5747: 5732: 5433: 5428: 5344: 5323: 5265: 5212: 5031:

Flying with Strangers: Postmission Reflections of Multinational Space Crews

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Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight

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L.-F. Zhang. Vascular adaptation to microgravity: What have we learned?.

4336: 4306:"Brain Changes in Space Could Be Linked to Vision Problems in Astronauts" 2131: 2021:"Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI" 1825: 1741:

Human spaceflight’s new era is fraught with medical and ethical questions

1347: 1227: 905: 739: 686: 674: 646: 600: 547: 539: 318:, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions. 292: 269: 219: 199: 4077:

Musculoskeletal Modeling Component of the NASA Digital Astronaut Project

3378:

Shamei, Arian; Soskuthy, Marton; Stavness, Ian; Gick, Bryan (May 2023).

3238: 1755:

Ethical considerations for the age of non-governmental space exploration

729:

A video made by the crew of the International Space Station showing the

6869: 6775: 6259: 6105: 6013: 5956: 5916: 5710: 5411: 2252: 1757:. Nature Communications. June 11, 2024. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-44357-x 1282: 962: 929: 743: 701: 678: 634: 402: 390: 243: 223: 107: 3060: 2245:

The Extravehicular Mobility Unit: case study in requirements evolution

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which are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. During the

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Alexander, Robert; Macknik, Stephen; Martinez-Conde, Susana (2020).

2162: 1300: 1116: 733:, which is caused by high-energy particles in the space environment. 6295: 5171: 3476: 3307: 2980: 2925: 2583:

In a giant chamber with no air, all sorts of bad things can happen.

1921: 1830:"Scott Kelly Spent a Year in Orbit. His Body Is Not Quite the Same" 1338: 1308:, provide data on the long-term effects of space on the human body. 1002: 998: 990: 925: 913: 596: 559: 503: 382: 333: 191: 4921: 4701: 4272:"NASA Finds that Space Flight Impacts Astronauts' Eyes and Vision" 4074: 3472:"Spaceflight Promotes Biofilm Formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa" 3439:"Space flight shown to alter ability of bacteria to cause disease" 2127:"Dormant viruses activate during spaceflight -- NASA investigates" 1268: 26: 6189: 4509:"Astronauts' vision severely affected during long space missions" 3537: 1434: 1157: 1072: 1035: 977:

or SAS, commonly referred to as space sickness. It is related to

849: 755: 406: 364: 4039: 3037:"Cosmic radiation exposure and persistent cognitive dysfunction" 1087:

effects, the ISS is equipped with two treadmills (including the

1042:

A major effect of long-term weightlessness involves the loss of

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Altitude Decompression Sickness Susceptibility, MacPherson, G;

3873: 3223: 3123:"Important Research Results NASA Is Not Talking About (Update)" 1318: 1051: 1047: 986: 937: 853: 805: 369: 337: 5351: 4353: 820: 5309: 4647:"Effect of gravity and microgravity on intracranial pressure" 2568:"The Time a NASA Experiment Gone Wrong Almost Killed Someone" 2542:"Jim LeBlanc Survives Early Spacesuit Vacuum Test Gone Wrong" 1769:"Report: NASA needs better handle on health hazards for Mars" 1369: 1255: 1161: 1005:, and overall malaise. The first case of SAS was reported by 782: 751: 311: 239: 168: 118: 2917:

Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration

1855: 1656:"Year in space put US astronaut's disease defenses on alert" 840:

that can be inhabited for long periods of time, exposure to

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10.1667/0033-7587(2001)156[0460:SRACIA]2.0.CO;2

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10.1667/0033-7587(2001)156[0682:SRCRAU]2.0.CO;2

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Garrett-Bakeman, Francine E.; et al. (12 April 2019).

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combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion.

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Epidemiology data for low-linear energy transfer radiation

5227: 5010:"Astronauts at Work: The Social Relations of Space Travel" 4229: 3377: 3275:"The Strange, Deadly Effects Mars Would Have on Your Body" 2515: 1586:. Space Technology Library. Vol. 22. pp. 15–48. 661:

in astronauts. Outside the protection of low Earth orbit,

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was participating in a test to see how well a pressurized

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in 1660 to test the effect of a vacuum on a living system.

261:, changes in fluid distribution, and deterioration of the 5810: 4787:

A Tether-Based Variable-Gravity Research Facility Concept

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Survival in Space: Medical Problems of Manned Spaceflight

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Marshall-Goebel, Karina; et al. (13 November 2019).

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observes as a water bubble floats in front of him on the

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On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible

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Michael, Alex P.; Marshall-Bowman, Karina (2015-06-01).

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environment, and NASA found in a test that the smell of

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present further challenges to human spaceflight, as the

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Neergard, Lauran; Birenstein, Seth (15 February 2019).

