Focal-plane shutter

192: 380: 372: 563:

second curtain off a second drum after a clockwork escapement timed delay (imagine two overlapping window shades) and moving at one speed (technically, the curtains are still accelerating slightly) across the film gate. Faster shutter speeds are provided by timing the second shutter curtain to close sooner after the first curtain opens and narrowing the slit, wiping the film. Dual curtain FP shutters are self-capping; the curtains are designed to overlap as the shutter is cocked to prevent double exposure.

543: 204: 160: 596:

designs (one control axis for each curtain drum axis instead of one control for both drums). New compact and quieter Square designs were introduced in the 1970s. The most notable were the Copal Compact Shutter (CCS), introduced by the Konica Autoreflex TC in 1976, and the Seiko Metal Focal-Plane Compact (MFC), first used in the Pentax ME in 1977. The Leica Camera (originally E. Leitz) switched to a vertical metal FP shutter in 2006 for its first digital

22: 274: 567:

cameras is pre-tensioned to traverse the 36 millimeter wide film gate in 18 milliseconds (at 2 meters per second) and supports slit widths for a speed range of 1 to 1/1000 s. A minimum 2 mm wide slit produces a maximum 1/1000 s effective shutter speed. The dual curtain FP shutter has the same fast-speed distortion problems as the single curtain type. FP shutters were also common in medium-format

69:, uses two shutter curtains, made of opaque rubberised fabric, that run horizontally across the film plane. For slower shutter speeds, the first curtain opens (usually) from right to left, and after the required time with the shutter open, the second curtain closes the aperture in the same direction. When the shutter is cocked again the shutter curtains are moved back to their starting positions, ready to be released. 119: 78: 592:

along the minor axis of the 24×36 mm frame. As perfected in 1965 by Copal, the Copal Square's slit traversed the 24 mm high film gate in 7 ms (3.4 m/s). This doubled the flash X-sync speed to 1/125 s. In addition, a minimum 1.7 mm wide slit would double the top shutter speed to a maximum of 1/2000 s. Most Squares were derated to 1/1000 s in the interest of reliability.

579:(nominal; 18 ms = 1/55 s actual maximum; in reality, a 40 mm slit to allow for variance gives 1/50 s ⅓ stop slow). Some horizontal FP shutters exceeded these limits by narrowing the slit or increasing curtain velocity beyond the norm; however, these tended to be ultra-high-precision models used in expensive professional-level cameras. The first such shutter was to be found in the 363:(1938, US) half-frame 35 mm camera had a very large dome protruding out the top of the main body to accommodate its 1/1000 s rotary shutter. They also produce unusual distortion at very high speed because of the angular sweep of the exposure wipe. Bulk can be reduced by substituting blade sheaves for the plate, but then the rotary FP shutter essentially becomes a regular bladed FP shutter. 750:

digital cameras that, in the past, would have used focal-plane shutters. For example, the Panasonic Lumix DMC-G3 (2011, Japan) interchangeable lens digital camera has an FP shutter, but in its 20 frames per second SH Burst mode, it locks its mechanical shutter open and electronically scans its digital sensor, although with a reduced resolution of 4 megapixels from 16 MP.

478:-like device—a wooden panel with a slit cutout mounted on rails in front of the camera lens that gravity dropped at a controlled rate. As the slit passed the lens, it "wiped" the exposure onto the photographic plate. With rubber bands to increase the drop speed, a 1/500 or 1/1000 s shutter speed could be reached. 411:, these cameras have a medium-wide lens encapsulated in a drum with a rear vertical slit. As the entire drum is horizontally pivoted on the lens's rear nodal point, the slit wipes an extra-wide-aspect image onto film held against a curved focal plane. The Widelux produced a 140° wide image in a 24×59 mm frame on 624:

1/200 s flash X-sync speed. It also has a distortionless top speed of up to 1/4000 s (with a 1.7 mm slit). The Nikon FE2 (Japan) had a 3.3 ms (at 7.3 m/s) curtain travel time and an X-sync speed of 1/250 s in 1983. The top speed remained 1/4000 s (with a 1.8 mm slit).

650:

A parallel development to faster speed FP shutters was electronic shutter control. In 1966, the VEB Pentacon Praktica electronic (East Germany) was the first SLR with an electronically controlled FP shutter. It used electronic circuitry to time its shutter instead of the traditional spring/gear/lever

445:

These cameras are often used for photographing large groups of people (e.g., the 'school' photograph). The subjects may be arranged in a shortened semicircle with the camera at the centre such that all the subjects are the same distance from the camera and facing the camera. Once the exposure is made

143:

The first shutter curtain continues to travel across the frame aperture followed by the second curtain. It would be pointless to use an electronic flash with this shutter speed as the short duration flash would expose only a very small amount of the frame as the rest is covered by either the first or

595:

Squares came from the supplier as complete drop-in modules. Square-type FP shutters were originally bulky in size and noisy in operation, limiting their popularity in the 1960s. Although Konica and Nikkormat and Topcon (D-1) were major users of the Copal Square. It moved from three-axis to four-axis

566:

Although self-capping dual curtain FP shutters date back to the late 19th century, the Leica design made them popular and virtually all FP shutters introduced since 1925 are dual curtain models. As revised in the 1954 Leica M3 (West Germany), a typical Leica-type horizontal FP shutter for 35 mm

351:

is common in film and movie cameras, but rare in still cameras. These spin a round metal plate with a sector cutout in front of the film. In theory, rotary shutters can control their speeds by narrowing or widening the sector cutout (by using two overlapping plates and varying the overlap) and/or by

683:

139 Quartz (Japan) introduced digital piezoelectric quartz (shortly followed by ceramic) oscillator circuits (ultimately under digital microprocessor control) to time and sequence its entire exposure cycle, including its vertical FP shutter. Electric "coreless" micromotors, with near instantaneous

664:

stop too slow, even in ultra-high-quality models. Spring powered geartrains reliably time any higher accelerations and shocks. For example, some highly tensioned FP shutters could suffer from "shutter curtain bounce". If the curtains are not properly braked after crossing the film gate, they might

591:

In 1960, the Konica F (Japan) 35 mm SLR began a long term incremental increase in maximum shutter speeds with its "High Synchro" FP shutter. This shutter greatly improved efficiency over the typical Leica shutter by using stronger metal blade sheaves that were "fanned" much faster, vertically

574:

Horizontal cloth FP shutters are normally limited to 1/1000 s maximum speed because of the difficulties in precisely timing extremely narrow slits and the unacceptable distortion resulting from a relatively slow wipe speed. Their maximum flash synchronization speed is also limited because the

501:

invented a type of focal plane shutter camera in 1889 that achieved shutter speeds of 1/2000 second, and exhibited numerous stop-action photographs. A drop shutter-like mechanism with an adjustable slit was used at the focal plane of an apparently one-off William England camera in 1861 and this is

749:

In the last few years, digital point-and-shoot cameras have been using timed electronic sampling of the image sensor, replacing the traditional mechanical leaf shutter with delicate moving parts that can wear out, used by film-based point-and-shoot units. Something similar is also occurring with

