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more specific functional groups, but may lead to an overestimation of total functional diversity in the environment. However, considering too few traits runs the risk of classifying species as functionally redundant, when they are in fact vital to the health of the ecosystem. So, before one can classify organisms by traits, the definition of 'trait' must be settled. Rather than define traits as proxies for organism performance, as Darwin did, modern ecologists favor a more robust definition of traits often referred to as "functional traits". Under this paradigm, functional traits are defined as morpho-physiophenological traits which impact fitness indirectly via their effects on growth, reproduction and survival. Notice that is definition is not specific to species. Since larger biological organizations grow, reproduce and sustain just as individual organisms do, functional traits can be used to describe ecosystem processes and properties as well. To distinguish between functional traits at different scales, the classification scheme adopts the following nomenclature. Individual organisms have
Ecophysiological traits and life-history traits; populations have demographic traits; communities have response traits; and ecosystems have effect traits. At each level, functional traits can directly and indirectly influence functional traits in the levels above or below them. For example, when averaged over an ecosystem, individual plants' heights can contribute to ecosystem productivity or efficiency.
433:, the resurrection of extinct species. Function ecology can be applied to strategically assess the resurrection of extinct species to maximize its impact on an environment. To avoid reintroducing a species that is rendered functionally redundant by one of its ancestors, a functional analysis of global ecosystems can be performed to determine which ecosystems would benefit most from the added functional diversity of the reintroduced species. These considerations are important because, while many species currently being considered for de-extinction are terrestrial, they are also functionally redundant in their former ecosystems. However, many extinct marine species have been identified as functionally unique in their environments, even today, which makes a strong case for their reintroduction. In fact, while some functions have been recovered by evolution, as is the case with many extinct terrestrial species, some functional gaps have widened over time. Reintroducing extinct species has the potential to close these gaps, making richer, more balanced ecosystems.
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error of imperfect species detection can lead to incorrect trait-environment evolutionary conclusions as well as poor estimates of functional trait diversity and environmental role. For example, if small species of insects are less likely to be detected, researchers may conclude that they are much more scarce (and thus less impactful) in the environment than larger species of insects. This 'detection filtering' has major consequences on functional packaging and the defining functional groups in an ecosystem. Thankfully, correlations between environmental change and evolutionary adaptation are much larger than the effects of imperfect species detection. Nevertheless, approaching ecosystems with theoretical maps of functional relationships between species and groups can reduce the likelihood of improper detection and improve the robustness of any biological conclusions drawn.
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of energy and matter through the environment (Ecosystem
Functions) as well as the ecosystem's ability to produce resources beneficial to humans such as air, water, and wood (Ecosystem Services). Ecosystem Functions are drastically reduced with decreases in the diversity of genes, species and functional groups present within an ecosystem. In fact, reductions in functional diversity broadly impact the survivability of organisms in an environment regardless of functional group, trophic level, or species, implying that the organization and interaction of communities in an ecosystem has a profound impact on its ability to function and self-sustain. Furthermore, diversity improves environmental stability. The greater an ecosystem's diversity, the more resilient it is to changes in
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species of tigers, tuna and sea otters usually qualify for this threshold. If functional ecology is considered, new species (not necessarily extinct) can be introduced into ecosystem where a species has become functionally extinct before any de-extinction action ever needs to be taken. This can be a key transformative process in ecological preservation and restoration because functional extinction can have cascading effects on the health of an ecosystem. For example, species that engineer ecosystems such as beavers are particularly unique functionally; their absence from an ecosystem could be devastating.
207:. Functional ecology became widely understood to be the study of ecological processes that concern the adaptations of organism within the ecosystem. In the 1990s, biodiversity became better understood as the diversity of species' ecological functions within an ecosystem, rather than simply a great number of different species present. Finally, in the 2000s researchers began using functional classification schemes to examine ecosystems' and organisms' responses to drastic change and disturbance, and the impact of function loss on the health of an ecosystem.
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focused on contentions that ecological functions are often ambiguously defined and that it is unclear what functions must be present to define an ecosystem. These arguments suggest that reintroducing an extinct species could be drastically harm an ecosystem if conclusions about its function or the functions of the species it is intended to replace are incorrect. Additionally, even if an extinct species' function is well understood de-extinction could be equally harmful if the function served by the extinct species is no longer needed by the ecosystem.