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Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space

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Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space

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Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions

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Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight

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Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions

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Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight

291:-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into 4824: 4822: 3359:"The Human Touch: The History of the Skylab Program" 2891:"Data Point to Radiation Risk for Travelers to Mars" 863:, self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the 5001: 2633:(Second ed.). NASA. pp. 2–5. NASA SP-3006 2615: 1262: 932:and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. 502:Another effect from a vacuum is a condition called 5330: 4576: 4534:"Male Astronauts Return With Eye Problems (video)" 3111: 2730: 2588: 2323: 2321: 2163:"Physiological hazards of flight at high altitude" 2019:Roberts, Donna R.; et al. (2 November 2017). 1653: 1354:was forced to miss the birth of his second child. 1030:Aboard the International Space Station, astronaut 985:adapts to weightlessness. Symptoms of SAS include 66:). Other significant effects include a slowing of 4837:(Interview). Interviewed by Ross-Nazzal, Jennifer 4819: 4552: 4550: 4019:"Digital Astronaut Simulates Human Body in Space" 3714: 3268: 3266: 3264: 3085: 2559: 2289: 2242: 2161:Pilmanis, Andrew; William Sears (December 2003). 2018: 1448:may someday be capable of mitigating some risks. 1151:plays a bigger role in microgravity than on Earth 117:The engineering problems associated with leaving 7014: 6423:Radiobiology evidence for protons and HZE nuclei 4582: 4502: 4500: 4274:. American Academy of Ophthalmology. 2013-07-10. 4083: 2828: 2826: 2780: 2778: 2243:Jordan, N.C.; Saleh, J.H.; Newman, D.J. (2005). 1787: 1704: 1304:Studies of Russian cosmonauts, such as those on 1015: 6368:Adverse health effects from lunar dust exposure 4880: 4849: 4623:. Discovery News. 13 March 2012. 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Wilk; Lindi Cassel. 5007: 4835:NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project 4547: 3261: 1546: 1544: 1529:Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure 1218:Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure 6474: 6205: 5367: 4886: 4497: 4450: 4448: 3930: 3463: 3294: 2967: 2823: 2775: 2440:"What Happens To The Human Body In A Vacuum?" 2410: 2285: 2283: 2012: 1936: 1621: 1619: 6413:List of microorganisms tested in outer space 6342:National Space Biomedical Research Institute 4523: 4454: 4297: 4148:The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 3685: 3683: 3638: 3524: 3430: 2879: 2147: 2063: 1908: 1849: 1818: 1230:. This was noticed in 2012 in a study using 649:, cells heavily involved in maintaining the 182:In November 2019, researchers reported that 6373:Cardiac rhythm problems during space flight 5333:Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 5312:Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 5303:Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 5043:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4855: 4556: 4093:IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 3436: 3095:. SpaceRef. January 1, 2013. Archived from 2695: 2119: 2091: 1581: 1541: 1393: 1350:'s mother died in a car accident, and when 886:A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that 859:Short-term exposure to microgravity causes 714:the most powerful solar flare ever recorded 6481: 6467: 6408:Intervertebral disc damage and spaceflight 6212: 6198: 5374: 5360: 5060:A Year off of Earth: A Cosmonaut's Journal 4445: 4266: 4264: 4262: 2738:"Science: Triumph and Tragedy of Soyuz 11" 2458: 2456: 2280: 2236: 2233:NASA TP-2001-210196. 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The 453:, depicts an experiment performed by 375: 6438:Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis 6306:Medical treatment during spaceflight 4925:"Asthenia – Does It Exist in Space?" 4793:. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. 4758: 4506: 4284: 3552: 3272: 3205:Battersby, Stephen (21 March 2005). 3190:. NASA. 10 June 2005. Archived from 3171: 2784: 2629:. In James F.; West, Vita R (eds.). 2602:(Second ed.). NASA. p. 5. 2513: 2487: 2335:CB-1106. Retrieved 2012-09-23. 95 KB 2329:LPI "Advanced Two-System Space Suit" 1766: 1675: 1673: 1519:Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis 1489:Medical treatment during spaceflight 848:begin to change, and in some cases, 746:. As these cells are central to the 202:, including a mission to the planet 167:, while the other spent the year on 5162:G. Carmeliet, Vico. L, Bouillon R. 4973: 4829:Bourland, Charles T. 