741:

However, with very limited need for such extremely fast speeds, FP shutters retreated to 1/8000 s in 2003 (and 1/250 s X-sync in 2006)—even in professional level cameras. In addition, since no specialised timers are needed for extremely slow speeds, the slowest speed setting is usually

562:

camera was introduced with a dual-cloth-curtain, horizontal-travelling-slit, focal-plane shutter. A dual curtain FP shutter does not have precut slits and the spring tension is not adjustable. The exposure slit is formed by drawing open the first curtain onto one drum and then pulling closed the

698:

Electronics are also responsible for pushing the focal-plane shutter's X-sync speed beyond its mechanical limits. A horizontal FP shutter for 35 mm cameras is fully open and usable only for flash exposure up to 1/60 s, while vertical FP shutters are usually limited to 1/125 s. At

505:

If the lens on a single curtain FP shutter camera has its lens cap off when the shutter is cocked, the film will be double exposed when the blind's cutout re-passes the film gate. A camera-mounted FP shutter can use a very narrow slit to have a 1/1000 second shutter speed—although the available

259:

For a horizontal Leica-type FP shutter, the image is stretched if the object moves in the same direction as the shutter curtains, and compressed if travelling in the opposite direction of them. For a downward-firing vertical Square-type FP shutter, the top of the image leans forward. The use of

109:

Faster shutter speeds are achieved by the second curtain closing before the first one has fully opened; this results in a vertical slit that travels horizontally across the film. Faster shutter speeds simply require a narrower slit, as the speed of travel of the shutter curtains is not normally

465:

However, during the 19th century, as one increased-sensitivity process replaced another and larger aperture lenses became available, exposure times shortened to seconds and then to fractions of a second. Exposure timing control mechanisms became a necessary accessory and then a standard camera

441:

where the image center seems to bulge toward the viewer, while the periphery appears to curve away because the lens's field of view changes as it swivels. This distortion will disappear if the photograph is mounted on a circularly curved support and viewed with the eye at the center. Revolving

623:

Copal collaborated with Nippon Kogaku to change the Compact Square shutter for the Nikon FM2 (Japan) of 1982 to using a honeycomb pattern-etched titanium foil for its blade sheaves. This permitted cutting shutter-curtain travel time by nearly half to 3.6 ms (at 6.7 m/s) and allowed

695:(both Japan) reached 240 s in 1983. The Pentax LX (Japan, 1980) and Canon New F-1 (Japan, 1981) had hybrid electromechanical FP shutters that timed their fast speeds mechanically, but used electronics only to extend the slow speed range; the LX to 125 s and the F-1N to 8 s. 651:

clockwork mechanisms. In 1971, the Asahi Pentax Electro Spotmatic (Japan; name shortened to Asahi Pentax ES in 1972; called Honeywell Pentax ES in US) tied its electronically controlled shutter to its exposure control light meter to provide electronic aperture-priority autoexposure.

703:

T (Japan) introduced a system that could synchronize an Olympus F280 Full Synchro electronic flash to pulse its light at a 20 kilohertz rate for up to 40 ms to illuminate its horizontal FP shutter's slit as it crossed the entire film gate—in effect, simulating long-burn FP

231:

that are slower than the typical leaf shutter's 1/500 s, because the first curtain has to open fully and the second curtain must not start to close until the flash has fired. In other words, the very narrow slits of fast speeds will not be properly flash exposed.

150:

The first shutter curtain finishes moving, followed closely by the second curtain which is now covering the frame aperture completely. When the shutter is recocked both shutter curtains are wound back to the right-hand side ready for the next exposure.

604:(Germany) 35 mm RF camera of 1932 had a vertical travel FP shutter with dual brass-slatted roller blinds with adjustable spring tension and slit width and a top speed of 1/1000 s (the Contax II of 1936 had a claimed 1/1250 s top speed). 708:—allowing flash exposure at shutter speeds as fast as 1/2000 s. There is a concomitant loss of flash range. Extended "FP flash" sync speeds began appearing in many high-end 35 mm SLRs in the mid-1990s, and reached 1/12,000 s in the 255:

article. A large relative difference between a slow wipe speed and a narrow curtain slit results in distortion because one side of the frame is exposed at a noticeably later instant than the other and the object's interim movement is imaged.

684:

on/off capability and relatively high power for their size, would drive both curtains and other camera systems replacing springs in the late 1980s. Minimizing mechanical moving parts also helped to prevent inertial shock vibration problems.

105:

This is a graphical representation only; the actual mechanisms are much more complex. For example, the shutter curtains actually roll on and off spools at either side of the frame aperture so as to use as little space as possible.

1584:

Jason Schneider, "The Camera Collector: Zeiss-Ikon's answer to the Leica was the Contax, a camera praised and damned for its brilliantly complex design". pp. 18, 22–23, 150. Modern Photography, Volume 48, Number 10; October 1984.

101:

After the required amount of exposure the second shutter curtain moves to the left to cover the frame aperture. When the shutter is recocked the shutter curtains are wound back to the right-hand side ready for the next exposure.

742:

30 s. Instead, over the last twenty years, most effort has gone into improving durability and reliability. Whereas the best mechanically controlled shutters were rated for 150,000 cycles and had an accuracy of ±¼ stop from

506:

contemporaneous ISO 1 to 3 equivalent speed emulsions limited the opportunities to use the high speeds. Folmer and Schwing (US) were the most famous proponents of single curtain FP shutters, with their large format sheet film

136:

The first shutter curtain begins to move to the left allowing the exposure to be made. Because the exposure requires a very fast shutter speed, the second curtain begins to move across at a set distance from the first one.

631:(named Dynax 9xi in Europe, α-9xi in Japan) in 1992. It provided a maximum 1/12,000 s (with 1.1 mm slit) and 1/300 s X-sync. A later version of this shutter, spec'ed for 100,000 actuations, was used in the 738:. The D1 used electronic assist from its sensor for the 1/16,000 s speed and its 15.6×23.7 mm "APS-size" sensor was smaller than 35 mm film and therefore easier to cross quickly for 1/500 s X-sync. 129:

The black rectangle represents the frame aperture through which the exposure is made. It is currently covered by the first shutter curtain, shown in red. The second shutter curtain shown in green is on the right side.

88:

338:

can be employed as shutters. While not commonly used, they avoid the problems associated with travelling-curtain shutters such as flash synchronisation limitations and image distortions when the object is moving.

171:

cameras now use vertical travel metal blade shutters. These work in the same way as the horizontal shutters, with a shorter distance for the shutter blades to travel, only 24 mm as opposed to 36 mm.

260:

leaning to give the impression of speed in illustration is a caricature of the distortion caused by the slow-wiping vertical FP shutters of large format cameras from the first half of the 20th century.