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roles that organisms perform in their environment. This kind of genomic study is referred to as genomic ecology or ecogenomics. Genomic ecology can classify traits on cellular and physiological levels leading to a more refined classification system. In addition, once genetic markers for functional traits in individuals are identified, predictions about the functional diversity and composition of an ecosystem can be made from the genetic data of a few species in a process called "
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transcriptomic data dependent on environmental conditions. Additionally, as studied environments increase in complexity, transcriptomic data becomes harder to collect. Furthermore, the functions that many discovered genes encode for are still unknown making it difficult if not impossible to infer ecological function from a genome. Testing hypotheses concerning what functions given genes encode for is difficult experimentally and is expensive and time-consuming.
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refers to the diversity of ecosystem functions present in a given system. Understanding ecosystems via functional diversity is as powerful as it is broadly applicable and gives insight into observable patterns in ecosystems, such as species occurrence, species competitive abilities, and the influence of biological communities on ecosystem functioning.
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While functional arguments for reintroduction of extinct species may paint thoughtful reintroduction as an ecological boon, the ethical and practical debate over de-extinction has not left functional approaches unscathed. The main critique of functional arguments in favor of de-extinction are largely
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However, reverse ecology and genomic ecology face several hurdles before they can be accepted as rigorous and mainstream approaches to taxonomy or ecology. One of the major challenges is that technologies for the sequencing and comparison of transcriptomic data do not exist, making the acquisition of
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The notions of functional ecology have beneficial implications for species detection and classification. When detecting species, ecologically important traits, such as plant height, influence the probability of detection during field surveys. When holistically analyzing an environment, the systematic
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Alternatively, in rare situations, diversity has been shown to retard ecological productivity. In experimentally concocted microscopic environments, a diverse culture of bacteria was unable to out-produce a homogeneous culture of an 'efficient' control strain. However, the statistical validity and
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A key interest of modern research in
Functional Ecology is the impact of functional diversity on ecosystem health. Unsurprisingly, biodiversity has a positive impact on the productivity of an ecosystem. Increased functional diversity increases both the capacity of the ecosystem to regulate the flux
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was conceived as an alternative classification to schemes using genetic diversity or physiological diversity to measure the ecological importance of species in an environment, as well as a way to understand how biodiversity affects specific ecosystem functions, where in this context, 'biodiversity'
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Cardinale, Bradley J.; Duffy, J. Emmett; Gonzalez, Andrew; Hooper, David U.; Perrings, Charles; Venail, Patrick; Narwani, Anita; Mace, Georgina M.; Tilman, David; Wardle, David A.; Kinzig, Ann P.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Loreau, Michel; Grace, James B.; Larigauderie, Anne; Srivastava, Diane S.; Naeem,
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in which they occur. In this approach, physiological, anatomical, and life history characteristics of the species are emphasized. The term "function" is used to emphasize certain physiological processes rather than discrete properties, describe an organism's role in a trophic system, or illustrate
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Ottaviani, Gianluigi; Keppel, Gunnar; Götzenberger, Lars; Harrison, Susan; Opedal, Øystein H.; Conti, Luisa; Liancourt, Pierre; Klimešová, Jitka; Silveira, Fernando A.O.; Jiménez-Alfaro, Borja; Negoita, Luka; Doležal, Jiří; Hájek, Michal; Ibanez, Thomas; Méndez-Castro, Francisco E.; Chytrý, Milan
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Furthermore, before a species goes extinct in the classical sense of the word, keeping a functional perspective in mind can avoid "functional extinction". Functional extinction is defined as "the point at which a species fails to perform its historical functional role". Endangered species such as
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Functional
Ecology is closely intertwined with genomics. Understanding the functional niches that organisms occupy in an ecosystem can provide clues to genetic differences between members of a genus. On the other hand, discovering the traits/functions that genes encode for yields insight into the
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A functional approach to defining traits can even help species classification. Trait focused schemes of taxonomy have long been used to classify species, but the number and type of 'trait' to consider is widely debated. Considering more traits in a classification scheme will separate species into
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of diversity non-linearly disrupts ecosystems (even stable ones); this negative impact is especially detrimental when the loss is across trophic levels. For, example, the loss of a single tertiary predator can have cascading effects on the food chain, resulting in reduction of plant biomass and
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allowed researchers to infer that it evolved into the niche (i.e. ecological role) of a plant so that it could avoid competing with its close relatives. If this process can be shown to generalize, then the ecological functions of other organisms can be inferred simply from genetic information.