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High levels of radiation damage 633:Without the protection of Earth's 314:in humans may be activated during 152:reported medical results from the 14: 7044: 5168:. Vol 11(1–3) (pp 131–144), 2001. 4184:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.041050 3174:"Solar Flare Hits Earth and Mars" 2704:The Journal of Emergency Medicine 1767:Dunn, Marcia (October 29, 2015). 1670: 1626:Johnson, Doug (14 January 2022). 1444:and more complex bioregenerative 1083:To prevent some of these adverse 883:, and a loss of taste and smell. 815: 792:In September 2017, NASA reported 179:, after the twins were compared. 7000: 6974: 6642: 6488: 6173: 6163: 6162: 5296:10.1097/00006842-200111000-00002 5092: 5066: 5051: 5022: 4951:10.1097/00006842-200111000-00004 4915: 4906: 4797: 4777: 4360:Journal of Eye Movement Research 3301:Scott, Jim (30 September 2017). 3273:Fong, Kevin (12 February 2014). 3147:Buckey, Jay (23 February 2006). 2624:"Chapter 1) Barometric Pressure" 2488:Rose, Brent (17 November 2014). 1263:Additional physiological effects 898:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 481:and test subject Jim LeBlanc of 206:, according to the researchers. 135:NASA Office of Inspector General 5634:Space launch market competition 5381: 4752: 4720:10.1152/japplphysiol.00854.2021 4695: 4638: 4613: 4507:Puiu, Tibi (November 9, 2011). 4398: 4347: 4325: 4278: 4223: 4198: 4158: 4135: 4068: 4062:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.08.009 4033: 4011: 3984: 3964:Coulter, Dauna (16 June 2009). 3957: 3867: 3808: 3749: 3708: 3656: 3371: 3322: 3217: 3198: 3180: 3165: 3151:. Oxford University Press USA. 3028: 2942: 2908: 2750: 2668: 2438:Greene, Nick (6 October 2019). 2404: 2379: 2338: 2312:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.04.014 2210:Conkin, Johnny (January 2001). 2026:New England Journal of Medicine 1987: 1584:Space Psychology and Psychiatry 332:Space medicine is a developing 299:, may substantially damage the 6433:Renal stone formation in space 6403:Health threat from cosmic rays 5871:Health threat from cosmic rays 4811:. May 29, 2003. Archived from 4759:Crew, Bec (29 November 2016). 3172:Than, Ker (23 February 2006). 2889:Chang, Kenneth (30 May 2013). 2716:10.1016/j.jemermed.2006.05.031 1747: 1732: 1698: 1683:. Space Future. Archived from 1504:Renal stone formation in space 1469:Ionizing radiation#Spaceflight 961:floating free in orbit with a 804:, and were associated with an 667:health threat from cosmic rays 613:Health threat from cosmic rays 582: 86:. Additional symptoms include 1: 6337:Aerospace Medical Association 5159:. 91(6) (pp 2415–2430), 2001. 5156:Journal of Applied Physiology 5148:Space Physiology and Medicine 5008:Dickens, Peter (March 2017). 4708:Journal of Applied Physiology 4557:Space Staff (13 March 2012). 2809:10.1126/science.340.6136.1031 2622:Billings, Charles E. (1973). 2180:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15059-3 1744:, Science News, June 11, 2024 1707:"The Pleasure of Spaceflight" 1535: 1402: 1312: 1016:Bone and muscle deterioration 892:, a bacterium that can cause 796:on the surface of the planet 218:experienced by humans during 163:spent a year in space on the 4889:"Why You Can't Cry in Space" 4887:Garber, Megan (2013-01-14). 4475:10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021 4285:Love, Shayla (9 July 2016). 4208:. NASA. 2002. Archived from 4206:"When Space Makes You Dizzy" 3842:10.1371/journal.pone.0061372 3624:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00279-N 3581:10.1016/0273-1177(95)00280-R 3499:10.1371/journal.pone.0062437 3361:. In Mack, Pamela E. (ed.). 3227:Journal of Leukocyte Biology 3003:10.1371/journal.pone.0053275 2514:Pant, Anupum (23 May 2015). 2463:Harding, Richard M. (1989). 1509:Environmental control system 812:in the middle of the month. 771:energetic particle radiation 681:and accelerate the onset of 606: 494:for about 14 seconds before 307:, and age them prematurely. 194:problems while on board the 34:demonstrates the effects of 7: 5987:Self-replicating spacecraft 5823:International Space Station 5074:"Wide Awake in Outer Space" 4862:Air & Space/Smithsonian 4536:. CNN News. 9 February 2012 3188:"A new kind of solar storm" 2391:Goddard Space Flight Centre 1600:10.1007/978-1-4020-6770-9_2 1553:"Beings Not Made for Space" 1451: 1184:cosmic ray visual phenomena 1101:International Space Station 910:International Space Station 694:International Space Station 526:. Severe symptoms, such as 321: 196:International Space Station 165:International Space Station 10: 7049: 7033:Spaceflight health effects 5501:Space Liability Convention 4856:Pettit, Don (2012-05-04). 3561:Advances in Space Research 3405:10.1038/s41598-023-34854-w 2656:"Human Exposure to Vacuum" 2362:"Human Exposure to Vacuum" 1794:Staff (October 29, 2015). 