687:

A spring-wound clockwork escapement must completely unwind fairly quickly and limit the longest speed—generally to one full second, although the Kine Exakta (Germany) offered 12 s in 1936. The

219:

While the concept of a travelling slit shutter is simple, a modern FP shutter is a computerised microsecond accurate timer, governing sub-gram masses of exotic materials, subjected to hundreds of

1904:. Camera borchure (German), 20 pages, 1. and 2. edition, Minolta Co., Ltd. / Minolta GmbH, Osaka / Ahrensburg, Minolta article code 9242-2098-3Z (1. edition) and 9242-2098-3Z/2.99 (2. edition). 2383:

Philip Ryan, "Lab: ILC Test: Panasonic LUMIX DMC-G3: Tiny Terror: Good Things Come In Panasonic's Small Package", pp. 72, 74, 76, 100. Popular Photography, Volume 75 Number 8; August 2011.

482:

used shutters of this type in his trotting horse studies. By the 1880s, lens front-mounted accessory shutter boxes were available, containing a rubberised silk cloth curtain (also called a

486:) with one or more width slit cutouts wound around two parallel drums and using springs to pull a slit from one drum to the other. The spring tension and the slit width can be adjusted. 493:(Germany) patented a camera with an internal roller blind shutter mechanism, just in front of the photographic plate. Thus, the focal-plane shutter in its modern form was created. 1709:

Herbert Keppler, "Keppler on the SLR: Pentax sets out to knock off Canon and Olympus with smallest SLR's ever – Rollei's unbelievable SL2000" pp. 55–57, 186, 208, 212-214, 230.

1785:

Jason Schneider, "The Camera Collector: Zeiss-Ikon's answer to the Leica was the Contax, a camera praised and damned for its brilliantly complex design". pp. 18, 22–23, 150.

627:

The fastest focal-plane shutter ever used in a film camera was the 1.8 ms curtain travel time (at 13.3 m/s) duralumin and carbon fiber bladed one introduced by the

235:

The fastest X-sync speed on a 35 mm camera is traditionally 1/60 s for horizontal Leica-type FP shutters and 1/125 s for vertical Square-type FP shutters.

462:

meant that exposure times were measured in many minutes. A photographer could easily control exposure time by removing and returning the camera lens' lens cap or plug.

676:

controlled by analogue resistor/capacitor timers were used to govern the release of the second shutter curtain (though still operated by spring power). In 1979, the

95:

The first shutter curtain moves fully to the left allowing the exposure to be made. At this point, the flash is made to fire if one is attached and ready to do so.

446:

and processed, the panoramic print shows everyone in a straight line facing in the same direction. The distortion present in the background betrays the technique.

223:

acceleration, moving with micron precision, choreographed with other camera systems for 100,000+ cycles. This is why FP shutters are seldom seen in compact or

969:

Peter Kolonia, "The War Continues: 35 mm Vs. 2¼: Does moving to 2¼ from 35 mm really pay back in quality what you lose in convenience?" pp. 76–83.

1522:

Jason Schneider, "The Camera Collector: You can't beat the system. Leitz knew that over 50 years ago, and proceeded to give us the world's first 'system 35.

583:, released in February 1960. Called the Hi-Synchro, this shutter reached a speed of 1/2000 s and made possible flash synchronization at 1/125 s. 347:

Besides the horizontal Leica and vertical Square FP shutters, other types of FP shutters exist. The most prominent is the rotary or sector FP shutter. The

1302:

Dan Richards, "Hands On: Noblex ProSport: Can a serious panoramist find happiness with a sub-$ 1000 camera? Does the Noblex lens swivel?" pp. 48, 50, 58.

442:

shutters that do not rotate smoothly may create uneven exposure that will result in vertical banding in the image. Using the flash will also interfere.

2257:

Bob Schwalberg, "Flash: The Light Fantastic: Special Effects Flash: The standard synchronized flash shot may now be an endangered species". pp. 75–77.

426:(1981, US) cameras, the entire camera and lens revolved as the film was pulled past the slit in the opposite direction. The Globuscope produced a 360° 510:

single-lens reflex and Graphic press cameras using them from 1905 to 1973. Their most common 4×5 inch shutters had four slit widths ranging from

1088:

Jason Schneider, "The Camera Collector: Half-frame 35's of the 60's, Part 3. Wherein collectors immortalize the only SLRs of their kind" pp. 64, 75.

612:

Although the Square shutter improved the FP shutter, it still limited maximum flash X-sync speed to 1/125 s (unless using special long-burn FP

2278:

Anonymous. "Popular Photography: 41 1996 Top 35 mm Cameras Star Rated" pp 59, 61-92. Popular Photography, Volume 59 Number 12; December 1995.

2341:

McNamara, Michael J. "New Frontiers: Nikon's D1: Has the perfect digital SLR arrived, or is it just a glimpse of what's to come?" pp. 50, 52, 54.

1806:

Jason Schneider, "The Camera Collector: The Contax saga, Part II. The world's best rangefinder made it the pro 35 of the 30s". pp. 44–45, 62–63.

184:

built into it. Their fastest speeds are either 1/4000 second, 1/8000 second, or 1/12000 second; much higher than the 1/500 second of the typical

1547:

Anonymous, "Test: Leica 0-series: What's it like to shoot with a 1923 Leica replica? Inconvenient as hell—and lots of fun!" pp. 86–90, 208-209.

1326: 352:

spinning the plate faster or slower. However, most cameras' rotary shutters have fixed cutouts and can be varied in their spinning speed. The

180:

Focal-plane shutters can be built into the body of a camera that accepts interchangeable lenses, eliminating the need for each lens to have a

215:

strike that occurred during the exposure. A similar effect occurs if an electronic flash is used when the shutter is set faster than X-sync.

359:

Semicircular rotary shutters have unlimited X-sync speed, but all rotary FP shutters have the bulk required for the plate spin. The

775: 1879:

Anonymous, "Popular Photography: Test: Minolta Maxxum 9xi: It's awesome. It's top of the line. But is it a real pro?" pp. 48–56.

163:

Vertical-travel focal-plane shutter firing at 1/500 of a second—the gap between the curtains is clearly visible near the bottom.

458:, invented in 1839, did not have shutters, because the lack of sensitivity of the process and the small apertures of available 249:

Focal-plane shutters may also produce image distortion of very fast-moving objects or when panned rapidly, as described in the

1453: 1432: 642:(named Dynax 9 in Europe, α-9 in Japan) in 1998 and Minolta Maxxum 9Ti (named Dynax 9Ti in Europe, α-9Ti in Japan) in 1999. 719:(Japan; called Dynax 9 in Europe, Alpha 9 in Japan) of 1998. They are still offered in some digital SLRs to 1/8000 s. 356:

and Pen FT (1963 and 1966, both from Japan) half-frame 35 mm SLRs spun a semicircular titanium plate to 1/500 s.

295: 1602:

Jason Schneider, "The Camera Collector: I'm still no Leica collector, but the best of 'em exemplify 'form follows function

2295:

Anonymous. "Test: Minolta Maxxum 9: Does this claimed professional-level camera really make the grade?" pp. 84–91, 130.

699:

higher speeds, a normal 1 millisecond electronic flash burst would expose only the part open to the slit. In 1986, the

191: 1730:

Norman Goldberg, Michele Frank and Leif Ericksenn. "Lab Report: Konica Autoreflex TC" pp. 118–121, 140–141, 173, 191.