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A functional approach to understanding and dealing with environments provides numerous benefits to our understanding of biology and its applications in our lives. While the concept of functional ecology is still in its infancy, it has been widely applied throughout biological studies to better
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Functional diversity is widely considered to be "the value and the range of those species and organismal traits that influence ecosystem functioning" In this sense, the use of the term "function" may apply to individuals, populations, communities, trophic levels, or evolutionary process (i.e.
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Researchers use two different tools in functional ecology: screening, which involves measuring a trait across a number of species, and empiricism, which provides quantitative relationships for the traits measured in screening. Functional ecology often emphasizes an integrative approach, using
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may increase opportunities for species to exploit more functional groups. Consistent with this conclusion, tests of theoretical models predict that the net effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functions grow stronger over time, over larger spatial scales, and with more heterogeneous natural
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genetic diversity. This in turn can alter the "vegetation structure, fire frequency, and even disease epidemics in a range of ecosystems". The effects of diversity on ecosystems are so powerful, that they can rival the impact of climate change and other global ecosystem stressors.
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Most models of complex functional diversity are only effective in a small range of spatial scales. However, by defining the functional trait probability density as a "function representing the distribution of probabilities of observing each possible trait value in a given
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setup of these experiments have been questioned, and require further investigation to carry substantial merit. In general, the current consensus that diversity is beneficial to ecosystem health has much more theoretical and empirical support and is more widely applicable.
234:(e.g. extinction events or invasive species) and extraneous changes to environmental conditions (e.g. logging, farming, and pollution). Moreover, the benefits that diversity provides to an environment scale non-linearly with the amount of diversity.
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proposed classifying an ecosystem based on the how its members utilize resources. By the 1950s, Elton's model of ecosystems was widely accepted, where organisms that shared similarities in resource use occupied the same 'guild' within an ecosystem.
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Beginning in the 1970s, an increased interest in functional classification revolutionized functional ecology. 'Guilds' would be re-termed 'functional groups', and classification schemes began to focus more on interactions between species and
392:". Reverse ecology can contribute to better taxonomy of organisms as well. Rather than defining species by genetic proximity alone, organisms can be additionally classified by the functions they serve in the same ecology.
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This application of reverse ecology has proven especially useful in the classification of bacteria. Researchers were able to identify the correspondence between genetic variation and ecological niche function in the genus
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resources. However, these results are expected to underestimate the actual relationshipm impling that large space and time scales coupled with diverse resources are more than necessary to sustain an ecosystem.
168:, and traditional ecological studies. It explores such areas as " competitive abilities, patterns of species co-occurrence, community assembly, and the role of different traits on ecosystem functioning".
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the effects of natural selective processes on an organism. This sub-discipline of ecology represents the crossroads between ecological patterns and the processes and mechanisms that underlie them.
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organism traits and activities to understand community dynamics and ecosystem processes, particularly in response to the rapid global changes occurring in Earth's environment.
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Violle, Cyrille; Navas, Marie-Laure; Vile, Denis; Kazakou, Elena; Fortunel, Claire; Hummel, Irène; Garnier, Eric (May 2007). "Let the concept of trait be functional!".
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coded for metabolic pathways specific to plants which allowed for the use of plant-specific compounds and sugars to avoid iron deficiency. This trait, unique to
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Cardinale, Bradley J.; Wright, Justin P.; Cadotte, Marc W.; Carroll, Ian T.; Hector, Andy; Srivastava, Diane S.; Loreau, Michel; Weis, Jerome J. (2007-11-13).
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Carmona, Carlos P.; de Bello, Francesco; Mason, Norman W.H.; Lepš, Jan (May 2016). "Traits
Without Borders: Integrating Functional Diversity Across Scales".