1717:(1): 21–23. Archived from 1417:industrialisation of space 1368:The amount and quality of 1361: 1293: 1215: 1019: 947: 828:in weightless conditions. 610: 469:. In the vacuum of space, 435:Uncontrolled decompression 432: 415:extra-vehicular activities 356: 325: 295:, including travel to the 18: 6970: 6895: 6845: 6836: 6701: 6651: 6640: 6563: 6503: 6496: 6360: 6329: 6311:Space adaptation syndrome 6283: 6227: 6157: 6124: 6077: 6029: 5915: 5864:Space adaptation syndrome 5851: 5756: 5676: 5667: 5555: 5389: 4651:The Journal of Physiology 3357:Elder, Donald C. (1998). 2631:Bioastronautics Data Book 2600:Bioastronautics Data Book 1328: 1176: 975:space adaptation syndrome 950:Space adaptation syndrome 861:space adaptation syndrome 781:while traveling from the 428: 5597:Communications satellite 4105:10.1109/TBME.2007.901024 3783:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13361 3444:Arizona State University 1394:Duration of space travel 1357: 1249: 904:, reported that, during 836:Following the advent of 591:Exposure to the intense 528:loss of oxygen in tissue 301:gastrointestinal tissues 255:microgravity environment 216:environmental conditions 6101:reusable launch systems 5718:Extravehicular activity 5629:Commercial use of space 5533:Militarisation of space 5506:Registration Convention 5422:Accidents and incidents 5113:10.1080/001401398186991 4989:. April 11, 2016. 46-47 4599:10.1148/radiol.12111986 3734:10.1093/toxsci/55.1.171 2857:10.1126/science.1235989 2276:(subscription required) 1884:10.1126/science.aau8650 1206:vestibulo-ocular reflex 1166:orthostatic hypotension 967:Manned Maneuvering Unit 779:Mars Science Laboratory 769:based on the amount of 6981:Outer space portal 6321:Spaceflight osteopenia 6149:Mission control center 6111:Non-rocket spacelaunch 5545:Billionaire space race 5283:Psychosomatic Medicine 4929:Psychosomatic Medicine 4423:10.3357/amhp.4284.2015 4247:Cite journal requires 3995:. NASA. Archived from 3968:. NASA. Archived from 3941:. NASA. Archived from 3715:O'Flaherty EJ (2000). 3332:. NASA. Archived from 1997:. NASA. Archived from 1430:off-world colonization 1412: 1321:research stations and 1309: 1199: 1152: 1129: 1121: 1039: 1022:Spaceflight osteopenia 970: 889:Salmonella typhimurium 875:, and slow down their 833: 734: 630: 595:of direct, unfiltered 458: 451:Joseph Wright of Derby 395:decompression sickness 263:musculoskeletal system 64:spaceflight osteopenia 39: 6613:Extraterrestrial life 6352:Space Nursing Society 6250:Neuroscience in space 6240:Astronautical hygiene 5999:Spacecraft propulsion 5449:European Space Agency 4831:"Charles T. Bourland" 4373:10.16910/jemr.12.6.15 2546:Space Safety Magazine 2467:. London: Routledge. 2040:10.1056/NEJMoa1705129 1410: 1303: 1290:Psychological effects 1281:syndrome reported by 1224:intracranial pressure 1212:Intracranial pressure 1188: 1135: 1127: 1119: 1029: 957: 916:seem to adapt to the 877:cardiovascular system 846:physiological systems 823: 763:human mission to Mars 728: 620: 552:Space Shuttle program 442: 210:Physiological effects 143:human mission to Mars 133:In October 2015, the 68:cardiovascular system 29: 6284:Illness and injuries 5624:Satellite navigation 3451:on 14 September 2017 1681:"Health and Fitness" 1484:Mars Analog Habitats 1446:life support systems 1286:in space must face. 1172:Disruption of senses 1112:Fluid redistribution 981:, and arises as the 765:may involve a great 663:galactic cosmic rays 496:losing consciousness 487:space suit prototype 443:This 1768 painting, 411:sub-atomic particles 186:experienced serious 154:Astronaut Twin Study 88:fluid redistribution 38:on her hair in space 6009:Electric propulsion 5696:Life-support system 5580:Imagery and mapping 5540:Private spaceflight 5242:2001RadR..156..460C 5189:2001RadR..156..682C 4815:on January 7, 2008. 4291:The Washington Post 4054:2007AcAau..60..273W 3918:. ESA. 19 July 2004 3833:2013PLoSO...861372B 3774:1998PNAS...9513361R 3616:1995AdSpR..16h.105H 3573:1995AdSpR..16h.119D 3490:2013PLoSO...862437K 3396:2023NatSR..13.8231S 3239:10.1189/jlb.0309167 3121:(January 3, 2013). 3053:2016NatSR...634774P 2994:2012PLoSO...753275C 2849:2013Sci...340.1080Z 2801:2013Sci...340.1031K 2358:Landis, Geoffrey A. 2304:2006AcAau..59.1135J 1876:2019Sci...364.8650G 1753:A. Seylani et al., 1592:2008spp..book.....K 1479:Locomotion in space 1068:loss of bone tissue 1034:is attached to the 959:Bruce McCandless II 692:Crew living on the 683:Alzheimer's disease 540:lungs also collapse 532:circulatory failure 524:evaporative cooling 353:Ascent and re-entry 272:have been found in 232:life support system 82:and changes in the 30:American astronaut 6896:Other technologies 6347:Rubicon Foundation 6316:Space and survival 6235:Artificial gravity 5962:Robotic spacecraft 5888:Space and survival 5743:Space colonization 5639:Space architecture 5491:Outer Space Treaty 5230:Radiation Research 5176:Radiation Research 5080:. 4 September 2001 3945:on 4 December 2008 3758:"Bone Homeostasis" 3697:on October 6, 2001 3384:Scientific Reports 3194:on 11 August 2023. 