2140: 2012: 1944: 1675: 1636: 1513:. Sixth Edition (since 1927), 1964 reprint. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1962. no ISBN. pp. 111–113. 1402: 1360: 1163: 1118: 1037: 1016: 936: 839: 735: 321: 906:

Anonymous. "Test: Nikon F5: Simply the quickest shooting, most advanced, safety-loaded pro AF SLR ever". pp. 70–79.

303: 1290: 575:

slit is fully open only to the film gate (36 mm wide or wider) and able to be flash exposed up to 1/60 s

2075:

Anonymous. "Modern Tests: Nikon N8008: A High Performance, Ultra Controllable SLR" pp. 58–64, 102, 108, 112, 122.

1755:

Smallest 35 mm SLR: Fully Automatic Only" pp. 115–121. Modern Photography, Volume 41, Number 4; April 1977.

2407: 665:

crash and bounce; reopening the shutter and causing double exposure ghosting bands on the image edge. Even the

415:

with a Lux 26 mm f/2.8 lens and controlled shutter speed by varying rotation speed on a fixed slit width.

299: 654:

The traditional 1/1000 s and 1/2000 s top speeds of horizontal and vertical FP shutters are often

199:

race car. The distortion is caused by a shutter wiping downward in the focal plane (upward in the scene).

1926:. Hove Collectors Book. Susan Chalkley, translator. Hove, Sussex, UK: Hove Foto Books, 1991. pp. 74–77. 948:

Michael J. McNamara, "Test: Nikon D3: Best Ever: Believe the buzz. It's all true. Really". pp. 80–83.

498: 2286:. (Canon EOS Elan IIE, p 63; Minolta Maxxum 700si, p. 64; Nikon N90S, p. 68; Sigma SA-300N, p. 71.) 731:

Focal-plane shutter top speed peaked at 1/16,000 s (and 1/500 s X-sync) in 1999 with the

334:

Instead of using relatively slow-moving mechanical shutter curtains, electro-optic devices such as

284: 1353:

Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital Imaging, Theory and Applications, History, and Science

1179:. Revised Desk Edition, 1973 reprint. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969. no ISBN. p. 1048. 288: 2388: 2371: 2350: 2283: 2266: 2245: 2224: 2203: 2182: 2161: 2084: 2050: 1965: 1888: 1867: 1815: 1794: 1760: 1739: 1718: 1615: 1590: 1556: 1535: 1260: 1239: 1218: 1197: 1142: 1097: 978: 957: 915: 894: 873: 2236:

Anonymous. "Modern Tests: Olympus OM-4T: More Than Just A Titanium Armored SLR" pp. 46–50, 78.

743: 196: 62: 38: 2152:

Anonymous, "Modern Tests: Olympus OM-2: Unique Auto SLR Is In Tiniest Package" pp. 104–108.

1316: 669:'s ultra-high precision shutter suffered from this as an early production teething problem. 1066:. Life Library of Photography. New York City: Time-Life Books, 1970. No ISBN. pp. 162-–163. 474:

The earliest manufactured shutter was the drop shutter of the 1870s. This was an accessory

8: 2173:

Anonymous, "Modern Tests: Olympus OM-4 Has Multiple Spot, LCD Panel Metering" pp. 78–86.

2005:

Nikon Classic Cameras, Volume II; F2, FM, EM, FG, N2000 (F-301), N2020 (F-501), EL series

1465:

Elton W. Hall, Francis Blake: An Inventor's Life, Massachusetts Historical Society, 2004.

1321: 438: 348: 2362:

Anonymous, "Modern Tests: Nikon F3: Successor to Nikon F2 and F" pp. 112–121, 124, 128.

490: 434:

with a 25 mm lens and had an adjustable slit width with a constant rotation speed.

375:

Back inside view of Widelux F7 panoramic camera, where the slit shutter goes by the film

1994:. New York, NY: American Photographic Book Publishing Co., Inc. (Amphoto), 1962. p. 47. 714: 637: 597: 479: 168: 387:

The revolving drum is an unusual FP shutter that has been used in several specialised

2384: 2367: 2346: 2279: 2262: 2241: 2220: 2199: 2178: 2157: 2136: 2080: 2046: 2008: 1961: 1940: 1884: 1863: 1858:

Anonymous. "Modern Tests: Nikon FE2 Adds Superfast Shutter And Much More" pp. 86–92.

1811: 1790: 1756: 1735: 1714: 1671: 1632: 1611: 1586: 1552: 1531: 1449: 1428: 1398: 1356: 1256: 1235: 1214: 1193: 1188:

Anonymous. "Modern Photography's Annual Guide to 47 Top Cameras: Widelux F-7" p 158.

1159: 1138: 1114: 1093: 1033: 1012: 974: 953: 932: 911: 890: 869: 835: 705: 459: 396: 46: 691:'s electronically timed horizontal FP shutter could reach 60 s in 1975 and the 497:

manufactured the Anschütz Camera as the first production FP shutter camera in 1890.

379: 1011:) Sixth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Chilton Book Company/Focal Press Limited, 1971. 709: 632: 388: 371: 494: 419: 404: 251: 244: 224: 208: 181: 2007:. First Edition. Magic Lantern Guides. Rochester, NY: Silver Pixel Press, 1996. 1291:

http://www.shutterbug.com/equipmentreviews/35mm_cameras/0106panoramic/index.html

1230:

John Owens, "Whirled Tour: Lessons from an all-around photographer", pp. 12–13.

864:

Anonymous, "Modern Tests: Nikon FM2: Fastest Shutter and Sync" pp. 98–101, 112.

771: 1668:

The Register of 35 mm Single Lens Reflex Cameras: From 1936 to the Present

534:

inch and up to six spring tensions for a speed range of 1/10 to 1/1000 second.

423: 360: 2194:

Anonymous, "Modern Tests: Pentax LX: New Challenge To Nikon" pp. 92–100, 144.

2401: 673: 455: 427: 408: 353: 542: 203: 1209:"Modern Photography's Annual Guide '84: 48 Top Cameras: Widelux F7" p 118. 720: 700: 692: 688: 617: 555: 400: 335: 185: 66: 50: 2215:

Anonymous. "Modern Tests: Canon's New F-1: A Versatile 'Pro'" pp. 98–109.

1670:. Second Edition. Hückelhoven, Germany: Rita Wittig Fachbuchverlag, 1993. 1285:

Roger W. Hicks, "Panoramic Cameras; Gear To Help You Get The Wide View",

628: 159: 42: 1939:. Watford, Hertfordshire, UK: Fountain Press/Argus Books Limited, 1979. 1251:

Harold Martin, "Time Exposure: 25 Years Ago: Cover: July 1981", p. 112.

616:

that burn throughout the slit wipe, making slit width irrelevant). Some

613: 475: 21: 1752: 1487:. Rochester, NY: Folmer Graflex Corporation, 1931. no ISBN pp 2, 4–5. 1355:. Fourth Edition. Boston, Massachusetts: Focal Press/Elsevier, 2007. 1032:. Third Edition. Garden City, NY: Amphoto/Focal Press Limited, 1973. 212: 273: 732: 666: 580: 568: 559: 431: 412: 2135:. First Paperback Edition. New York, NY: Thames and Hudson, 1997. 1774:

Leica M System: The fascination of the moment – analog and digital

25:

A focal-plane shutter. The metal shutter blades travel vertically.