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and their greater biological implication on species distinction and diversity in the ecosystem. The researchers found that 196 genes specific to
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Bees serve the ecological function of pollinating flowers, maintaining flora reproduction and density in the ecosystem.
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The notion that ecosystems' functions can be affected by their constituent parts has its origins in the 19th century.
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Functional ecology sits at the nexus of several disparate disciplines and serves as the unifying principle between
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by noting a positive correlation between plant density and ecosystem productivity. In his influential 1927 work,
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Laureto, Livia Maira
Orlandi; Cianciaruso, Marcus Vinicius; Samia, Diogo Soares Menezes (July 2015).
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Functional ecology also has broad applications to the science of and debate over
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Qualities that impact relative fitness and change over an individual's lifespan
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National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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is one of the first texts to directly comment on the effect of biodiversity on
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that focuses on the roles, or functions, that species play in the community or
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Roth, Tobias; Allan, Eric; Pearman, Peter B.; Amrhein, Valentin (April 2018).
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Unfortunately, this relationship also acts in the opposite direction. The
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962:(April 2020). "Linking Plant Functional Ecology to Island Biogeography".
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found within the same environment. Thus, understanding the genetics of
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644:"Functional diversity: an overview of its history and applicability"
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Keddy, P. A. (1992). "A Pragmatic
Approach to Functional Ecology".
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allowed it to avoid competition with closely related bacteria in
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Calow, P. (1987). "Towards a
Definition of Functional Ecology".
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understand organisms, environments, and their interactions.
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Physiological quality that affects relative fitness
53:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
376:The necessity of plants for an ecosystem to exist
362:Flora grow taller after a fire clears tree canopy
334:Body size changes, lifespan, age to reproduction
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359:Community responses to environmental variables
722:"Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity"
373:Effects that involve an ecosystem functioning
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2447:Ecological effects of biodiversity
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345:Changes in a population over time
268:Applications of Functional Ecology
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1020:Insight on Environmental Genomics
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834:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
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880:Methods in Ecology and Evolution
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2526:Relative abundance distribution
2239:Plant defense against herbivory
2106:Competitive exclusion principle
1818:Mesopredator release hypothesis
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2111:Consumer–resource interactions
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2957:Biological data visualization
2784:Environmental niche modelling
2511:Population viability analysis
1022:. Elsevier. pp. 93–102.
976:10.1016/j.tplants.2019.12.022
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2442:Density-dependent inhibition
18:Functional Ecology (journal)
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2911:Liebig's law of the minimum
2746:Resource selection function
1637:Metabolic theory of ecology
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261:environmental heterogeneity
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2811:Niche apportionment models
2531:Relative species abundance
1735:Primary nutritional groups
1632:List of feeding behaviours
846:10.1016/j.tree.2016.02.003
661:10.1016/j.ncon.2015.11.001
648:Natureza & Conservação
457:British Ecological Society
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225:Impact on Ecosystem Health
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679:. New York, Macmillan Co.
2982:Ecological stoichiometry
2947:Alternative stable state
183:On The Origin of Species
2826:Ontogenetic niche shift
2689:Ideal free distribution
2599:Ecological facilitation
2349:Malthusian growth model
2319:Consumer-resource model
2176:Paradox of the plankton
2141:Energy systems language
1861:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1828:Optimal foraging theory
1803:Heterotrophic nutrition
1429:Ecological anthropology
1096:10.1111/1365-2435.12728
964:Trends in Plant Science
901:10.1111/2041-210x.12950
797:10.1073/pnas.0709069104
675:Elton, Charles (1927).
449:The scientific journal
2972:Ecological forecasting
2916:Marginal value theorem
2714:Landscape epidemiology
2649:Cross-boundary subsidy
2584:Biological interaction
1934:Microbial intelligence
1622:Green world hypothesis
1439:Ecological engineering
720:Shahid (7 June 2012).