2895:The New York Times 2677:Aerospace Medicine 2413:Aerospace Medicine 2253:10.1109/RE.2005.69 1870:(6436): eaau8650. 1835:The New York Times 1658:. Associated Press 1558:The New York Times 1514:Space colonization 1442:artificial gravity 1413: 1310: 1153: 1130: 1122: 1040: 971: 834: 824:Astronauts on the 735: 631: 569:Georgi Dobrovolski 479:aerospace engineer 477:In December 1966, 463:the air we breathe 459: 423:decompression risk 376:Space environments 148:On 12 April 2019, 80:eyesight disorders 40: 7023:Human spaceflight 6988: 6987: 6966: 6965: 6875:Carbonated drinks 6847:Human spaceflight 6727:of items in space 6638: 6637: 6456: 6455: 6187: 6186: 6134:Flight controller 5911: 5910: 5669:Human spaceflight 5644:Space exploration 5570:Earth observation 4912:The Body in Space 4099:(11): 1940–1950. 4042:Acta Astronautica 3999:on 21 August 2009 3972:on 15 August 2009 3756:Rodan GA (1998). 3158:978-0-19-513725-5 3061:10.1038/srep34774 2935:978-0-309-10264-3 2843:(6136): 1080–84. 2654:(7 August 2007). 2572:Popular Mechanics 2474:978-0-415-00253-0 2360:(7 August 2007). 2298:(12): 1135–1145. 2292:Acta Astronautica 2033:(18): 1746–1753. 1950:JAMA Network Open 1828:(12 April 2019). 1609:978-1-4020-6769-3 1038:with bungee cords 983:vestibular system 918:space environment 865:vestibular system 800:were temporarily 726: 544:respiratory tract 536:flaccid paralysis 405:from high energy 399:cellular mutation 336:that studies the 287:In October 2018, 139:space exploration 128:space exploration 104:sleep disturbance 76:balance disorders 7040: 7005: 7004: 7003: 6996: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6843: 6842: 6646: 6501: 6500: 6483: 6476: 6469: 6460: 6459: 6214: 6207: 6200: 6191: 6190: 6177: 6166: 6165: 5876:Space psychology 5701:Animals in space 5674: 5673: 5654:Space technology 5496:Rescue Agreement 5376: 5369: 5362: 5353: 5352: 5348: 5327: 5277: 5224: 5133: 5132: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5085: 5070: 5064: 5055: 5049: 5048: 5042: 5034: 5026: 5020: 5019: 5005: 4999: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4988: 4980: 4971: 4970: 4944: 4919: 4913: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4864:. Archived from 4853: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4842: 4826: 4817: 4816: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4792: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4756: 4750: 4749: 4739: 4714:(5): 1201–1203. 4699: 4693: 4692: 4682: 4663:10.1113/JP273557 4657:(6): 2115–2127. 4642: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4632: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4554: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4530: 4521: 4520: 4518: 4516: 4511:. zmescience.com 4504: 4495: 4494: 4452: 4443: 4442: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4385: 4375: 4351: 4345: 4344: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4268: 4257: 4256: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4235: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4218: 4217: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4162: 4156: 4155: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4072: 4066: 4065: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4015: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3993:"Do Tread on Me" 3988: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3934: 3928: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3912: 3906: 3905: 3895: 3871: 3865: 3864: 3854: 3844: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3795: 3785: 3768:(23): 13361–62. 3753: 3747: 3746: 3736: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3703: 3702: 3687: 3678: 3677: 3675: 3674: 3668: 3664:"Muscle Atrophy" 3660: 3654: 3653: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3556: 3550: 3549: 3547: 3545: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3511: 3501: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3447:. 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July 12, 1971. 2734: 2728: 2727: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2663: 2662: 2652:Landis, Geoffrey 2648: 2642: 2641: 2639: 2638: 2628: 2619: 2613: 2611: 2608:2060/19730006364 2595: 2586: 2585: 2580: 2578: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2537: 2531: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2502: 2500: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2460: 2451: 2450: 2448: 2447: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2399: 2398: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2374: 2373: 2354: 2348: 2342: 2336: 2325: 2316: 2315: 2287: 2278: 2277: 2274: 2240: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2229: 2223: 2217:. Archived from 2216: 2207: 2201: 2200: 2182: 2158: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2123: 2117: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2095: 2089: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2067: 2061: 2060: 2042: 2016: 2010: 2009: 2007: 2006: 1991: 1985: 1984: 1974: 1957:(11): e1915011. 