1133:

Norman Goldberg, "3 new shutters: how they work" pp. 74–77, 124.

677: 507: 392: 220: 1496:

Thomas Evans, "The Early Graflex Focal Plane Shutter", pp. 1–3.

1448:. Lewes, East Sussex, UK: Photographers' Institute Press, 2009. 645: 118: 77: 2038: 1111:

The History of Photography as Seen Through the Spira Collection

680: 620:

from the 1960s could achieve at least 1/500 s flash sync.

601: 586: 576: 228: 1425:

Camera: A History of Photography From Daguerreotype to Digital

537: 2327: 2307: 2305: 1109:

S. F. Spira with Eaton S. Lothrop, Jr and Jonathan R. Spira.

816: 547: 1129: 1127: 931:. Fifth Edition. London, UK: Focal Press/Butterworth, 1986. 383:

Front view of the Widelux showing the rotating lens cylinder

2322: 2320: 2302: 1380: 1378: 1338: 1336: 399:(1968, Soviet Union). Instead of using an extremely short 227:

cameras. In addition, the typical focal-plane shutter has

1924:

Asahi Pentax and Pentax SLR 35 mm Cameras: 1952–1989

1124: 65:

in 35 mm cameras, pioneered by Leitz for use in its

885:

Tony Gioia, "SLR Notebook: Window on a Shutter". p. 32.

792:. no city of publication: Pentax Corp., 2008. pp. 33–34. 2317: 1894: 1375: 1333: 1567: 1565: 1427:. New York, NY: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., 2009. 1175:

Kraszna-Krausz, A.; chairman of the editorial board,

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Mechanism that controls the exposure time in cameras

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The Collector's Guide to Classic Cameras: 1945–1985

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Graflex and Graphic Focal Plane Shutter Photography

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The Collector's Guide to Classic Cameras: 1945–1985