348:Birth and death rates
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2977:Ecological humanities
2876:Ecological energetics
2821:Niche differentiation
2684:Habitat fragmentation
2452:Ecological extinction
2399:Small population size
2151:Feed conversion ratio
2131:Ecological succession
2063:San Francisco Estuary
1977:Ecological efficiency
1919:Microbial cooperation
406:Agrobacterium fabrum,
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16:For the journal, see
3082:Subfields of ecology
3002:Evolutionary ecology
2967:Ecological footprint
2962:Ecological economics
2886:Ecological threshold
2881:Ecological indicator
2751:Source–sink dynamics
2704:Land change modeling
2699:Insular biogeography
2551:Species distribution
2290:Modelling ecosystems
1949:Microbial metabolism
1788:Intraguild predation
1577:Biogeochemical cycle
1543:Modelling ecosystems
1434:Ecological economics
1361:Evolutionary ecology
1328:Ecological phenomena
1158:Quantitative ecology
455:is published by the
414:Agrobacterium fabrum
402:Agrobacterium fabrum
218:Functional diversity
211:Functional Diversity
158:evolutionary biology
154:evolutionary ecology
62:"Functional ecology"
47:improve this article
3052:Theoretical ecology
3027:Natural environment
2891:Ecosystem diversity
2861:Ecological collapse
2851:Bateman's principle
2806:Limiting similarity
2719:Landscape limnology
2541:Species homogeneity
2379:Population modeling
2374:Population dynamics
2191:Trophic state index
1480:Restoration ecology
1470:Glossary of ecology
1416:Interdisciplinarity
1163:Theoretical ecology
1137:Branches of ecology
1088:2017FuEco..31.1003M
940:2007Oikos.116..882V
892:2018MEcEv...9..917R
788:2007PNAS..10418123C
782:(46): 18123–18128.
749:10.1038/nature11148
741:2012Natur.486...59C
592:1992FuEco...6..621K
549:1987FuEco...1...57C
232:species composition
3063:Outline of ecology
3012:Industrial ecology
3007:Functional ecology
2871:Ecological deficit
2816:Niche construction
2779:Ecosystem engineer
2556:Species–area curve
2477:Introduced species
2292:: Other components
2224:Deimatic behaviour
2126:Ecological network
2058:North Pacific Gyre
2043:hydrothermal vents
1982:Ecological pyramid
1929:Microbial food web
1740:Primary production
1685:Foundation species
1465:History of ecology
1371:Functional ecology
1336:Behavioral ecology
1215:Population ecology
1076:Functional Ecology
580:Functional Ecology
537:Functional Ecology
505:Environment portal
452:Functional Ecology
134:Functional ecology
131:
3069:
3068:
2952:Balance of nature
2709:Landscape ecology
2594:Community ecology
2536:Species diversity
2472:Indicator species
2467:Gradient analysis
2344:Logistic function
2252:
2251:
2209:Animal coloration
2186:Trophic mutualism
1924:Microbial ecology
1715:Photoheterotrophs
1700:Myco-heterotrophy
1612:Ecosystem ecology
1597:Carrying capacity
1562:Abiotic component
1505:
1504:
1444:Political ecology
1386:Molecular ecology
1381:Landscape ecology
1249:Microbial ecology
1225:Ecosystem ecology
1220:Community ecology
513:Community ecology
380:
379:
311:Ecophysiological
286:Functional traits
123:
122:
115:
97:
3089:
2769:Ecological niche
2741:selection theory
2561:Umbrella species
2546:Species richness
2482:Invasive species
2462:Flagship species
2369:Population cycle
2364:Overexploitation
2329:Ecological yield
2279:
2272:
2265:
2256:
2255:
2161:Mesotrophic soil
2101:Climax community
2033:Marine food webs
1972:Biomagnification
1773:Chemoorganotroph
1627:Keystone species
1587:Biotic component
1532:
1525:
1518:
1509:
1508:
1341:Chemical ecology
1313:Tropical ecology
1130:
1123:
1116:
1107:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1082:(5): 1003–1011.