1940: 1934: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1912: 1906: 1905: 1895: 1853: 1847: 1846: 1844: 1842: 1822: 1816: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1800: 1791: 1785: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1764: 1758: 1751: 1745: 1736: 1730: 1729: 1727: 1726: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1693: 1692: 1677: 1668: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1651: 1645: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1623: 1614: 1613: 1579: 1570: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1548: 1375:circadian rhythm 1373:disturbances in 1197: 1138:Clayton Anderson 940:of outer space. 881:distorted vision 873:aerobic capacity 794:radiation levels 773:detected by the 742:aberrations' in 731:Aurora Australis 727: 565:Vladislav Volkov 518:), known as the 334:medical practice 123:space propulsion 100:nasal congestion 74:(space anemia), 7048: 7047: 7043: 7042: 7041: 7039: 7038: 7037: 7013: 7012: 7011: 7001: 6999: 6991: 6989: 6984: 6975: 6973: 6962: 6891: 6832: 6697: 6647: 6634: 6559: 6492: 6487: 6457: 6452: 6356: 6325: 6279: 6245:Bioastronautics 6223: 6218: 6188: 6183: 6153: 6120: 6092:Escape velocity 6073: 6025: 5992:Space telescope 5945:Reentry capsule 5907: 5847: 5752: 5723:Overview effect 5706:Bioastronautics 5663: 5551: 5385: 5380: 5141: 5139:Further reading 5136: 5097: 5093: 5083: 5081: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5058:Ryumin, Valery 5056: 5052: 5036: 5035: 5027: 5023: 5006: 5002: 4992: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4981: 4974: 4942:10.1.1.537.9855 4920: 4916: 4911: 4907: 4897: 4895: 4885: 4881: 4871: 4869: 4854: 4850: 4840: 4838: 4827: 4820: 4803: 4802: 4798: 4790: 4782: 4778: 4769: 4767: 4757: 4753: 4700: 4696: 4643: 4639: 4630: 4628: 4619: 4618: 4614: 4581: 4577: 4567: 4565: 4555: 4548: 4539: 4537: 4532: 4531: 4524: 4514: 4512: 4505: 4498: 4469:(10): 2058–69. 4453: 4446: 4403: 4399: 4352: 4348: 4333:Kluger, Jeffrey 4330: 4326: 4316: 4314: 4302: 4298: 4283: 4279: 4270: 4269: 4260: 4248: 4246: 4237: 4236: 4228: 4224: 4215: 4213: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4163: 4159: 4140: 4136: 4088: 4084: 4073: 4069: 4038: 4034: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3989: 3985: 3975: 3973: 3962: 3958: 3948: 3946: 3935: 3931: 3921: 3919: 3914: 3913: 3909: 3886:(11): 1935–45. 3872: 3868: 3813: 3809: 3754: 3750: 3713: 3709: 3700: 3698: 3689: 3688: 3681: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3657: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3600: 3596: 3557: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3529: 3525: 3468: 3464: 3454: 3452: 3435: 3431: 3376: 3372: 3355: 3348: 3339: 3337: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3299: 3295: 3285: 3283: 3271: 3262: 3222: 3218: 3203: 3199: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3170: 3166: 3159: 3145: 3138: 3128: 3126: 3116: 3112: 3102: 3100: 3099:on May 21, 2020 3091: 3090: 3086: 3033: 3029: 2972: 2968: 2959: 2957: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2899: 2897: 2887: 2880: 2831: 2824: 2783: 2776: 2767: 2765: 2756: 2755: 2751: 2736: 2735: 2731: 2700: 2696: 2673: 2669: 2660: 2658: 2649: 2645: 2636: 2634: 2626: 2620: 2616: 2612:942 pages. 2610:. NASA SP-3006. 2596: 2589: 2576: 2574: 2564: 2560: 2550: 2548: 2538: 2534: 2524: 2522: 2512: 2508: 2498: 2496: 2486: 2482: 2475: 2461: 2454: 2445: 2443: 2436: 2432: 2409: 2405: 2396: 2394: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2371: 2369: 2355: 2351: 2343: 2339: 2326: 2319: 2288: 2281: 2275: 2263: 2241: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2214: 2208: 2204: 2159: 2148: 2138: 2136: 2135:. 15 March 2019 2125: 2124: 2120: 2110: 2108: 2105:The Independent 2096: 2092: 2082: 2080: 2068: 2064: 2017: 2013: 2004: 2002: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1941: 1937: 1927: 1925: 1913: 1909: 1854: 1850: 1840: 1838: 1823: 1819: 1809: 1807: 1798: 1792: 1788: 1778: 1776: 1765: 1761: 1752: 1748: 1737: 1733: 1724: 1722: 1703: 1699: 1690: 1688: 1679: 1678: 1671: 1661: 1659: 1652: 1648: 1638: 1636: 1624: 1617: 1610: 1580: 1573: 1563: 1561: 1549: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1494:Overview effect 1454: 1405: 1396: 1366: 1360: 1331: 1315: 1298: 1292: 1265: 1252: 1220: 1214: 1198: 1195: 1179: 1174: 1114: 1024: 1018: 979:motion sickness 952: 946: 944:Motion sickness 818: 719: 615: 609: 585: 573:Viktor Patsayev 520:Armstrong limit 437: 431: 378: 361: 359:High-G training 355: 330: 324: 276:who have taken 212: 121:and developing 72:red blood cells 24: 21:Bioastronautics 17: 12: 11: 5: 7046: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7028:Space medicine 7025: 7010: 7009: 6986: 6985: 6971: 6968: 6967: 6964: 6963: 6961: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6944: 6943: 6942: 6941: 6939:for spacecraft 6936: 6928: 6923: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6899: 