72: 1992:124 Ways You Can Test Cameras Lenses And Equipment 1474:Lothrop & Schneider, "The SLR: Part 1", p. 43. 819:Digital SLR Comparison Guide: Fall Collection 2008 437:Revolving FP shutters produce images with unusual 2399: 1776:. Solms, Germany: Leica Camera, 2006. pp. 62–63. 805:. Lake Success, NY: Canon USA, 2008. pp. 18–20. 41:that is positioned immediately in front of the 2103: 45:of the camera, that is, right in front of the 1397:. New York, NY: Crown Publishers Inc., 1984. 1030:Basic Photography: A Primer for Professionals 726: 646:Electronically controlled focal-plane shutter 502:considered the first FP shutter of any kind. 342: 1062:Robert G. Mason and Norman Snyder; editors. 832:Camera Technology: The Dark Side of the Lens 587:Square-type metal-bladed focal-plane shutter 2041:: Compact And Impressive SLR" pp. 108–113. 746:(more typically 50,000 cycles at ±½ stop). 538:Leica-type dual-curtain focal-plane shutter 302:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 263: 154: 1678:. pp. 30–31, 47, 68-69, 121–126, 173–174. 1500:, Volume 13 Issue 2; Second Quarter 2008. 607: 600:(RF) camera, the Leica M8 (Germany). The 322:Learn how and when to remove this message 1511:Photography: Its Materials and Processes 821:. Melville, NY: Nikon Inc., 2008. p. 10. 723:cameras are not affected by this issue. 541: 378: 370: 202: 190: 158: 117: 76: 20: 1810:, Volume 48, Number 11; November 1984. 1713:, Volume 40, Number 12; December 1976. 1213:, Volume 47, Number 12; December 1983. 1192:, Volume 38, Number 12; December 1974. 868:, Volume 46, Number 9; September 1982. 834:. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1992. 56: 2400: 1956:Anonymous. "Too Hot to Handle" p. 74. 1883:, Volume 100 Number 2; February 1993. 1862:, Volume 47, Number 10; October 1983. 1849:"Modern Tests: Nikon FM2" pp. 98, 101. 1789:, Volume 48, Number 10; October 1984. 1610:, Volume 47, Number 10; October 1983. 1551:, Volume 65 Number 9; September 2001. 1234:, Volume 72 Number 9; September 2008. 1092:, Volume 39, Number 2; February 1975. 973:, Volume 59 Number 11; November 1995. 778:from the original on 27 February 2024. 772:"Camera Tech Data for Minolta Dynax 9" 2219:, Volume 46, Number 1; January 1982. 2198:, Volume 45, Number 1; January 1981. 2037:Anonymous. "Modern Tests: Contax 139 1177:The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography 2079:, Volume 52, Number 8; August 1988. 1631:. Small Dole, UK: Hove Books, 1999. 1158:. Small Dole, UK: Hove Books, 1999. 889:, Volume 52, Number 8; August 1988. 765: 763: 300:adding citations to reliable sources 267: 61:The traditional type of focal-plane 2345:, Volume 64 Number 8; August 2000. 2261:, Volume 96, Number 4; April 1989. 2045:, Volume 44, Number 3; March 1980. 1960:, Volume 46, Number 4; April 1982. 1351:Michael R. Peres; editor in chief, 1137:, Volume 82, Number 3; March 1975. 430:image in a 24×160 mm frame on 167:Most modern 35 mm and digital 13: 2366:, Volume 44, Number 6; June 1980. 2299:, Volume 63, Number 3; March 1999. 2240:, Volume 51, Number 6; June 1987. 1734:, Volume 84, Number 7; July 1977. 1687:Goldberg, "3 new shutters", p. 77. 1530:, Volume 48, Number 6; June 1984. 1509:C. B. (Carroll Bernard) Neblette, 1393:Cornell Capa; editorial director, 952:, Volume 72 Number 3; March 2008. 769: 470:Single-curtain focal-plane shutter 367:Revolving drum focal-plane shutter 238: 14: 2419: 2177:, Volume 48, Number 5; May 1984. 2156:, Volume 40, Number 5; May 1976. 2133:Collecting and Using Classic SLRs 1329:from the original on 7 June 2023. 1317:"Shooting a panoramic photograph" 1306:, Volume 63, Number 7; July 1999. 1255:, Volume 70 Number 7; July 2006. 1253:Popular Photography & Imaging 950:Popular Photography & Imaging 760: 450:History and technical development 114:Focal-plane shutter at high speed 1009:The Ilford Manual of Photography 910:, Volume 61 Number 5; May 1997. 407:) lens to achieve an extra-wide 272: 73:Focal-plane shutter at low speed 2377: 2356: 2335: 2289: 2272: 2251: 2230: 2209: 2188: 2167: 2146: 2125: 2116: 2090: 2069: 2056: 2031: 2018: 1997: 1984: 1971: 1950: 1929: 1916: 1907: 1873: 1852: 1843: 1834: 1821: 1800: 1779: 1766: 1745: 1724: 1703: 1690: 1681: 1660: 1651: 1642: 1621: 1596: 1578: 1541: 1516: 1503: 1490: 1477: 1468: 1459: 1438: 1417: 1408: 1395:ICP Encyclopedia of Photography 1387: 1366: 1345: 1309: 1296: 1279: 1266: 1245: 1224: 1203: 1182: 1169: 1148: 1113:. New York, NY: Aperture, 2001 1103: 1082: 1069: 1056: 1043: 1022: 997: 984: 963: 942: 921: 122:Focal-plane shutter, high speed 900: 879: 858: 845: 824: 808: 795: 782: 207:Two sections of the frame are 81:Focal-plane shutter, low speed 1: 1937:A Short History of the Camera 753: 803:Canon EOS System Spring 2008 229:flash synchronization speeds 37:) is a type of photographic 7: 175: 10: 2424: 1751:Anonymous. "Modern Tests: 1498:Graflex Historic Quarterly 727:Focal-plane shutters today 343:Rotary focal-plane shutter 242: 1990:Herbert Keppler, editor, 1414:Langford, 3rd ed. p. 105. 1384:Mason and Snyder, p. 136. 1293:retrieved 7 January 2008. 1005:The Manual of Photography 2122:Langford, 5th ed. p. 56. 1840:Langford, 5th ed. p. 55. 1342:Langford, 3rd ed. p 104. 264:Electro-optical shutters 155:Vertical-travel shutters 144:second shutter curtain. 550:1s, similar to Leica II 1606:". pp. 50, 52, 54–55. 608:Quest for higher speed 551: 546:Shutter curtains of a 395:(1959, Japan) and KMZ 384: 376: 216: 200: 164: 123: 82: 26: 2408:Photographic shutters 1913:Lea, pp. 11, 240–241. 1657:Peterson, pp. 21, 52. 1053:. pp. 80–86, 115–117. 1028:Michael J. Langford, 1003:Alan Horder; editor, 927:Michael J. Langford, 545: 382: 374: 206: 194: 162: 121: 80: 24: 2111:Advanced Photography 1979:Advanced Photography 1829:Advanced Photography 1325:. 23 February 1880. 1289:; January 2006 from 296:improve this section 57:Two-curtain shutters 29:In camera design, a 2343:Popular Photography 2297:Popular Photography 2259:Popular Photography 2003:B. Moose Peterson, 1881:Popular Photography 1732:Popular Photography 1549:Popular Photography 1363:. pp. 27–35, 51–59. 1322:Library of Congress 1304:Popular Photography 1232:Popular Photography 1135:Popular Photography 1121:. pp. 154, 159–160. 1019:. pp. 174, 197–199. 971:Popular Photography 908:Popular Photography 349:rotary disc shutter 209:exposed differently 31:focal-plane shutter 2364:Modern Photography 2330:Digital Comparison 2238:Modern Photography 2217:Modern Photography 2196:Modern Photography 2175:Modern Photography 2154:Modern Photography 2077:Modern Photography 2043:Modern Photography 1958:Modern Photography 1860:Modern Photography 1808:Modern Photography 1787:Modern Photography 1711:Modern Photography 1608:Modern Photography 1528:Modern Photography 1211:Modern Photography 1190:Modern Photography 1090:Modern Photography 887:Modern Photography 866:Modern Photography 790:K200D/K20D: Pentax 629:Minolta Maxxum 9xi 552: 480:Eadweard Muybridge 391:such as the Panon 385: 377: 217: 201: 195:A "leaning" 1920s 165: 124: 83: 27: 2098:Camera Technology 2064:Camera Technology 2026:Camera Technology 1698:Camera Technology 1573:Camera Technology 1454:978-1-86108-529-0 1433:978-1-4027-5656-6 1274:Collector's Guide 1077:Camera Technology 1051:Camera Technology 992:Camera Technology 929:Basic Photography 853:Camera Technology 830:Norman Goldberg, 770:Hohner, Michael. 