1067:
1042:
1041:
1015:
988:
987:
958:
952:
951:
923:
906:
905:
903:
871:
858:
857:
829:
820:
819:
809:
799:
767:
761:
760:
726:
716:
681:
680:
672:
666:
665:
663:
639:
612:
611:
575:
569:
568:
532:
507:
502:
501:
493:
488:
487:
479:
474:
473:
472:
294:
293:
188:ecosystem health
118:
111:
107:
104:
98:
96:
55:
31:
23:
3097:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3056:
3042:Systems ecology
2930:
2901:Extinction debt
2866:Ecological debt
2856:Bioluminescence
2837:
2830:
2799:marine habitats
2774:Ecological trap
2755:
2635:
2628:
2571:
2565:
2521:Rapoport's rule
2516:Priority effect
2457:Endemic species
2425:
2384:Population size
2300:
2293:
2283:
2253:
2248:
2201:
2195:
2181:Trophic cascade
2091:Bioaccumulation
2074:
2001:
1958:
1880:
1847:
1744:
1656:
1617:Ecosystem model
1550:
1536:
1506:
1501:
1492:Natural history
1475:Applied ecology
1453:
1449:Systems ecology
1410:
1406:Thermal ecology
1401:Spatial ecology
1376:Genetic ecology
1346:Disease ecology
1322:
1278:biogeographical
1268:
1231:
1190:
1167:
1139:
1134:
1104:
1103:
1068:
1045:
1038:
1016:
991:
959:
955:
924:
909:
872:
861:
830:
823:
768:
764:
735:(7401): 59–67.
724:
717:
684:
673:
669:
640:
615:
600:10.2307/2389954
576:
572:
557:10.2307/2389358
533:
526:
521:
503:
496:
489:
482:
475:
470:
468:
465:
447:
427:
390:reverse ecology
385:
288:
279:
270:
257:ecological unit
252:
227:
213:
174:
136:is a branch of
119:
108:
102:
99:
56:
54:
44:
32:
21:
12:
11:
5:
3095:
3085:
3084:
3067:
3066:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3022:Microecosystem
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2928:
2923:
2921:Thorson's rule
2918:
2913:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2846:Assembly rules
2842:
2840:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2731:
2729:Patch dynamics
2726:
2724:Metapopulation
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2619:Storage effect
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2575:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2501:Neutral theory
2498:
2493:
2488:
2486:Native species
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2359:Overpopulation
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2305:
2303:
2295:
2294:
2282:
2281:
2274:
2267:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2205:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2166:Nutrient cycle
2163:
2158:
2156:Feeding frenzy
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2136:Energy quality
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2096:Cascade effect
2093:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2009:
2007:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1968:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1957:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1939:Microbial loop
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1904:Lithoautotroph
1901:
1896:
1890:
1888:
1886:Microorganisms
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1857:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1843:Prey switching
1840:
1835:
1830:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1754:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1720:Photosynthesis
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1675:Chemosynthesis
1672:
1666:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1567:Abiotic stress
1564:
1558:
1556:
1552:
1551:
1535:
1534:
1527:
1520:
1512:
1503:
1502:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1483:
1482:
1472:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1396:Social ecology
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1332:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1303:Forest ecology
1300:
1298:Desert ecology
1295:
1294:
1293:
1291:Arctic ecology
1282:
1280:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1261:
1259:Insect ecology
1256:
1251:
1245:
1243:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1207:
1201:
1199:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1188:
1183:
1177:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1149:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1133:
1132:
1125:
1118:
1110:
1102:
1101:
1043:
1036:
989:
970:(4): 329–339.
953:
934:(5): 882–892.
907:
886:(4): 917–928.
859:
840:(5): 382–394.
821:
762:
682:
677:Animal Ecology
667:
654:(2): 112–116.
613:
586:(6): 621–626.