6897: 6893: 6892: 6890: 6889: 6884: 6879: 6878: 6877: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6851: 6849: 6840: 6834: 6833: 6831: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6804: 6803: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6762: 6761: 6756: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6716: 6711: 6705: 6703: 6699: 6698: 6696: 6695: 6694: 6693: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6657: 6655: 6649: 6648: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6635: 6633: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6620: 6618:Microorganisms 6615: 6610: 6609: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6567: 6565: 6561: 6560: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6546: 6545: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6513:The human body 6509: 6507: 6498: 6494: 6493: 6486: 6485: 6478: 6471: 6463: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6398:Sleep in space 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6364: 6362: 6358: 6357: 6355: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6333: 6331: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6287: 6285: 6281: 6280: 6278: 6277: 6275:Weightlessness 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6255:Space exposure 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6231: 6229: 6225: 6224: 6221:Space medicine 6217: 6216: 6209: 6202: 6194: 6185: 6184: 6182: 6181: 6170: 6158: 6155: 6154: 6152: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6139:Ground station 6136: 6130: 6128: 6126:Ground segment 6122: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6094: 6089: 6083: 6081: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6059:Interplanetary 6056: 6055: 6054: 6052:Geosynchronous 6049: 6039: 6033: 6031: 6027: 6026: 6024: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6019:Gravity assist 6016: 6011: 6006: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5959: 5954: 5953: 5952: 5950:Service module 5947: 5942: 5940:Orbital module 5932: 5927: 5925:Launch vehicle 5921: 5919: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5905: 5903:Space sexology 5900: 5895: 5893:Space medicine 5890: 5885: 5884: 5883: 5873: 5868: 5867: 5866: 5855: 5853: 5849: 5848: 5846: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5819: 5818: 5808: 5803: 5802: 5801: 5796: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5760: 5758: 5754: 5753: 5751: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5728:Weightlessness 5725: 5720: 5715: 5714: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5693: 5692: 5691: 5680: 5678: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5649:Space research 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5594: 5593: 5592: 5587: 5585:Reconnaissance 5582: 5577: 5567: 5561: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5548: 5547: 5537: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5483: 5482: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5454:European Union 5451: 5446: 5441: 5431: 5426: 5425: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5399: 5393: 5391: 5387: 5386: 5379: 5378: 5371: 5364: 5356: 5350: 5349: 5328: 5307: 5298: 5278: 5236:(5): 460–466. 5225: 5183:(5): 682–688. 5169: 5160: 5151: 5145: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5107:(4): 537–559. 5091: 5065: 5050: 5021: 5015:Monthly Review 5000: 4972: 4914: 4905: 4879: 4848: 4818: 4796: 4776: 4751: 4694: 4637: 4612: 4593:(3): 819–827. 4575: 4546: 4522: 4496: 4444: 4417:(6): 557–562. 4397: 4346: 4324: 4296: 4277: 4258: 4249:|journal= 4222: 4197: 4178:(9): 729–738. 4157: 4134: 4082: 4067: 4032: 4029:on 3 May 2012. 4010: 3983: 3956: 3929: 3907: 3866: 3807: 3748: 3707: 3679: 3655: 3637: 3604:Adv. Space Res 3594: 3567:(8): 119–129. 3551: 3523: 3462: 3429: 3370: 3346: 3321: 3293: 3260: 3233:(5): 1027–38. 3216: 3197: 3179: 3164: 3157: 3136: 3110: 3084: 3027: 2988:(12): e53275. 2966: 2941: 2934: 2926:10.17226/11760 2907: 2878: 2822: 2795:(6136): 1031. 2774: 2749: 2729: 2694: 2667: 2643: 2614: 2587: 2558: 2532: 2506: 2480: 2473: 2452: 2430: 2403: 2393:). 3 June 1997 2378: 2349: 2337: 2317: 2279: 2261: 2235: 2202: 2146: 2118: 2090: 2062: 2011: 1986: 1935: 1907: 1848: 1817: 1786: 1759: 1746: 1731: 1697: 1669: 1646: 1615: 1608: 1571: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1404: 1401: 1395: 1392: 1364:Sleep in space 1362:Main article: 1359: 1356: 1352:Michael Fincke 1330: 1327: 1314: 1311: 1291: 1288: 1264: 1261: 1251: 1248: 1242:to the planet 1240:crewed mission 1216:Main article: 1213: 1210: 1193: 1178: 1175: 1173: 1170: 1142:Space Shuttle 1113: 1110: 1032:Frank De Winne 1020:Main article: 1017: 1014: 948:Main article: 945: 942: 934:Microorganisms 894:food poisoning 869:deconditioning 842:weightlessness 838:space stations 817: 816:Weightlessness 814: 789:in 2011–2012. 