577:X-synchronization 424:Globus Globuscope 389:panoramic cameras 332: 331: 324: 47:photographic film 2415: 2392: 2381: 2375: 2360: 2354: 2339: 2333: 2324: 2315: 2312:Canon EOS System 2309: 2300: 2293: 2287: 2276: 2270: 2255: 2249: 2234: 2228: 2213: 2207: 2192: 2186: 2171: 2165: 2150: 2144: 2143:. pp. 16, 51–53. 2129: 2123: 2120: 2114: 2107: 2101: 2094: 2088: 2073: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2035: 2029: 2022: 2016: 2001: 1995: 1988: 1982: 1975: 1969: 1954: 1948: 1933: 1927: 1920: 1914: 1911: 1905: 1900:Minolta (1999). 1898: 1892: 1877: 1871: 1856: 1850: 1847: 1841: 1838: 1832: 1825: 1819: 1804: 1798: 1783: 1777: 1770: 1764: 1749: 1743: 1728: 1722: 1707: 1701: 1694: 1688: 1685: 1679: 1664: 1658: 1655: 1649: 1646: 1640: 1625: 1619: 1605: 1600: 1594: 1582: 1576: 1569: 1560: 1545: 1539: 1525: 1520: 1514: 1507: 1501: 1494: 1488: 1481: 1475: 1472: 1466: 1463: 1457: 1442: 1436: 1423:Todd Gustavson, 1421: 1415: 1412: 1406: 1391: 1385: 1382: 1373: 1370: 1364: 1349: 1343: 1340: 1331: 1330: 1313: 1307: 1300: 1294: 1283: 1277: 1270: 1264: 1249: 1243: 1228: 1222: 1207: 1201: 1186: 1180: 1173: 1167: 1152: 1146: 1131: 1122: 1107: 1101: 1086: 1080: 1073: 1067: 1060: 1054: 1047: 1041: 1026: 1020: 1001: 995: 988: 982: 967: 961: 946: 940: 925: 919: 904: 898: 883: 877: 862: 856: 849: 843: 828: 822: 812: 806: 799: 793: 786: 780: 779: 767: 718: 710:Minolta Maxxum 9 663: 662: 658: 641: 633:Minolta Maxxum 9 533: 532: 528: 523: 522: 518: 515: 491:Ottomar Anschütz 327: 320: 316: 313: 307: 276: 268: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2417: 2416: 2414: 2413: 2412: 2398: 2397: 2396: 2395: 2382: 2378: 2361: 2357: 2340: 2336: 2325: 2318: 2310: 2303: 2294: 2290: 2277: 2273: 2256: 2252: 2235: 2231: 2214: 2210: 2193: 2189: 2172: 2168: 2151: 2147: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2117: 2108: 2104: 2095: 2091: 2074: 2070: 2061: 2057: 2036: 2032: 2023: 2019: 2002: 1998: 1989: 1985: 1976: 1972: 1955: 1951: 1934: 1930: 1922:Danilo Cecchi, 1921: 1917: 1912: 1908: 1902:Minolta Dynax 9 1899: 1895: 1878: 1874: 1857: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1839: 1835: 1826: 1822: 1805: 1801: 1784: 1780: 1771: 1767: 1750: 1746: 1729: 1725: 1708: 1704: 1695: 1691: 1686: 1682: 1665: 1661: 1656: 1652: 1647: 1643: 1626: 1622: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1583: 1579: 1570: 1563: 1546: 1542: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1508: 1504: 1495: 1491: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1446:Classic Cameras 1444:Colin Harding, 1443: 1439: 1422: 1418: 1413: 1409: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1334: 1315: 1314: 1310: 1301: 1297: 1284: 1280: 1271: 1267: 1250: 1246: 1229: 1225: 1208: 1204: 1187: 1183: 1174: 1170: 1153: 1149: 1132: 1125: 1108: 1104: 1087: 1083: 1074: 1070: 1061: 1057: 1048: 1044: 1027: 1023: 1002: 998: 989: 985: 968: 964: 947: 943: 926: 922: 905: 901: 884: 880: 863: 859: 850: 846: 829: 825: 813: 809: 800: 796: 787: 783: 768: 761: 756: 729: 712: 660: 656: 655: 648: 635: 610: 589: 540: 530: 526: 525: 520: 516: 513: 511: 472: 452: 422:(1907, US) and 369: 345: 328: 317: 311: 308: 293: 277: 266: 252:Rolling shutter 247: 245:Rolling shutter 241: 239:Rolling shutter 225:point-and-shoot 182:central shutter 178: 157: 116: 75: 59: 17: 12: 11: 5: 2421: 2411: 2410: 2394: 2393: 2376: 2355: 2334: 2316: 2301: 2288: 2271: 2250: 2229: 2208: 2187: 2166: 2145: 2131:Ivor Matanle, 2124: 2115: 2102: 2100:. pp. 209–210. 2089: 2068: 2055: 2030: 2017: 1996: 1983: 1970: 1949: 1947:. pp. 122–123. 1928: 1915: 1906: 1893: 1872: 1851: 1842: 1833: 1820: 1799: 1778: 1765: 1744: 1723: 1702: 1689: 1680: 1659: 1650: 1641: 1620: 1595: 1577: 1561: 1540: 1515: 1502: 1489: 1476: 1467: 1458: 1437: 1416: 1407: 1386: 1374: 1365: 1344: 1332: 1308: 1295: 1278: 1265: 1244: 1223: 1202: 1181: 1168: 1166:. pp. 113–117. 1147: 1123: 1102: 1081: 1068: 1055: 1042: 1040:. pp. 109–111. 1021: 996: 994:. pp. 221–223. 983: 962: 941: 920: 899: 878: 857: 844: 823: 807: 794: 781: 758: 757: 755: 752: 728: 725: 674:electromagnets 647: 644: 609: 606: 588: 585: 539: 536: 471: 468: 451: 448: 368: 365: 361:Univex Mercury 344: 341: 330: 329: 280: 278: 271: 265: 262: 243:Main article: 240: 237: 177: 174: 156: 153: 115: 112: 74: 71: 58: 55: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 2420: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2390: 2386: 2380: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2359: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2331: 2329: 2323: 2321: 2313: 2308: 2306: 2298: 2292: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2254: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2233: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2212: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2191: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2170: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2149: 2142: 2141:0-500-27901-2 2138: 2134: 2128: 2119: 2112: 2106: 2099: 2093: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2072: 2065: 2059: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2027: 2021: 2014: 2013:1-883403-38-3 2010: 2006: 2000: 1993: 1987: 1980: 1974: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1953: 1946: 1945:0-85242-640-2 1942: 1938: 1932: 1925: 1919: 1910: 1903: 1897: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1876: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1855: 1846: 1837: 1830: 1824: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1803: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1782: 1775: 1769: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1748: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1727: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1706: 1699: 1693: 1684: 1677: 1676:3-88984-130-9 1673: 1669: 1666:Rudolph Lea, 1663: 1654: 1648:Peres, p 780. 1645: 1638: 1637:1-897802-11-0 1634: 1630: 1624: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1599: 1592: 1588: 1581: 1574: 1568: 1566: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1544: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1526:" pp. 54–56. 1519: 1512: 1506: 1499: 1493: 1486: 1480: 1471: 1462: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1441: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1420: 1411: 1404: 1403:0-517-55271-X 1400: 1396: 1390: 1381: 1379: 1372:Peres, p. 58. 