570:
523:
522:
520:
517:
516:
515:
509:
508:
494:
491:Biology portal
480:
477:Ecology portal
464:
461:
446:
443:
426:
423:
384:
381:
378:
377:
374:
371:
368:
364:
363:
360:
357:
354:
350:
349:
346:
343:
340:
336:
335:
332:
329:
326:
322:
321:
318:
315:
312:
308:
307:
304:
301:
298:
287:
284:
278:
275:
269:
266:
251:
248:
226:
223:
212:
209:
205:trophic levels
192:Animal Ecology
178:Charles Darwin
173:
170:
121:
120:
35:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3094:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3064:
3059:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3047:Urban ecology
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2906:Kleiber's law
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2679:Foster's rule
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2275:
2273:
2268:
2266:
2261:
2260:
2257:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2004:
1998:
1997:Trophic level
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1955:
1954:Phage ecology
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1944:Microbial mat
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1899:Bacteriophage
1897:
1895:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1866:Decomposition
1864:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1813:Mesopredators
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1758:Apex predator
1756:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1741:
1738:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1592:Biotic stress
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1528:
1526:
1521:
1519:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1356:Ecotoxicology
1354:
1352:
1351:Ecophysiology
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1318:Urban ecology
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1286:Polar ecology
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1264:Human ecology
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1254:Plant ecology
1252:
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1153:Field ecology
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431:de-extinction
425:De-extinction
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398:Agrobacterium
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64: –
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58:Find sources:
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36:This article
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3032:Regime shift
3017:Macroecology
3006:
2738:
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2674:Edge effects
2644:Biogeography
2589:Commensalism
2437:Biodiversity
2314:Allee effect
2053:kelp forests
2006:Example webs
1871:Detritivores
1710:Organotrophs
1690:Kinetotrophs
1642:Productivity
1497:Biogeography
1391:Paleoecology
1370:
1366:Fire ecology
1308:Soil ecology
1196:Organisation
1186:Macroecology
1181:Microecology
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543:(1): 57–61.
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45:Please help
40:verification
37:
2669:Disturbance
2572:interaction
2394:Recruitment
2324:Depensation
2116:Copiotrophs
1987:Energy flow
1909:Lithotrophy
1853:Decomposers
1833:Planktivore
1808:Insectivore
1798:Heterotroph
1763:Bacterivore
1730:Phototrophs
1680:Chemotrophs
1652:Restoration
1602:Competition
1424:Agroecology
1145:Methodology
459:since 1986
342:Population
328:Individual
314:Individual
3037:Sexecology
2614:Parasitism
2579:Antibiosis
2414:Resistance
2409:Resilience
2299:Population
2219:Camouflage
2171:Oligotroph
2086:Ascendency
2048:intertidal
2038:cold seeps
1992:Food chain
1793:Herbivores
1768:Carnivores
1695:Mixotrophs
1670:Autotrophs
1549:components
1210:Synecology
1205:Autecology
519:References
370:Ecosystem
356:Community
73:newspapers
2942:Allometry
2896:Emergence
2624:Symbiosis
2609:Mutualism
2404:Stability
2309:Abundance
2121:Dominance
2079:Processes
2068:tide pool
1964:Food webs
1838:Predation
1823:Omnivores
1750:Consumers
1705:Mycotroph
1662:Producers
1607:Ecosystem
1572:Behaviour
353:Response
306:Examples
142:ecosystem
103:June 2018
3076:Category
2997:Endolith
2926:Xerosere
2838:networks
2654:Ecocline
2200:Defense,
1876:Detritus
1778:Foraging
1647:Resource
1487:Ecosophy
1237:Taxonomy
1198:or scope
984:31953170
854:26924737
816:17991772
757:22678280
463:See also
445:Journals
383:Genomics
166:genomics
162:genetics
2987:Ecopath
2794:Habitat
2664:Ecotype
2659:Ecotone
2636:ecology
2634:Spatial
2570:Species
2430:Species
2301:ecology
2286:Ecology
2234:Mimicry
2202:counter
2146:f-ratio
1894:Archaea
1582:Biomass
1555:General
1547:Trophic
1539:Ecology
1084:Bibcode
936:Bibcode
888:Bibcode
807:2084307
784:Bibcode
737:Bibcode
608:2389954
588:Bibcode
565:2389358
545:Bibcode
367:Effect
250:Scaling
172:History
138:ecology
87:scholar
2018:Rivers
1914:Marine
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729:Nature
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303:Scope
300:Scale
297:Trait
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2935:Other
2836:Other
2789:Guild
2761:Niche
2013:Lakes
1458:Other
1274:Biome
1241:taxon
928:Oikos
725:(PDF)
604:JSTOR
561:JSTOR
94:JSTOR
80:books
2023:Soil
1032:ISBN
980:PMID
850:PMID
812:PMID
753:PMID
239:loss
164:and
66:news
1276:or
1239:or
1092:doi
1024:doi
972:doi
944:doi
932:116
896:doi
842:doi
802:PMC
792:doi
780:104
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