767:radiation risk 611:Main article: 608: 605: 584: 581: 577:descent module 530:, followed by 491:vacuum chamber 430: 427: 377: 374: 354: 351: 328:Space medicine 326:Main article: 323: 320: 316:space missions 278:trips in space 259:proprioception 211: 208: 141:, including a 90:(causing the " 52:muscle atrophy 48:weightlessness 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7045: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7020: 7018: 7008: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6983: 6982: 6969: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6908:Manufacturing 6906: 6904: 6901: 6900: 6898: 6894: 6888: 6885: 6883: 6880: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6848: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6835: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6719: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6700: 6692: 6689: 6688: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6681:Magnetosphere 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6656: 6654: 6650: 6645: 6629: 6626: 6625: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6562: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6506: 6502: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6484: 6479: 6477: 6472: 6470: 6465: 6464: 6461: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6330:Organizations 6328: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6291:Asthenization 6289: 6288: 6286: 6282: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6270:Space weather 6268: 6266: 6265:Space nursing 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6210: 6208: 6203: 6201: 6196: 6195: 6192: 6180: 6176: 6171: 6169: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6129: 6127: 6123: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6087:Direct ascent 6085: 6084: 6082: 6080: 6076: 6070: 6069:Intergalactic 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6028: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6004:Rocket engine 6002: 6001: 6000: 5997: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5964: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5937: 5936: 5935:Space capsule 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5922: 5920: 5918: 5914: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5898:Space nursing 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5865: 5862: 5861: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5854: 5852:Health issues 5850: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5817: 5814: 5813: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5806:Space Shuttle 5804: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5791: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5761: 5759: 5755: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5738:Space tourism 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5690: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5682: 5681: 5679: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5666: 5660: 5659:Space weather 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5598: 5595: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5546: 5543: 5542: 5541: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5526: 5524: 5523:Space command 5521: 5520: 5519: 5518:Space warfare 5516: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5492: 5489: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5480: 5479:United States 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5436: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5397:Astrodynamics 5395: 5394: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5377: 5372: 5370: 5365: 5363: 5358: 5357: 5354: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5318:(4): 434–43. 5317: 5313: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5170: 5167: 5166: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5152: 5149: 5146: 5143: 5142: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5062: 5061: 5054: 5046: 5040: 5032: 5025: 5017: 5016: 5011: 5004: 4985: 4979: 4977: 4968: 4964: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4935:(6): 874–80. 4934: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4909: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4868:on 2012-05-08 4867: 4863: 4859: 4858:"Toe Koozies" 4852: 4836: 4832: 4825: 4823: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4800: 4789: 4788: 4780: 4766: 4762: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4698: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4641: 4627:on 2012-04-27 4626: 4622: 4616: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4587: 4579: 4564: 4560: 4553: 4551: 4535: 4529: 4527: 4510: 4503: 4501: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4463: 4462:Ophthalmology 4458: 4451: 4449: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4343:. p. 44. 4342: 4338: 4334: 4328: 4313: 4312: 4307: 4300: 4292: 4288: 4281: 4273: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4254: 4241: 4233: 4226: 4212:on 2009-08-26 4211: 4207: 4201: 4193: 4189: 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