1369: 1362: 1361:0-240-80740-5 1358: 1354: 1348: 1339: 1337: 1328: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1312: 1305: 1299: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1275: 1269: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1248: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1227: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1206: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1185: 1178: 1172: 1165: 1164:1-897802-11-0 1161: 1157: 1151: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1130: 1128: 1120: 1119:0-89381-953-0 1116: 1112: 1106: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1085: 1078: 1072: 1065: 1059: 1052: 1046: 1039: 1038:0-8174-0640-9 1035: 1031: 1025: 1018: 1017:0-8019-5655-2 1014: 1010: 1006: 1000: 993: 987: 980: 976: 972: 966: 959: 955: 951: 945: 938: 937:0-240-51256-1 934: 930: 924: 917: 913: 909: 903: 896: 892: 888: 882: 875: 871: 867: 861: 854: 848: 841: 840:0-12-287570-2 837: 833: 827: 820: 818: 811: 804: 798: 791: 785: 777: 773: 766: 764: 759: 751: 747: 745: 744:nominal value 739: 737: 734: 724: 722: 716: 711: 707: 702: 696: 694: 690: 685: 682: 679: 675: 670: 668: 652: 643: 639: 634: 630: 625: 621: 619: 618:leaf shutters 615: 605: 603: 599: 593: 584: 582: 578: 572: 570: 569:120 roll film 564: 561: 557: 554:In 1925, the 549: 544: 535: 509: 503: 500: 499:Francis Blake 496: 492: 487: 485: 481: 477: 467: 463: 461: 457: 456:daguerreotype 454:The earliest 447: 443: 440: 435: 433: 429: 428:angle of view 425: 421: 418:In the Kodak 416: 414: 410: 409:field of view 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 381: 373: 364: 362: 357: 355: 354:Olympus Pen F 350: 340: 337: 336:Pockels cells 326: 323: 315: 305: 301: 297: 291: 290: 286: 281:This section 279: 275: 270: 269: 261: 257: 254: 253: 246: 236: 233: 230: 226: 222: 214: 210: 205: 198: 193: 189: 187: 183: 173: 170: 161: 152: 149: 145: 142: 138: 135: 131: 128: 120: 111: 107: 103: 100: 96: 94: 90: 87: 79: 70: 68: 67:Leica cameras 64: 54: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 23: 19: 2379: 2363: 2358: 2342: 2337: 2326: 2314:. pp. 18–20. 2311: 2296: 2291: 2274: 2258: 2253: 2237: 2232: 2216: 2211: 2195: 2190: 2174: 2169: 2153: 2148: 2132: 2127: 2118: 2110: 2105: 2097: 2092: 2076: 2071: 2063: 2058: 2042: 2033: 2025: 2020: 2004: 1999: 1991: 1986: 1978: 1973: 1957: 1952: 1936: 1931: 1923: 1918: 1909: 1901: 1896: 1880: 1875: 1859: 1854: 1845: 1836: 1828: 1823: 1807: 1802: 1786: 1781: 1773: 1768: 1747: 1731: 1726: 1710: 1705: 1697: 1692: 1683: 1667: 1662: 1653: 1644: 1639:. pp. 79-80. 1628: 1623: 1607: 1598: 1580: 1575:. pp. 78–79. 1572: 1548: 1543: 1527: 1518: 1510: 1505: 1497: 1492: 1484: 1479: 1470: 1461: 1456:. pp. 80–81. 1445: 1440: 1424: 1419: 1410: 1394: 1389: 1368: 1352: 1347: 1320: 1311: 1303: 1298: 1286: 1281: 1276:pp. 117–118. 1273: 1268: 1252: 1247: 1231: 1226: 1210: 1205: 1189: 1184: 1176: 1171: 1155: 1150: 1134: 1110: 1105: 1089: 1084: 1076: 1071: 1063: 1058: 1050: 1045: 1029: 1024: 1008: 1007:. (formerly 1004: 999: 991: 986: 970: 965: 949: 944: 939:. pp. 71–73. 928: 923: 907: 902: 886: 881: 865: 860: 852: 847: 842:. pp. 65–66. 831: 826: 815: 810: 802: 797: 789: 784: 748: 740: 730: 721:Leaf shutter 701:Olympus OM-4 697: 693:Olympus OM-4 689:Olympus OM-2 686: 671: 653: 649: 626: 622: 611: 594: 590: 573: 565: 558:A (Germany) 553: 504: 488: 483: 473: 464: 453: 444: 436: 417: 401:focal length 386: 358: 346: 333: 318: 309: 294:Please help 282: 258: 250: 248: 234: 218: 186:leaf shutter 179: 166: 147: 146: 140: 139: 133: 132: 126: 125: 108: 104: 98: 97: 92: 91: 85: 84: 60: 51:image sensor 34: 30: 28: 18: 1935:John Wade, 1772:Anonymous, 1627:John Wade, 1483:Anonymous, 1154:John Wade, 814:Anonymous, 801:Anonymous, 788:Anonymous, 736:digital SLR 713: [ 636: [ 614:flash bulbs 598:rangefinder 43:focal plane 2109:Langford, 2096:Goldberg, 2062:Goldberg, 2028:pp. 76–77. 2024:Goldberg, 1981:pp. 55–56. 1977:Langford, 1831:pp. 76–77. 1827:Langford, 1700:pp. 71–72. 1696:Goldberg, 1571:Goldberg, 1287:Shutterbug 1079:pp. 86–87. 1075:Goldberg, 1064:The Camera 1049:Goldberg, 990:Goldberg, 851:Goldberg, 754:References 706:flashbulbs 672:At first, 560:35 mm 476:guillotine 439:distortion 405:wide-angle 2389:1542-0337 2372:0026-8240 2351:0032-4582 2284:0032-4582 2267:0032-4582 2246:0026-8240 2225:0026-8240 2204:0026-8240 2183:0026-8240 2162:0026-8240 2085:0026-8240 2051:0026-8240 1966:0026-8240 1889:0032-4582 1868:0026-8240 1816:0026-8240 1795:0026-8240 1761:0026-8240 1753:Pentax ME 1740:0032-4582 1719:0026-8240 1616:0026-8240 1591:0026-8240 1557:0032-4582 1536:0026-8240 1405:. p. 460. 1261:1542-0337 1240:1542-0337 1219:0026-8240 1198:0026-8240 1143:0032-4582 1098:0026-8240 979:0032-4582 958:1542-0337 916:0032-4582 895:0026-8240 874:0026-8240 571:cameras. 489:In 1883, 466:feature. 312:July 2024 283:does not 213:lightning 211:due to a 148:Figure 4: 141:Figure 3: 134:Figure 2: 127:Figure 1: 99:Figure 3: 93:Figure 2: 86:Figure 1: 2402:Category 2332:. p. 10. 2113:. p. 56. 2015:. p. 20. 1435:. p. 32. 1327:Archived 776:Archived 733:Nikon D1 667:Nikon F2 581:Konica F 432:135 film 413:135 film 397:Horizont 176:Features 110:varied. 981:. p 78. 678:Yashica 659:⁄ 529:⁄ 519:⁄ 508:Graflex 393:Widelux 304:removed 289:sources 63:shutter 39:shutter 2387: 2370: 2349: 2282: 2265: 2244: 2223: 2202: 2181: 2160: 2139: 2083: 2066:p. 78. 2049: 2039:Quartz 2011: 1964: 1943: 1887: 1866: 1814: 1793: 1759: 1738: 1717: 1674: 1635: 1614: 1589: 1555: 1534: 1452: 1431: 1401: 1359: 1272:Wade, 1259: 1238: 1217: 1196: 1162: 1141: 1117: 1096: 1036: 1015: 977: 956: 935: 914: 893: 872: 838: 681:Contax 602:Contax 460:lenses 420:Cirkut 2328:Nikon 855:p. 78 817:Nikon 717:] 640:] 556:Leica 548:Zorki 495:Goerz 484:blind 2385:ISSN 2368:ISSN 2347:ISSN 2280:ISSN 2263:ISSN 2242:ISSN 2221:ISSN 2200:ISSN 2179:ISSN 2158:ISSN 2137:ISBN 2081:ISSN 2047:ISSN 2009:ISBN 1962:ISSN 1941:ISBN 1885:ISSN 1864:ISSN 1812:ISSN 1791:ISSN 1757:ISSN 1736:ISSN 1715:ISSN 1672:ISBN 1633:ISBN 1612:ISSN 1587:ISSN 1553:ISSN 1532:ISSN 1450:ISBN 1429:ISBN 1399:ISBN 1357:ISBN 1257:ISSN 1236:ISSN 1215:ISSN 1194:ISSN 1160:ISBN 1139:ISSN 1115:ISBN 1094:ISSN 1034:ISBN 1013:ISBN 975:ISSN 954:ISSN 933:ISBN 912:ISSN 891:ISSN 870:ISSN 836:ISBN 287:any 285:cite 197:Dixi 524:to 298:by 169:SLR 49:or 35:FPS 2404:: 2319:^ 2304:^ 1564:^ 1377:^ 1335:^ 1319:. 1126:^ 774:. 762:^ 715:de 638:de 221:gs 53:. 2391:. 2374:. 2353:. 2269:. 2248:. 2227:. 2206:. 2185:. 2164:. 2087:. 2053:. 1968:. 1891:. 1870:. 1818:. 1797:. 1763:. 1742:. 1721:. 1618:. 1604:' 1593:. 1559:. 1538:. 1524:' 1263:. 1242:. 1221:. 1200:. 1145:. 1100:. 960:. 918:. 897:. 876:. 661:4 657:1 531:8 527:1 521:2 517:1 514:+ 512:1 403:( 325:) 319:( 314:) 310:( 306:. 292:. 188:. 33:(

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Focal-plane shutter

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